eBook Chapters

Abstract

Traditional knowledge on plants and their uses by tribal indigenous culture is helpful in the conservation of biodiversity. During 2017-2018, ethnobotanical investigations of the plants growing in Neelum Valley in District Bandipora (a part of Kashmir Himalaya) were carried out to collect information regarding different usages of the plants species growing in the region through questionnaire and interviews. Floristically, a total of 57 species belonging to 54 genera and 38 families were investigated to be used as medicine, food, fodder, timber, fuel wood, vegetable/edible fruit, resin yield and herbal tea purposes. On the basis of the floristic analysis of the study area, the leading family recorded was Asteraceae with (11%) species co-dominated by Rosaceae (9%). In terms of habit forms, herbaceous (70%) growth form is the most dominant. The most frequently used plant parts are leaves (26%) followed by whole plant (23%) and roots (19%). The plant documented cured different categories of diseases, the most common diseases such as diarrhea, fever, digestive problems, urinary troubles, rheumatism, eye diseases, skin diseases and wounds. Based on investigated knowledge, the data are discussed under sub-head as single, double and multi-diseases curing plants. The present study can provide a baseline data for future researchers, policy makers, common public, land managers, and the other stakeholders to develop scientifically-informed strategies for conservation of natural resources and sustainable use of plant resources in hotspot regions like Himalayas and other similar biodiversity rich sites.

Introduction

The smooth functioning of an organisation depends on its financial resources. For a newly established venture, it is important to accurately predict its financial requirements for the purpose of raising funds and assessing the profitability of the proposal. While the major investment in an organisation could be for short term and long-term purposes, there are multiple sources from which these funds could be raised. The conventional sources mainly include commercial banks and other financial institutions; non-conventional sources include lease financing, angel investors, venture capitalist firms, factoring, and bill discounting.

Finance is the basic requirement for the smooth functioning of any organisation. Finance is required to meet the short-term and long-term requirements of a f irm. While the short-term fund is required to meet day-to-day expenses, long term funds are required for the acquisition of long-term or fixed assets that would yield benefits in the future, financing the permanent part of working capital, and for the growth and expansion of a business.

The quantum of both finances depends upon the nature and size of the business’s organisation, and the sources from which one acquires these funds also have a multi-dimensional range.

ABSTRACT

Agriculture can act as a catalyst in accelerating growth and reducing poverty. Agriculture can be an important engine of growth and poverty reduction. But in spite of its futuristic capabilities, the sector is underperforming because the productivity is reduced because of the constraints faced by the women in agriculture and allied sector. The women are the backbone of agricultural workforce but worldwide their hard works have mostly been unpaid. They have to perform most tedious and back breaking part of work in agriculture, animal husbandry and at homes. The tribal women play a significant and crucial role in agricultural development and allied fields including in the main crop production, livestock production, horticulture, post harvest operations, agro / social forestry, fisheries, etc. Tribal women have to manage, often, complex and multiple livelihood strategies. Their activities typically include producing agricultural crops, tending animals, processing and preparing food, working for wages in agricultural or other rural enterprises, collecting fuel and water, engaging in trade and marketing, caring for family members and maintaining their homes. Women’s participation in rural labour markets varies considerably across regions, but invariably women are over represented in unpaid, seasonal and part-time work, and the available evidence suggests that women are often paid less than men, for the same work.

ABSTRACT

Rural youths represent both a challenge to and an opportunity for reducing rural poverty. To overcome this challenge and seize the opportunity concerted efforts are needed to generate decent employment opportunities. A complementary set of awareness generation, entrepreneurship development, enabling policy, capacity building and technical support activities need to be designed for creating an enabling environment that meets the multi-dimensional needs of rural youths. Sustainable poverty reduction and rural economic development can only be achieved when national enabling environments facilitates and empower young people to achieve their full potential. Agriculture being the core of rural activity, potentiality of farming sector to create employment opportunity both in primary as well as in secondary agriculture needs to be highlighted with proven success before the rural youths. Enabling environment in all aspect needs to be created to motivate the educated youths to live in villages and launch a new agricultural movement based on integrated application of science and social wisdom. The untapped demographic dividend will become our greatest strength when the aspiration turns into reality.

20.1 Exchange Capacity

Soil colloidal particles carry both negative and positive charges on their surface which attract and hold equivalent amount of oppositely charged ions to their surface. The total number of negative charges present on a given mass of soil or capacity of a given mass of soil to exchange cations or total number of cation held by a given mass of soil is termed as cation exchange capacity (CEC). Similarly, the capacity of a soil to retain anions is known as anion exchange capacity (AEC). The ion exchange capacity of a soil depends upon the type and amount of colloidal particle (clay and organic matter) present in the soil. Ion exchange capacity (CEC/AEC) is expressed as milliequivalent ion (cation/ anion, respectively) per 100 g of soil (meq/100g). It is also expressed as centimoles of charge (positive/negative) per kg of soil [cmol (±) / kg]. Meq/ 100g = cmol (±) / kg of soil.

20.1.1 Determination of Cation Exchange Capacity of Soil Principle

Soil is first saturated with normal ammonium acetate (pH 7.0). Excess ammonium (NH₄⁺) ions and displaced cations are then removed by washing with alcohol. The amount of NH₄⁺ ions retained by the soil is measured by steam distillation of NH₄-saturated soil with MgO. During distillation evolved ammonia is absorbed in a boric acid solution as ammonium borate and the amount ammonium borate formed is determined by titration with standard sulphuric acid in presence of mixed indicator.

13.1 Exchange Capacity

Soil colloidal particles carry both negative and positive charges on their surface which attract and hold equivalent amount of oppositely charged ions to their surface. The total number of negative charges present on a given mass of soil or capacity of a given mass of soil to exchange cations or total number of cation held by a given mass of soil is termed as cation exchange capacity (CEC). Similarly, the capacity of a soil to retain anions is known as anion exchange capacity (AEC). The ion exchange capacity of a soil depends upon the type and amount of colloidal particle (clay and organic matter) present in the soil. Ion exchange capacity (CEC / AEC) is expressed as milliequivalent ion (cation / anion, respectively) per 100 g of soil (meq / 100g). It is also expressed as centimoles of charge (positive / negative) per kg of soil [cmol (±) / kg]. Meq / 100g = cmol (±) / kg of soil.

This technique is used in the separation of ionised and ionisable compounds.It consists of an insoluble matrix to which charged groups are covalently bound. The charged groups are associated with mobile counter ions. These counter ions can be reversibly exchanged with other ions of the same charge without altering the structure of the matrix.

The ion exchanger is complex and polymeric. The polymer carries an electric charge that is exactly neutralized by the charges on the counter ions. These active ions are cations in a cation exchanger and anions in an anion exchanger. A cation exchanger consists of polymeric anions and active cations whereas anion exchanger consists of polymeric cations and active anions. Amberlite IR 120 and Dowex 50 WX are cation exchangers while Amberlite IRA 400 and Dowex 1X are anion exchangers. Ion exchangers should be insoluble in water and hydrophilic to allow the ions to pass through. It should be chemically stable and should be denser than water when swollen.

Cation Exchange of Clay Minerals in Soil

The term “clay mineral” refers to phyllosilicate minerals and to minerals which impart plasticity to clay and which harden upon drying or firing. Clay minerals are layer silicates that are formed usually as products of chemical weathering of other silicate minerals at the earth’s surface. Clay minerals in soil play a significant role in exchanging cations, which are positively charged ions, and in regulating soil fertility and nutrient availability. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of a soil’s ability to exchange cations and is influenced by the type, abundance, and charge properties of clay minerals in the soil. Clay minerals have a high CEC due to the presence of charged surfaces (silanol and alumoxane groups) that can exchange cations with the soil solution. The most common cations exchanged by clay minerals are hydrogen (H+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+), and sodium (Na+). When a soil solution comes into contact with clay minerals, cations in the soil solution are adsorbed or attracted to the charged surfaces of the clay particles.

The exchange of ions (cations or anions) are important phenomena in soil for the growth and nutrition of the crops. The oppositely charged ions are being adsorbed by the clay colloids which are subjected to be released or exchanged reversibly from the soil solution. The participating ions in the exchange process are called exchangeable or counter ions. The activity of ions depends on the pH of the soil. Hence, factors like, soil texture, organic matter, concentration of ions could govern the ion exchange phenomena in soil.

6.0 Ion Exchange

Ion exchange is a reversible process where exchange of ions are possible between the two electrolytes or between an electrolyte solution and a complex. The ion exchange processes help in purification, separation, and decontamination of aqueous and other ion-containing solutions. The ion-exchange resins (functionalized porous or gel polymer), zeolites, montmorillonite, clay and soil humus are considered as typical ion exchangers which are either cation exchangers [exchanging positively charged ions (cations)], or anion exchangers [which can exchange negatively charged ions (anions)].

8.1. What is an ion exchange reaction and its application in soil system

Ion exchange is a reversible chemical reaction between two substances, either between two electrolytes or between an electrolyte solution and a solid complex as well as between two solid phases (if in close contact with each other), where ions of equal charge may be interchanged in equivalent proportion.

Organic colloids and inorganic micelles (clays) are sites of ion exchange. Soil contains silicate clay minerals which exhibit charges due to isomorphous substitution as well as due to the pH dependant charges for ionisation of hydrogen and hydroxide functional groups. Organic matter present in soil also contributes to the pH dependent charges due to the presence of various active functional groups. Thus, the organic and inorganic colloids present in soil bear positive or negative charges. Electric charge on soil particles is neutralized by equivalent amount of oppositely charged exchangeable counter ions, held by coulomb forces and van der Waals forces. Ca⁺², Mg⁺², H⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, NH₄ ⁺, Al⁺³, Fe⁺³, Fe⁺², Mn⁺², etc. are the common cations present in soil where Ca⁺² serves as the dominant ion. However, Na⁺ and Al(OH)₂ ⁺ are the dominant cations found in the exchangeable phase in strong alkali and strong acid soils, respectively. SO₄ ^- 2, Cl^-, HCO₃ ^-1, NO₃ ^- etc. are the most common anions found in soil to neutralize positively charged soil colloids.

Ion Exchange Defined

By ion exchange is meant “the reversible process by which cations and anions are exchanged between solid and liquid phases, and between solid phases, if in close contact with each other”. For exchange of cations the term “base exchange” is exclusively used.

Introduction

Modern-day agriculture and civilization together demand increased production of food to feed the global population. New technologies and solutions are being applied in the agricultural domain to provide an optimal alternative to gathering and processing information while enhancing net productivity. At the same time, the alarming climate change and increasing water crisis demand new and improved methodologies for modern-age agricultural and farming f ields. Automation and intelligent decision-making are also becoming more important to accomplish this mission in flower production. In this regard, the Internet of Things (IoT) ubiquitous computing, wireless ad-hoc and sensor networks, radio frequency identifier, cloud computing, remote sensing, etc. technologies are becoming increasingly popular.

Most of the IoT-based applications are targeted for various applications. For example, IoT for environmental condition monitoring with information on soil nutrients are applied to predict crop health and production quality over time. Irrigation scheduling is predicted with IoTs by monitoring the soil moisture and weather conditions. The world’s first IoT device was invented in the early 1980s at Carnegie Melon University.

The name Ipecacuanha is from the Portuguese meaning, 'Road-side-sick-making plant⁷, and mention of it as a remedy for the bloody flux or dysentery goes back as far as the late sixteenth century.

The principle feature of Ipecacuahna is its persistent nausea and vomiting, which form the chief guiding symptom. Indicated after indigestible food, raisins, cakes, etc. especially indicated in fat children and adults, who are feeble and catch cold in relaxing atmosphere, warm moist weather.

One cannot think of treating persistent nausea without Ipecac. This is a nausea in which there is no relief by vomiting. The patient is as sick after as before. The second major problem for which Ipecac is a great cure is a chest complaint, bronchitis in infants, bronchitis with coarse rattling. Ipecac is also a remedy for infections of the upper respiratory tract wherein a peculiar wheezing sound is produced on breathing out. Old incurable cases of asthma are relieved by Ipecac. Ipecac is useful in uterine haemorrhages.

H orticultural crops are most important ones incurring huge amount of pesticides in our country. The intensity of esticides on them is highest per unit area. However research on integrated pest management has not matched the progress and problems of plant protection at large and protected cultivation in particular. The USA, UK, Israel and Russia, pioneers in protected cultivation, are able to harvest productivity of up to 500 tonnes/ha of tomato and 200 tonnes/ha each of cucumber and capsicum, while in India up to 300 tonnes/ha of tomato and 100 tonnes/ha each of cucumber and capsicum are obtained, has compared to normal open field where their yield ranges from 40 to 60 and 10 to 20 tonnes/ha in India, respectively.

The sustainability of an agro-ecosystem is represented by its ability to maintain a given level of productivity over time and a given quantitative-qualitative level of environmental resources (Loucks, 1977). The greenhouse is also a form of agro-ecosystem, where unlike other agro-ecosystems, environment has been adapted to crop in order to maximize its productivity. The greenhouse system has to take maximum advantage of natural benefits offered by location in certain latitudes while minimizing the disadvantages (Castilla, 2002). Higher productivity under such protected cultivation is attainable mainly on account of reduced competition, healthy environment, better nutrient management, increased surface area and longer crop duration. However, ideal and stable environment with warm, humid and abundant food under protected conditions provides an excellent platform for pest development often more than open field crops, leading to severe pest situations in greenhouses, as revealed by extensive surveys.

Reducing insecticide application to the lowest level is the motto of IPM in vegetables. Monitoring for the initial build up and timely mechanical removal of the first population is a must in vegetables. Always remove the first affected plants, by diseases like mosaic, and destroy them by burying or burning. Remove insect eggs, insect affected plant parts and adults and immature stages of insects, and destroy them every day. Do not throw them in the field. They will either come back, or pupate and attack later. During nursery stage, use wood ash, cow dung solution, and plant extracts to deter all pests. Use only low residual insecticides like Dichlorvos 1ml/l, Malathion 2ml/l, Endosulfan 2ml/l or Quinalphos 2ml/l, in spots, at the beginning of attack itself.

Introduction

Insect pests cause enormous loss to horticultural crops through direct and indirect invasion on various plant parts. It is estimated from the available information in the literature that there are about 1000 insect pests species on about 100 major and minor horticultural crops in India (Sharma et al., 2011).  The yield and quality of produce are central system point to the sustainable horticultural production. If not properly managed, pests can dramatically reduce crop yield, quality and subsequent returns. We invest a lot of time, money and natural resources into growing horticultural crops. Good pest management could protect this investment from avoidable losses.

Introduction

It is a well known fact that agricultural pests cause substantial crop losses throughout the world. In the past farmers had to manage this problem to secure their basic subsistence needs, and as a response, the farmers practiced and developed cultural and mechanical pest control based on trial and error. Over a period of time, these practices have become a part of their production management system. The first known chemical control dates back to 2,500 years. From the late 1800s to 1940s, the main insecticidal compounds used were oils, soaps and resins, plant-derived poisons and inorganic compounds. The chemical age began in the 1940s with the discovery of dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (insecticide), ferbam (fungicide), and 2, 4-D (herbicide) (Arneson and Losey, 1997). In 1940s and 1950s, pesticides were thought to be the final word in pest control and their introduction contributed substantially to raising agricultural productivity in many regions of the world. Since then, pesticides have become an integral component of many intensive agricultural systems. Repeated applications of pesticides lead to resistance in the pest (Beaument, 1993). This resistance results in the increased application of pesticides and to the collapse of the agricultural systems characterized by highly resistant pests, with no natural enemies left to control them. Pesticides have been found to causeacute and chronic human health problems, contamination of groundwater, surface water, atmospheric contamination, and negative effects on non-target organisms (Mullen, 1995). Concerns about the negative effects of pesticides led to research and promotion of alternative pest control practices – Integrated Pest Control or simply IPC. This new concept called Integrated Pest Control (IPC) and later Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was stimulated by symposia organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations in 1966. IPM made a paradigm shift in the philosophy of pest control, from pest eradication to pest management. Instead of single tactic control, emphasis was placed on the use of a combination of available tactics in a compatible manner aimed at providing cheap, long term sustainability with minimum of harmful side effect and controls the pest at ETL level.

Introduction

Chemical pesticides play an important role in plant protection in India and most of the developing countries of the world. These synthetic organic insecticides provide spectacular control of insects. Chemical control is one of the effective and quicker methods in reducing pest population. However, over reliance and injudicious use of pesticides resulted in a series of problems in the agricultural ecosystem mainly, the development of resistance in insects to insecticides, pest resurgence, outbreak of secondary pests into primary nature, environmental contamination and residue hazards, destruction of natural enemies of insect pests etc. All these problems aggravate the pest problem in agricultural crops. Thus, the importance of eco-friendly pest management techniques is being realized more and more in the recent past. The modern concept of pest management is based on ecological principles and involves the integration of different control tactics into a pest management system. This is not altogether a new concept. It was practiced before the advent of modern chemicals. Integrated Pest Management is an ecological approach in which utilization of all available techniques of pest control to reduce and maintain the pest population at levels below economic injury level. The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation defines IPM as the careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasizes the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms. A well-defined Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a program that should be based on prevention, monitoring, and control which offers the opportunity to eliminate or drastically reduce the use of pesticides, and to minimize the toxicity of and exposure to any products which are used. So, IPM is an eco-friendly approach which encompasses cultural, mechanical, biological and need based chemical control measures.

Introduction

‘IP’ refers to unique, value-adding creations of the human intellect that results from human ingenuity, creativity and inventiveness. An IP right is thus a legal right, which is based on the relevant national law encompassing that particular type of intellectual property right. Such a legal right comes into existence only when the requirements of the relevant IP law are met and, if required; it is granted or registered after following the prescribed procedure under that law. All countries around the world have a national legal system of intellectual property rights which has developed over varying periods of time during the last 150 years or so. It has enabled the grant of property-like rights over such new knowledge and creative expression of mankind, which has made it possible to harness the commercial value of the outputs of human inventiveness and creativity. This is usually done by its orderly use, exchange or sharing it amongst various types of business partners in a complex network of strategic relationships that generally work harmoniously during the new product development process for creating and marketing new and improved goods and services in domestic and export markets.

IPR is a tool for Innovation and reward for it. Innovations are concerned with the commercialization of new ideas; in contrast, an ‘invention’ may not be directly associated with commercialization. As such, innovation may be seen as a process of interaction and feedback during the various stages of the new product development process. An invention is considered as the generation of a new idea or knowledge, which aims to solve a specific technical problem. Inventions could relate to products or processes and are characteristically protected by trade secrets, utility models/petty patents or patents. Utility models/petty patents or patents are granted/registered under the relevant national/regional law by the relevant national or regional patent office. As not all inventions are commercialized, so it is clear that not all inventions result in innovations.

Keeping in view the importance of intellectual property rights and their protection, Journal of Intellectual Property Rights (JIPR) was started in 1996. The objective of the journal is enhancing communication between policy makers, organizational agents, academics, and managers on the critical understanding and research on intellectual property; and to promote the development of the newly cultivated research field. The journal publishes contributed/invited articles, case studies and patent reviews; technical notes on current IPR issues; literature review; world literature on IPR; national and international IPR news, book reviews, and conference reports.

JIPR is covered in the abstracting/ indexing services namely Scopus, EBSCO host Electronic Journals Service, Directory of Open Access Journal, Library & Information Science Abstracts database and Legal information Institute of India database.

ABSTRACT

This paper attempts to portray prevailing scenario of IPR in the light of globalization with special emphasis on harmonization of IPR systems and laws of different countries. 

INTRODUCTION

The globalization of information, facilitated by the Internet, has significant implications for intellectual property regimes of national and international levels. Assessment of these implications and their probable outcomes is unavoidably value-driven. Globalization represents ever-increasing influence of developed nations and transnational entities over developing and less developed nations. The process has also brought in significant changes in understandings of sovergenity. An analysis of the implications of globalization of information on international and domestic intellectual property rights and legal regimes is a complex endeavor.

Abstract

Majority of basic research in our country has foundations in Universities and various Institutions linked to them. This paves way for discovering wilder varieties of the present known cereals and other food crops. Such findings help in bioprospecting the required gene/genetic material for the improvement of the existing crops. As per the Biodiversity Act of 2002, it is the responsibility of these institutions to document the same. But, as research scientists are geared to meet the challenges? Being used to socialistic system from the days of Independence where knowledge generated was open to everyone or closed and kept under the mountains of files, the TRIPS agreement has come as a shock. But the true impact of it was realized in 1999-2000, when the patent amendments were taken up. The private institution/ companies went into the act immediately.  We in the University neither were slow to react nor were we prepared to take the shock.  In this paper some of the problems pertaining to IPR and scenario of Indian Universities and Institutions in this regard were highlighted.

Introduction

A little information when shared can go a long way. Information patented can elevate India to great heights. Property (tangible) is associated with physical objects: house, land, etc., while intellectual property (intangible) includes Patents, Trade secrets, Copyrights, and Trademarks. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are legal rights which result from intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary, and artistic fields. Intellectual property protection (IPP) is right to protect intellectual property. Various types of IPR are:

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization designed to supervise and liberalize international trade. It was established on 1^st January 2005 and is responsible for making and enforcing rules for trade between nations. WTO marks a major change in global trade rules. As an organization, it replaces the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which had been in existence since 1947. The Eighth Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations under GATT, which started in Uruguay in 1986, was concluded in 1994, leading to the creation of WTO as the new permanent international trade organization. The role of WTO is much more extensive than that of GATT, which dealt with trade in goods. Apart from goods, the two other broad areas that WTO covers are services and intellectual property, which previously belonged to the domestic domain. Accordingly, WTO administers not only the Multilateral Trade Agreements (MTAs) in goods but also the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which came into existence with WTO. All the agreements annexed to the Agreement establishing the WTO were signed as part of a package deal. Member countries did not have the option of choosing some and rejecting others. Another important difference with the erstwhile GATT is that WTO has a stronger compliance mechanism than did GATT-a member’s failure to meet the obligations can invoke retaliation across agreements and sectors.

Intellectual Property Right, IPR is a general term covering patents, registered design, trademarks, copyrights, layout design of integrated circuits, trade secrets, geographical indicators and competitive practices in contractual license.

1. Introduction

Iran, with an area of 1648 thousand sq.kms.,  is situated in the eastern portion of the northern hemisphere, in the south west of Asia, and is considered as one of the Middle East countries. Iran is a mountainous country with a variety of climates. The average temperature and rainfall for the whole country are quoted as 18ºC and 240 mm respectively (CAPES, 1996). The country is also organized into 28 provinces. Over the past two decades, rapid rate of population growth has been a major source of concern in Islamic Republic of Iran. The population of the country passed the 60 million figures in 1993 and is projected to reach 86 million by the year 2010. In fact, the Iranian population has doubled in this period (CAPES, 1996). For example, according to the 1991 census, the female population of 15 years and above was 15 million (Anonymous, 1998). However, thanks to considerable investments and well-organized and directed national population planning program, population growth rate is now 1.5 percent in the urban and two percent in the rural areas. At the national level, the figure is 1.65 percent (CAPES, 1996).

1. INTRODUCTION

The agricultural paradigm in the developing world including Iran will have to be recast to take advantage of knowledge availability to achieve multiple goals of income, food, jobs, etc. Although, many farming communities in developing countries need timely expert advices to make them more productive and competitive, they are still facing a multitude of problems to maximize agricultural productivity. In spite of successful and promising researches conducted on new agricultural practices, majority of the farmers are not getting upper-bound yield due to several reasons. One of them is that scientific agricultural advice is not reaching the farming community in a timely manner. A wide information gap exists between research and practice.

To cope with this problem different countries have taken various measures. What is common in the extension systems of developing countries is that in a backdrop of rapid organizational and social changes in agriculture, new hardware and software devices have to be applied for better responsiveness to increasing farmers demand for timely and accurate information. At the pace of recent progress in ICT, within a decade it will be possible to provide instantaneous connectivity to millions of people, enabling mass customization and personalized services (Reddy and Ankaiah, 2005). Data mining technology can be used to extract useful knowledge from huge database and simulation technology can be used to predict in to the future (Wiederhold, 2002).

1. INTRODUCTION

There is increasing recognition that information and knowledge are now at the heart of socio-economic development. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and broadband are enabling tools and infrastructures for accessing, developing, using and sharing information and knowledge. Accordingly, Irish Government policy has focused on promoting the adoption and use of ICT in the home, in education and in the workplace.

There have been significant increases in levels of engagement with ICT in Ireland in recent years. Almost two-thirds of all adults now have access to the internet, compared with only 1 in 20 in 1996, while four out of every five adults own a mobile phone. This chapter critiques the level of adoption of ICTs among the farming community and compares this with levels of adoption by the general population. It analyses the use of ICTs by the government and by public and private extension agencies in Ireland and identifies constraints to their adoption.

The Ministry of Agriculture has been among the most enthusiastic supporters of the Government of Ireland’s policy by promoting the adoption and use of ICTs among its clients. It sought to facilitate easier transmission of information to clients, to minimise the collection of new data by using existing electronic information and to integrate with clients’ own systems. These projects are described in this chapter.

The use of ICTs by the public extension system is also critiqued; it has been innovative in using ICTs to disseminate information to its clients and the use of mobile telephony has been particularly effective. Internet based services to deliver online training and advisory information have also been developed and are critiqued.

INTRODUCTION

Irises are among the easiest of perennials to grow, providing an abundance of beauty with minimum care. Iris means ‘rainbow’ because they come in various colours. These are herbs with sword like leaves and roots are generally rhizomatous, although in a few species they are bulbous. The majority of garden irises are hybrid, often complex ones, whose parentage is obscene. Bulbous irises are more important in commercial horticulture, with over 50 cultivars, but dominated almost equally by two i.e. Ideal and Professor Blaauw which together account for over 70% of the area grown in the Netherlands. Regular irises make great cut flowers with their tall, sturdy stalks. Dwarf varieties are suited for flower beds and rock gardens.

Certain irises were at one time widely used in the manufacture of perfume, also has been widely used in folk medicine, mostly because of the fragrance of its dried roots which are used in the preparation of face powder and dentifrices. Commercially, the powder is known as Orris-root or Orris. The rhizomes of certain irises also have edible value.

Iron Toxic Soils

Lowland rice is being cultivated on approximately 128 million hectares of either irrigated or rainfed land out of which 100 million hectares suffer due to nutrient deficiency or toxicities. Among the toxicities, iron toxicity is well recognized as a nutritional disorder in low land rice production. Iron toxicity is a syndrome of disorder associated with high concentration of Fe²⁺ in soil solution. A wide range of soil types show iron toxicity problem including acid sulphate soils, acid clay soils, peat soil and valley bottom soil. During monsoon rains in the wet season, soluble iron (Fe²⁺) migrate to the surface and its iron content increases to subtoxic or toxic levels.

In rolling topography and with heavy monsoon downpour there is considerable lateral flow of iron containing water from the adjacent uplands to mid – and low lands. This increases the iron content to toxic levels. Poorly drained sandy soils in valleys receiving interflow water from adjacent uplands with laterite horizon (Plinthudults) showed iron toxicity in Srilanka and Kerala and Odisha in India. These soil groups come under the taxonomic orders Alfisols, Ultisols and Oxisols occurring in association with Entisols and Inceptisols. The iron concentration (Fe²⁺) in soil solution that affect low land rice yield ranges from 10 to > 2000 mg L^-1 Iron toxicity induced yield reduction which is associated with poor nutrients . status (deficiency of P, K and Zn) and H₂S toxicities.

9.1. INTRODUCTION

Iron (Fe) is important component of a plant’s energy-power house chlorophyll. It also interacts with all the major enzymes and proteins at higher concentration in the soil, and it is toxic to plants. Fe-toxicity creates a range of nutrient disorders and deficiencies of P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn and Zn in plants. These elements were reported to play decisive roles in manifesting toxicity symptoms in rice (Sahu, 1968; Ottow et al., 1983; Yamauchi, 1989; Sahrawat et al., 1996). Excess absorption and translocation of Fe in the rice plants led to toxicity, which has been a major limiting factor in wetland rice. Average yield loss due to Fe-toxicity accounts to 50% and in fact ranges from 10-100% (Brigit et al., 1993).

Water is indispensable for human, animal and plant life. Water is essential part of protoplasm. It is essential for photosynthesis. About 400 to 500 litres of water is necessary for the production of  a kilo of plant dry matter.
 
Irrigation

It is the human manipulation of hydrological cycle to improve crop production and quality and to decrease the economic effects of drought. Israelsen and Hansen (1962) defined irrigation as the artificial application of water for the purpose of supplying moisture to plant growth.

A. Precision irrigation

The prevalent flood irrigation in crops would be the thing of past because of limited water resources, waste of water in leaching and evaporation and cumbersome management resulting in considerable loss of water. The micro irrigation (sprinkler and drip- irrigation) are preferred depending on the field topography. Undulated fields are better irrigated by sprinkler and laser levelled field by drip irrigation. There are precise tools to deliver only required amount of water at different stages of growth of crops with the help of sensors. Irrigation water volume release is mechanised and automated. Efforts of using microirrigation methods such as sprinkler and drip irrigation have been made in last three decades in many parts of the world. There is no ideal irrigation method available which may be suitable for all weather conditions, soil structure and variety of crops cultures.

Precision irrigation is worldwide accepted concept in irrigation. Precision irrigation involves the accurate and precise application of water to meet the specific requirements of individual plants or management units and minimize adverse environmental impact. Commonly accepted definition of precision irrigation is sustainable management of water resources which involves application of water to the crop at the right time, right amount, right place and right manner thereby helping to manage the field variability of water in turn increasing the crop productivity and water use efficiency along with reduction in energy cost on irrigation. It utilizes a systems approach to achieve ’differential irrigation’ treatment of field variation (spatial and temporal) as opposed to the ’uniform irrigation’ treatment that underlies traditional management systems. Precise and regulated application of irrigation water and plant nutrients at low pressure and frequent intervals through drippers/emitters directly into the root zone of plant with the help of close network of pipes is known as drip irrigation system.

In the field of agriculture/horticulture, various irrigation systems are being employed to fulfil the water requirement for better growth and development of the tree. Since, cashew is hardy plant which can sustain in rainfed conditions of warm and humid region; it has very good potential to produced higher nut yield. Of the various irrigation methods, drip irrigation system is best method in the areas where natural resources of water is limiting factor. It is well known fact that this system has many advantages.

During the first year after planting, protective irrigation is recommended at 15 days interval during winter and at 8 days interval during summer season. At each irrigation, 25 litres of water to be given per graft. The studies on mulching and irrigation were under taken with a view to determine fruit retention. It was observed that black polythene mulch with irrigation @ 60 liter of water per tree at 15 days interval showed beneficial effect on increasing fruit retention (66.15%) over control. Cashew is grown under rainfed conditions. However, supplementary irrigation during summer months, especially during January-March at fortnightly intervals @ 200 litres/plant proved to double the yield. This is evident from the research results obtained at NRC-Cashew, Puttur (Karnataka).

1.1 Introduction

Like animals, plants are living beings and so require water and air for their survival. In addition, they need water for preparation of food by the process of photosynthesis. Majority of this water requirement of the crops is met from different forms of precipitation. However, when the water requirement is not fully met from precipitation, then growth of the crops is affected. This results in reduction of yield of the crops. The reduction in yield depends on the amount of scarcity of water requirement of the crops. It also depends on the stage of crop growth and also depends on the types of the crops. Generally all the crops are sensitive to water stress during reproductive stage. Water requirement of crops depend on many factors. It depends on the type of crops, irrigation schedules practiced, soil texture, position of groundwater table below effective root zone of the crop and management practice followed in crop cultivation. The pulses, oilseeds, vegetables etc. which are also otherwise termed as dry land crops need less water compared to rice which is a water loving crops and perennial crops like sugarcane, banana etc.

Water requirement of crops is partly met by the upward flux of groundwater. The capillary rise of shallow water table in the form of upward flux helps in meeting the water requirement of crops to some extent. The upward flux depends on the type of the soil, effective root zone depth of the crop, depth of water table below effective root zone depth of the crop and potential gradient of soil moisture suction. If the soil is heavy like clay, effective root zone depth of the crop is more (deep rooted crop) and position of ground water table is near to ground level (shallow water table), then the upward flux is more.

An efficient irrigation system implies effective transfer of water from the source to the filled with minimum possible loss. The objective of the efficiency concept is to identify the nature of water loss and to decide the type of improvements in the system.

Evaluation of performance in terms of efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of irrigation water.

3. 1 Introduction

Irrigation efficiency evaluates how effectively the water has been distributed for the purpose of crop production. Water is conveyed to crop field through canal water courses and channels. During this process considerable amounts of water get lost through run off, deep percolation, evaporation, etc. The losses of water greatly depend on the skill of the irrigator, degree of land preparation, and design and planning of the system. The extent of water losses starting to diversion of water from its source to crop field though conveyance and ultimate application and distribution of water in crop field which can be estimated separately. The estimation of these efficiencies enables one to identify the step(s) where improvement is required. The method of measurement and evaluation for its efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of water. Irrigation efficiency in developing countries in general is poor particularly in gravity irrigation methods. However, water is become more and more scarce. Due to pressing need of it judicious and efficient management is one of the vital issues to be solved on priority basis.

3.1 Introduction
Irrigation efficiency evaluates how effectively the water has been distributed for the purpose of crop production. Water is conveyed to crop field through canal water courses and channels. During this process considerable amounts of water get lost through run off, deep percolation, evaporation, etc. The losses of water greatly depend on the skill of the irrigator, degree of land preparation, and design and planning of the system. The extent of water losses starting to diversion of water from its source to crop field though conveyance and ultimate application and distribution of water in crop field which can be estimated separately. The estimation of these efficiencies enables one to identify the step(s) where improvement is required. The method of measurement and evaluation for its efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of water. Irrigation efficiency in developing countries in general is poor particularly in gravity irrigation methods. However, water is become more and more scarce. Due to pressing need of it judicious and efficient management is one of the vital issues to be solved on priority basis.

Q. 1 When flow parameters change with time but remain constant with space the flow is called as:-
(A) Unsteady uniform flow       (B) Steady uniform flow
(C) Steady non-uniform flow   (D) Unsteady non-uniform flow

Water is one of the most vital components for the successful growth and development of crops. It influences most of the plant metabolic activities, namely photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation utilization of mineral nutrients, etc. Its stress or in excess affects the growth and development of a plant directly and consequently its yield and quality.

Role of water: Water plays an important role in plant growth and development in many ways.

• It is the chief constituent of protoplasm.
• It provides aqueous medium for various biochemical (metabolic) reactions.
• It serves as a temperature stabilizer and helps in maintaining a stable metabolic rate.
• It is an essential input for photosynthesis.
• It helps to maintain turgidity of cells and plant organs.
• It is an excellent solvent for various organic materials of cells.

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

The historical backdrop of irrigation is rich and diverse, reflecting the ingenuity of civilizations in adapting to their environments to meet the basic human need for sustenance. Ancient cultures such as the Sumerians, Egyptians, and Chinese were pioneers in developing rudimentary irrigation systems, channeling water from rivers, and constructing canals to nourish their crops. These early practices laid the foundation for the evolution of irrigation, marking a significant transition from relying solely on rainfall to actively controlling water distribution.

Water is a very essential component for human civilization, living organisms, and natural habitats. It ma.kes up a major part of plant biomass (about 90% of plant cytoplasm; Singh, 2014). Irrigation, the largest water user sector, is currently under pressure to produce more with higher quality by using limited water to feed the increasing population of the country. The highest proportion of water is consumed by agricultural crops, which is called the blue water footprint, and it is assumed that the water scarcity will increase in the future in view of the changing climate. India has 18% of the world population; however, the water resources are only 4%. Even with all the planning and development, the country has not even been able to provide sufficient drinking water to all at the end of the 20th century. The water sector is facing a number of challenges regarding the availability, accessibility, use, and sustainability of its fresh water resources. Further, the distribution of water in the country is also uneven over space and time. Unfortunately, Rajasthan is the driest state in the country and has been water scarce (with per capita water availability below 1000 m3/year) since 1991. The efficient use of water in agriculture/ horticulture without affecting crop productivity or quality by adopting water saving irrigation techniques is the foremost need. Fruit crops, which have gained commercial attention in recent years, are an important component of Indian agriculture. Due to low irrigation and water use efficiencies, irrigation managers are looking for the introduction of effective water-saving devices and practices for water management in fruit crops.

5.1. Irrigation requirement of field crops

Water is an extremely essential component in plant growth and development. It is of utmost importance for photosynthesis, cell division, cell growth / elongation, respiration, nutrient uptake, mineral utilization and much other metabolic process, which directly affect the quantity and quality of the produce. Hence quantity and quality of water play a vital role in performance of a crop. A well distributed water supply, throughout the growth of plant is essential. Rainfall is the major source of water for the crops. Rainfall recharges the surface water resources such as rivers, streams and ponds and also the ground water resources like wells.

Pumps play a critical role in irrigation systems by providing the necessary force to move water from its source (such as a well, river, or reservoir) to the f ields where crops are grown. The selection and proper operation of irrigation pumps are crucial for the efficiency and success of agricultural practices. Here’s a detailed overview of pumps used in irrigation:

Types of Irrigation Pumps

Centrifugal Pumps

Principle of Operation: Centrifugal pumps are the most common type used in irrigation. They work by converting mechanical energy into kinetic energy in the form of fluid flow. Water enters the pump through the center (eye) of a rotating impeller and is accelerated outward.

7.1 Introduction

For maximization of yield of crops, it is essential to provide irrigation to crops. When either the natural sources like rainfall, dew, snowfall and other forms of precipitation or when the capillary rise of groundwater is not sufficient to meet the crop water demand, then there is need to supply irrigation. This irrigation water is a precious resource and need to be used cautiously. There are three important things need to be understood for optimum utilization of irrigation water with basic purpose to maximize the yield and returns. These three things are:

(i) When to irrigate?

(ii) How much to irrigate? and

(iii) How to irrigate?

In fact these three things form the core concept of irrigation scheduling.

8.1 Introduction

For maximization of yield of crops, it is essential to provide irrigation to crops. When either the natural sources like rainfall, dew, snowfall and other forms of precipitation or when the capillary rise of groundwater is not sufficient to meet the crop water demand, then there is need to supply irrigation. This irrigation water is a precious resource and need to be used cautiously. There are three important things need to be understood for optimum utilization of irrigation water with basic purpose to maximize the yield and returns. 

The following various types of irrigation methods and their systems are used in crop production in greenhouses and plant nurseries.

1.Hand Watering

2.Perimeter Watering System

3.Tube Watering System

4.Drip Irrigation System

5.Overhead Spray System

6.Ebb and Flow System.