eChapters

Is it possible to feed a world population projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, 9.7 billion by 2050 and exceed 11 billion in 2100? India expected to surpass China as the most populous country in the world within seven years (UN report July 2015). Besides that there is an immense decline in yield and quality over the past three decades may be at the point of diminishing returns (Bouis 1993; Cassman et al. 1995; Flinn and De Datta 1984). Furthermore, the soil is partially under tremendous pressure to sustain yield and production. The excessive and exhaustive agriculture practices have not only declined the soil quality but it’s also reported for different human and animal health issues. Thus, keeping pace with population growth and health safety appropriate soil management practices must be addressed. Now burgeoning population load, declining yield, soil health diminution, and effect on human and animal health arises the opportunity for sustainable soil management to cater the problem at the right time. Figure 1 clearly indicates the tremendous load on soil and subsequent results. Burgeoning increase in population and a load of food production intensification, sustainable soil management will become increasingly important in future. Soil being the powerhouse of the mineral nutrients also retains most living organisms within it. The appropriate soil management practices ensure the critical level of mineral elements which finally come into the human body.

Introduction

Water is a vital component of agricultural production. It is essential to maximise both yield and quality. Water has to be applied in the right amounts at the right time in order to achieve the right crop result. At the same time, the application of water should avoid waste of a valuable resource and be in sympathy with the environment as a whole. Understanding, measuring and assessing how water f lows around the farm, and recognising how farming practices affect f lows, will help farmers to manage water efficiently and reduce pollution risks. Land management and advanced technologies can help maximise the “crop per drop” that farmers produce worldwide. Water used in irrigation accounts for 90% of agricultural water demand. Improving irrigation systems is therefore crucial to making contributions to water savings in agriculture. In any agricultural production system the promotion of good agricultural practices and product stewardship is fundamental for sustainable agriculture. Industry is part of various multi stakeholder partnership initiatives that support efforts to protect water quality. These include reducing soil erosion, avoiding pesticide run-off and maintaining wildlife habitats as part of a holistic farm or land management approach.

Introduction

Plant growth in agricultural soils is inf luenced by a myriad of abiotic and biotic factors. As a routine practice growers normally use physical and chemical approaches to manage the soil environment to improve crop yields while the application of microbial products for this purpose is less common. An exception to this is the use of rhizobial inoculants for legumes to ensure efficient nitrogen fixation; a practice that has been occurring in North America for over 100 years (Smith, 1997). The region around the root, the rhizosphere, is relatively rich in nutrients, in expense of as much as 40% of plant photosynthates from the roots (Lynch and Whipps, 1991). Consequently, the rhizosphere supports large and active microbial populations capable of exerting beneficial, neutral, or detrimental effects on plant growth. The importance of rhizosphere microbial populations for maintenance of root health, nutrient uptake, and tolerance of environmental stress is now recognized (Bowen and Rovira, 1999; Cook, 2002). These beneficial microorganisms can be a significant component of management practices to achieve the attainable yield for in other words a crop yield limited only by the natural physical environment of the crop and its innate genetic potential (Cook, 2002).

The prospect of manipulating crop rhizosphere microbial populations by inoculation of beneficial bacteria to increase plant growth has shown considerable promise in laboratory and greenhouse studies however, responses have been variable in the field (Bowen and Rovira, 1999). The potential environmental benefits of this approach, leading to a reduction in the use of agricultural chemicals are fitting the sustainable management practices. Realizing the biological interactions occurring in the rhizosphere, recent progress are in need to fulfill the practical requirements of inoculant formulation and timely delivery which would increase the technology’s reliability in the field and facilitate its commercial development.

Introduction

Cyanobacteria are often called “blue-green algae”, this name is convenient for talking about organisms in water that make their own food, but does not ref lect any relationship between the cyanobacteria and other organisms called algae. Cyanobacteria are relatives to bacteria, not eukaryotes, and it is only the chloroplast in eukaryotic algae to which cyanobacteria are related. Some cyanobacteria are aquatic and photosynthetic, that is, they live in water, and can manufacture their own food. They are quite small and usually unicellular, though they often grow in colonies large enough to see. In fact, it may surprise you then to know that the cyanobacteria are still around; they are one of the largest and most important groups of bacteria on earth (Berry et al., 2008). The great contribution of cyanobacteria is the origin of plants chloroplast with which plants make food for themselves is actually a cyanobacterium living within the plant’s cells. Sometime in the late Proterozoic or in the early Cambrian, cyanobacteria began to take up residence within certain eukaryote cells, making food for the eukaryote host in return for a home. This event is known as endosymbiosis, and is also the origin of eukaryotic mitochondrion (Issa et al., 2002).

Introduction

Solid waste management is a worldwide problem and it is becoming more and more complicated day by day due to rise in population, industrialization and changes in our life style. Large quantities of organic wastes are produced from agricultural production and farming systems which include animal manures, sewage biosolids, food wastes, and industrial organic wastes. Globally, these wastes have the potential of increasing soil and water pollution as because they are currently disposed of by land-spreading, incineration, or into landfills. As much as 50%-60% of the total wastes that are disposed into landfills are organic wastes. If these were turned into materials useful in farming system, there would be great savings in primary plant nutrients and metabolic energy.

Vermicomposting has been arising as an innovative eco-technology for the method by which compost or mixed manure of organic origin or conversion of various types of waste is prepared by the use of earthworms. It is a controlled degradation (non-thermophilic, boioxidative process) of the organic wastes for the consumption of earthworms, helps in the recycling of food wastes, reduces the waste bulk density and the final product may contain hormone-like substance which accelerates the plant growth. Vermicompost is humus like, finely granulated and stabilized material which can be used as a soil conditioner to reintegrate the organic matter to the agricultural soils. Industrial wastes remain largely unutilized and often cause environmental problems like ground and surface water pollution, foul odours, occupying vast land areas etc. Non-toxic and organic industrial wastes could be potential raw material for vermitechnology. In the last two decades, vermin-technology has been applied for the management of industrial wastes and sludges and to convert them into vermicompost for land restoration practices. The success of the process depends upon several process parameters like quality of raw material, pH, temperature, moisture, aeration etc., type of vermicomposting system and earthworm species used. Vermicomposting and vermiculture are two interlinked and interdependent processes where vermiculture can be done in the presence of decomposable waste organic matter

Introduction

Nature is dynamic; it causes inheritable changes in all living organisms. For thousands of years, farmer around the world have been selecting and conserving varieties of different crop plants that they cultivated. This process has generated a rich wealth of varieties in each crop plant, seen to be most abundant in countries near the equator and India is no exception. In the world there are Mega centers of biodiversity of which aware present in India, this is because in India, the different soils and agro-climatic situations are present, so Indian farmers grow a large number of crops. Generation of Indian farmers, with their continued selection and conservation, has created a rich wealth of varieties in many crops. Therefore India is the original home of many crops such as rice, little and kodo millets, red gram, moth bean, jute, pepper, cardamom, many vegetables and fruit species. These plants were identified from the wild, selected and cultivated by Indian farmers over hundreds of years. The present wealth of varieties in India includes both crops that originated in the country and those that were introduced from the other countries during the distant and recent paste are soybean, sunflower, oil palm and kiwi fruit.

The Indian economy is predominantly rural and agriculture oriented. In agriculture, 85% of the holdings are less than two hectares and the declining trend in the average size of the farmer holdings, poses a serious problem. Majority of them are dry lands, which depend on erratic monsoon rains. The rest of the area is cultivated with supplemental irrigation. The farmers concentrate mainly on crop production, which is invariably subjected to a high degree of uncertainly income and employment.

In India the cultivable land is 143.8 million hectares and there is very little possibility of extending it further. Therefore, to meet the requirement of food grains for increasing population, the only option open is through time and effective space utilization in agriculture. The time concept relates to increasing the intensity of cropping under assured irrigated conditions, whereas space utilization pertains to building up of vertical dimension through multi-tier cropping and farming system approach. Thus by making use of these time and space concept either in irrigated or in rained areas, the productivity per unit area per unit time can be substantially enhanced. Therefore the only way to increase an agricultural production in the small/marginal units of farming is to increase the productivity per unit time and area. This may be achieved of quicker maturing varieties with equal yields or by improving techniques of culture, fertilizer use, weed and pest control.

Sustainable agriculture’s benefit to farm and community economies is grounded in four well-established economic development principles and a fifth, concern for the community:

Lower input farming system (LIFS)

Lower input farming system means reduced production levels with larger area of land used in order to maintain the same revenue; or reduced dependency on external inputs with similar production structure but improved valorization of the product through transformation and or direct marketing, cutting the length of the production chain is a sustainability concept (produce and consume locally). LIFS are seeking optimization of on-farm resources, minimization of off-farm resources use. It also leads to mixed farming system, characterized by animal valorization of vegetal production on farm and organic manure restitution to farm soil from farm husbandry. Mixed character of farming system optimally combines annual and perennial crops and animal production on the same farm. Lower input farming also maintains ecological infrastructures (at least 5% in integrated farming)-which prove to be very beneficial for biodiversity – can provide shelter for organisms providing biological control and also be a source of raw material (wood) for producing on-farm energy.

A sustainable and healthy food system is one which can provide food and nutrition security for all, in an economical way which is socially and environmentally sound for future generations. Underutilized indigenous and traditional crops can support and strengthen the existing food system, as they are in particular economical and friendly with the environment. Several underutilized indigenous and traditional crops are nutrient dense and adapted to marginal conditions, suggesting that they could be used to champion sustainable and resilient agriculture and food systems for smallholder farmers residing in these environments. The mainstreaming of underutilized indigenous and traditional crops and foods should be recognized for their attributes to make them desirable and to conserve them. In this regard, the fact that value chains for underutilized indigenous and traditional crops are poorly developed at present has created many opportunities to diversify the current food systems. This will create a new employment, market and distribution opportunities.It will also help to combat poverty. It will be if the smallholder farmers and women in rural areas are given the opportunity to utilize underutilized indigenous and traditional crops and re-enter the manistream system. A significant role which is played by the women for the production and conservation of underutilized indigenous and traditional crops offers opportunities for women empowerment through their inclusion in the food system. Promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women is directly linked for strengthening the sustainable food systems that can fight hunger and malnutrition and improve the lives and livelihoods of rural populations. The mainstreaming of underutilized indigenous and traditional crops into the food system would support women to diversify in a sustainable way, feed their own households and to provide nutritious food into the local markets. This will also help in addressing, the Sustainable

Benjamin et al., (2016) have focused on the small-scale food processing enterprises (SSFPEs) as one of the important measures for national development and addressing food security challenges, particularly in Nigeria. The authors have explained the need for food processing as there has been tremendous food losses and wastages in the country. Enhancing the food processing and productivity for mechanization of food processing unit operations, development of new and existing technologies, design and development of machinery, systems for processing and preservation of different agricultural produce of high target have been undertaken. SSFPEs have played an important role in the economy of a developing country, particularly in terms of employment creation, income generation, post-harvest losses reduction, food preservation, value addition, improvement of food safety, nutritional quality, increase in shelf-life of a product and to act as training grounds for entrepreneurs before they invest in large scale enterprises. SSFPE’s around the world and especially in Nigeria are faced with significant challenges that compromise their ability to function and contribute optimally to the economy. Financial constraints and lack of management skills are the major constraints. It is important that governments and non-governmental organizations must encourage and facilitate the development of SSFPE’s. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO or GAIN in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. FAO’s Nutrition and Food Systems Division (ESN), in collaboration with the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) 2018,

A number of innovations have taken place towards ready to eat instant food mixes of traditional origin. These have helped people to eat traditional food in which ever part of the world they go.

MTR Company

In India the best example is of MTR company which manufactures a range of packaged foods which includes breakfast mixes, ready to eat meals, masalas and spices, snacks and beverages. Snacks, such as kodubale, khara boondi and masala groundnut are very popular as they are ready to eat packets and contain healthy food with less oil. The different spices used for mixes are procured from famous countries which give the perfect taste and avoid rancidity.As a summer launch, milkshake with canned chikoo, banana and cold filter coffee are available. MTR Foods Pvt. Ltd. is a subsidiary of Norwegian conglomerate Orkla and is an acronym of Mavalli Tiffin Rooms. According to the company, India is on the verge of explosive growth in packaged instant foods. MTR has an aim to target a market of Rs 30, 000 crore with their products of traditional meals, breakfast, snacks and desserts. The Nielsen India study has shown that in 2020, the number of consumers in this category will be 2.7 times than the current base.

Mother’s Recipe is a brand which make traditional pickles in bottles with a distribution network to 20 states in India and exporting the products globally. The manufacturing is done in-house and the raw materials are procured seasonally in large quantities. After cleaning they are cut according to the recipe. Each variety of mango pickle has its own cutting process. Some are automatically cut, while others need manual work. The use of right oils, spices roasted inhouse, and marination of the pickles according to the practices of the particular region allow many consumers to relish them. Bottling and packaging are done only when the orders come.

It has been found that at the household level the health of female members in any family suffers to a large extent. It could be encountered to low health care, poor housing or/and environmental conditions. Due to malnutrition it affects the health to such an extent that it gives rise to many diseases. For a sustainable nutritional status food and various aspects of health needs attention. Looking into that, nutrition is directly related to the health status. For food and nutrition security it is vital to see the availability, accessibility and utilization of food. The World Food Programme (WFP) developed the Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping (VAM) project to analyse the vulnerability to food insecurity of target populations. A prominent part of VAM is related to food access. The demographic and Health Survey (DHS), funded by USAID, provides health data for many countries to help them design their national policy. FAO has developed the Global Information Early Warning System (GIEWS), which collects data related to temporary food insecurity. Under the leadership of WHO, several health surveillance systems have been developed and implemented to monitor the epidemiology of various forms of malnutrition and of selected diseases. At the meso or sub-national level, food market surveys provide data on the availability of food. Agricultural production surveys, intra-household food frequency interviews, immunization surveys and anthropometric surveys of children under five can be used to assess the availability, accessibility and utilization of food and its stability at micro level. Most common Food and Nutrition Security (FNS) indicators at different social and administrative levels depends on the supply and demand. To determine the national situation of food availability data on the production of different food commodities, fertility rate and the trends in internal population needs to be seen. Food prices and per capita food consumption are indicators for national food accessibility. The rates of stunting, wasting and underweight in children, low Body Mass Index (BMI) in adults and low birth weight are FNS impact indicators that designate the extent to which food is adequately being used, utilized and converted into a satisfactory national nutrition situation. Fluctuations and shortages of food availability or accessibility in food prices make the national FNS unstable. Sensitive indicators for accessibility of food are the prices in the market. The sewage disposal and diarrheal diseases (DD) rates affect food utilization.A temporal food and nutrition insecurity arises due to pre and post harvest food availability and accessibility along with low BMI.If the food is in shortage leading to the consumption of more wild foods indicates reduced food availability at household level. Also if the number of meals per day goes down and unemployment increases it indicates low food accessibility.Malnutrition indicators like wasting, goitre or anaemia among the household members show reduced food utilization at micro level. Finally, changes in pre-harvest food consumption practices are good indicators for temporal food insecurity.

For Indian foods

Food processing industries are the fastest growing in India. India is the largest producer of milk, bananas, mangoes, guavas, papaya, ginger and okra. It is the second largest producer of wheat, rice, fruits, vegetables, tea, sugarcane and cashew nut. It is the third largest producer of cereals, coconut, lettuce, chicory, nutmeg, mace, cardamom and pepper at the global level (Highlights of Agriculture Census, 2010-11, http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=132799). Most part of the income is spent on foods. It is important to establish and nurture mutually beneficial relationships with global food processing, food retail and related supply chain organizations. This will in turn help in the realization of significant business growth opportunities in India, through newer technologies, innovations and ways of value additions. The geographical location of India helps in the export of items to other countries. It is connected to Europe, Middle East and Africa from the western coast and to Japan, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Korea, Australia and New Zealand from the eastern coast. Food processing is a priority sector for the Indian Government, especially in recent times with “Make in India” initiative.The country is considered as one of the most favourable markets because of the easy and affordable credit and other fiscal incentives. The total consumption of food and beverages in India is US$ 369 billion which is expected to increase to US$1.142 trillion and the output in the food processing sector might increase to US$ 958 billion by 2025. This offers a vast market opportunity by the Indian food processing, food retail, transport, logistics and related infrastructure sectors to players in the food processing value chain. The market for plant and machinery in the food processing sector is estimated in the year 2024-25 to be USD 51.41 billion as compared to the current value of USD 17.3 billion (2016-17).

Food fortification is the procedure in which micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) are added to the food. As a public health policy fortification can be carried out by the food manufacturers or by the governments to help people in combatting dietary deficiencies within a population. Fortification can be done in food even if these nutrients are originally present or not. However, it improves the nutritional status of a population by overcoming the deficiencies of micronutrients. Deficiency of micronutrients is known as hidden hunger which is a serious health risk. Access to safe and nutritious food is a must.Due to the lack of consumption of a balanced diet, adequate micronutrients are not supplied to the body. Therefore, there is a considerable loss of nutrients during the processing of food. One of the strategies to address this problem is fortification of food.

With increasing food production, availability and accessibility the global agro-industrial food system has improved.However, malnutrition, biodiversity loss and climate change are newer challenges. The best solution to this is the utilization of indigenous and traditional crops which will bring a transformative change in the food system. There is a need to look into the development of smallholder producers. The agro-industrial food system has improved the food supply and has made way for significant trade-offs with agro-biodiversity, dietary diversity, environmental sustainability and socio-economic stability mainly amongst the rural poor. Now is the time to mainstream the underutilized indigenous and traditional crops into the food system. This will provide opportunities to develop a sustainable and healthy food system.It will also help towards the societal goals which include employment creation, wellbeing and environmental sustainability.

Indian Spices: These are dried, fragrant, aromatic or pungent vegetables or plant substances. They can be whole, broken or in ground forms. Primary function in food is seasoning rather than nutrition and which contributes to the flavour and piquancy in foods and beverages. These have been used as food additives widely since ancient times [http://www.imedpub.com/articles/herbal-medicines-possible-risks-andbenefits.pdf,https://www.ncbinlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3170500/pdf/nihms307509.pdf). They also exert digestive stimulant action of food enhancing the taste. A few medicinal properties of spices are as being a tonic, carminative, stomachic, diuretic and antispasmodic (Aboaba et al., 2011; Achi, 2006 and Adefegha et al., 2012). This has led for pharmacological applications in the indigenous systems of medicine as digestive stimulants and to relieve digestive disorders and makes the food more palatable. In many countries around the world these are grown and reared for the purpose of trade and distribution. In the ancient times the spice merchants have been the most popular traders. India is well known for spices with a wide variety of recipes that are laced with them.

To look into the nutritional security around the globe, FAO and WHO, have undertaken the analysis of policies. They have covered many issues which include; World Summit on Food Security, pillars of food security and availability, access, utilization, stability, effects of food insecurity, stunting and chronic nutritional deficiencies, depression, anxiety and sleep disorders. There are many challenges to achieve food security. These include global water crisis, land degradation, climate change, agricultural diseases, food versus fuel, politics, food sovereignty, food wastes, risks to food security, population growth, fossil fuel dependence, homogeneity in the global food supply, price setting, land use change, global catastrophic risks, agricultural subsidies and role towards children.

We get energy from food. We need energy for all the activities which we get by eating. The body structures as muscles, organs and bones are composed of the nutrients contained in food which are absorbed by the body.

Nutritional requirement of the major nutrients

Nutrients are the substances which are found in food and drive biological activity. They are essential for the human body. These are categorized into proteins, fats, carbohydrates (sugars, dietary fiber), vitamins and minerals (Sugishima, 2019). They perform the vital functions like building all parts of the body as muscle, bone, teeth and blood. Out of the 20 different kinds of amino acids that make up proteins nine are not synthesized in the body and are therefore called essential amino acids. These essential amino acids have to be supplemented through food. High-protein, low-carbohydrate diets have been found to be effective.Protein is an important component of every cell in the body. Large part of hair and nails are made up of proteins. The human body uses protein to build and repair the tissues, helps in making enzymes hormones and other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin and blood.

We all eat food because it provides the nutrients that are needed for the various functions of the body. Energy is required for growth and repair of tissues, to maintain body temperature and for physical activity. Energy comes from foods which are rich in carbohydrates, proteins and fat. This provides energy to the body from other nutrients and helps to keep the skin and nervous system healthy. They help towards the various biological activity in the human body. These nutrients are grouped into carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fat), water, vitamins and minerals. These are used for growth, maintenance, repair and other needs of the body. Protective foods are which contain adequate amounts of vitamins, minerals and high-quality proteins which protect against the development of a deficiency disease. There are various chemical reactions taking place within each cell of a living organism. These provide energy for vital processes and for synthesizing new organic materials. This process is known as Metabolism. Living organisms get energy from the environment and use it for movement, growth, development and reproduction.

According to Indian Philosophy (Bhat, 2012) the physical body is called Annamaya Kosha.A body, when well nourished grows well by absorbing the energies from the food consumed. Fasting is another aspect of traditional food system. It is meant to purify the mind and the body.

The human body consists of trillions of cells and to be healthy it needs variety of foods and nutrients. The food around the globe includes a variety of spices which have many health benefits. It has been found that spices and vegetables in the diet are very important for living healthy. The traditional foods, nuts, seeds, wild fruits and vegetables which are used in the diet are grown in specific areas. Traditional food system plays a significant role towards maintaining the well-being and the health of people in any specific region.

The branch of statistics which describes the data is called descriptive statistics. After collection, the data are presented in form of tables, diagrams or graphs. This facilitates the further analysis of data. The most basic form of data analysis is descriptive analysis of data collected and presented for the study. The descriptive statistics summarises the data and helps to find the representative value of the entire data set and the variation of the other values in the data set around the representative value. The descriptive statistics includes the measures of central tendency or averages, measures of dispersion or scatteredness, measures of skewness and the measures of kurtosis. Before going to discuss the R codes for various measures of descriptive analysis, we would first discuss in brief about these measure. This will help in better understanding of the R codes.

Measures of central tendency or averages: They are the representative values of the data series. They give an idea about the concentration of the values in the central part of the distribution of the data. There are five types of averages. They are 1. Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) 2. Geometric mean (G.M.) 3. Harmonic Mean (H.M.) 4. Median 5. Mode.

Diagrams and graphs are the effective and attractive ways of presenting data. Widely used diagrams for data presentation are pi chart and bar diagrams. Bar diagrams are also of various types; (i) Simple bar diagram (ii) Component or sub-divided bar diagram (iii) Multiple bar diagram (iv) Percentage bar diagram. The widely used graphical presentation are histograms, frequency polygon and frequency curve.

There are numerous libraries to create charts and graphs in R programming language.

Pie-chart- A pie-chart is a representation of values of variable as sectors of a circle with different colours/shadings. The colours/shadings used for different sectors are indexed at the side of the graph. pie() function is used to create pie chrt in R.

Let us create an exel file names as ‘exp_sports’ which contains the expenditure made (in Rs.) under various sports in a sports club. The name of the sports are cricket, hockey, tennis and football. The names of sports are placed under the column head ‘sports’. The corresponding expenditure (in Rs.) are 7200, 3600, 1800, 1800 and they are placed under the column head ‘expenditure’.

The basic syntax for creating a pie-chart using the R is.

Frequency Distribution is the arrangement of various values of a variable in order of magnitude either individually or in groups alongwith their corresponding frequencies or class frequencies. Frequency distribution is necessary for data condensation and revealing pattern within the data. Frequency distribution can be (i) Ungrouped Frequency Distribution (ii) Grouped frequency distribution.

In case ofungrouped frequency distribution, the individual values ofthe variable are arranged in ascending order alongwith their frequencies. Frequency is the number of times a particular observation is repeated.

In case of grouped frequency distribution, the values of variable are grouped into classes alongwith their corresponding class frequencies. Class frequency of a class is the number of observations lying within the upper class limit (maximum value) and lower class limit (minimum value) of the class.

Let us first illustrate the preparation of ungrouped frequency distribution. Consider 50 petridishes each containing 6 no.s of seeds for germination. Let the variable x_i denote the no. of seeds germinated in a petridish.

Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. The order of a matrix is written as r x c, where r is the no. of rows and c is the no. of columns. The numbers included in a matrix are called elements of the matrix. The name of the matrix is denoted by an uppercase English alphabet.

The most important use of R programming lies in importing of data files which serves as input for the analysis work. After the analysis is over by using R codes, operators and functions, the output result must also be exported in form of files. The files are imported in form of csv files (comma separated variable), text files or excel files.

Before going to the actual content of the chapter we have to have an idea about csv files. CSV stands for Comma Separated value. It is used to store tabular data, such as a spreadsheet or database. CSV is delimited text file in which the values are separated by commas. CSV files occupy much less space than excel files and also gets imported in a program at a much faster rate than Excel files. CSV Files also does not manipulate data and stores as it is.

Let us consider that an excel file named as ‘plant’ which stores three variables, named as ph, pd and yield is created inside the folder named as ‘My Data’ which is placed in the desktop. Thus the path of the file is “C:\\Desktop\\My Data\\plant”

To import excel file the package will be readxl and the command will be library(readxl)

In R there is facility of reshaping the data. Reshaping of data includes joining of two or more vectors to create a data frame. Also two or more data frames can be merged. Appropriate functions are available for these jobs. While merging the data frames, we can join columns or rows.

Illustration of joining two vectors by using cbind() function.

R packages include functions, codes and sample data. The functions used in R are contained in packages. A package in R contains several functions which are related to some particular type of job. A package conatins at least one function and there is no maximum limit to the no. of functions in a package. The set of packages in R which are set by default in the software is called base package. It contains a lot of commonly used functions. The packages in R are stored under a directory called “library” in the R environment. The packages get installed by default while installing R in the computer. Also more packages can be added later on after installation, when required for some specific purposes. The base packages are available by default when we start using R. But the other packages which are already installed while installing R have to be loaded while using R. These packages can be viewed in the package window by clicking on package. To install the package we have to click on install menu in the package window and then write the name of the package.

The packages can also be installed by using the function install.packages(“abc”) where abc is the name of the package to be installed.

Once a package is installed, it remains in the hard disk of the PC/laptop. But the package will have to be called for use in the current R session. The package once installed can be loaded for use in the current R session by checking the box near the name of the package displayed after clicking on the install menu in the Files/ Plots/Packages/Help window. The package can also be loaded by using library() function. The command will be library(“abc”) where abc is the name of the package. The loaded package remains in the memory for the current R session. Once we quit the R session, the installed package has to loaded again if needed.

This chapter deals with the objects used in R which contains the data in various formats. The data types used in R has also been mentioned in this chapter. The chapter also includes the functions used in R as the codes for accomplishing several jobs related to data analysis.

Unlike C language and Java, the variables in R are not declared as some data type. The variables are assigned with R object and the data type of R object becomes the data type of the variable. The commonly used R objects in R are vectors, lists, matrices, arrays, factors and data frames. The vector object is the simplest one and other R-objects are built upon the vectors. The different data types of these vectors are logical, numeric, integer, complex, character and raw. The objects in R are stored by the name of a variable and the data type of the object is determined by its content. To know the data type of a variable the class() function is used. The various data types are described as below:

R software is a programming language used for statistical analysis, graphical representation and reporting, and is currently developed by the R Development Core Team. R software is available freely under the GNU General Public License, and the binary versions are provided for the Windows, Linux and Mac operating systems. To develop R, effort from all over the world is made in a collaborative manner.

What is GNU?

GNU stands for GNU’s Not Unix. It is a Unix like computer operating system, but different from Unix. GNU consists of GNU packages which are program specific and released by GNU project. Free software means that the users of the software have freedom to run and use the software and also can copy, change, improve and distribute the software freely.

Development of R

R software was initially written by Robert Gentleman and Ross Ihaka also known as “R & R” of the statistics department of the University of Auckland, New Zealand. R appeared first in 1993. Since then various contribution to R has been made by a large group of talented individuals by sending code and bug reports. A core group, known as the “R Core Team” modify the R source code archive since 1997. Thus R is a collaborative project with many contributors.

Strategies To Improve The Productivity Of Drylands

With renewed interest in rainfed agriculture during 1970s, both the national (AICRPDA and CRIDA) and international institutions (ICRISAT) have studied several aspects of rainwater management. Recommendations have been made after their through testing both at the research stations and on farmer’s fields. Initially these technologies were accepted by the farmers because of the pursuasion by the Scientists and the incentives, but many of them are forgotten once the support is withdrawn. It is now time for us to examine whether the technologies themselves were weak or certain components were missing. Malfunctioning of the software may be due to a bug right from the beginning or it entered into the system at a later stage. It is also possible that we neglected certain critical inputs which became major constraints making the system defunct. Whatever the reason it should be identified and set right if the technology has to continue as tool for tackling the challenges of rainfed agriculture.

Watershed is defined as a natural hydrological unit that covers a specific land surface area from which runoff passes through a common outlet or area with common drainage or outlet. In simple terms, it implies a catchments or drainage basin from which water drains towards a single channel. It may extend over a few acres only or may cover thousands of acres.

Watershed management is the integration of technology within the natural boundaries of a drainage area for optimum development of land, water and plant resources to meet the basic minimum needs of the people in a sustained manner.

It is also defined as the development and management of watershed resources in such a manner as to achieve optimum production without deterioration of resources base or disturbing the ecological balance. It is also termed as “Resource centered technology” since it helps in assessment, augmentation and optimal utilization of all natural resources viz., land, water and vegetation, it prevents deterioration of resources and at the same time ensures sustained productivity of land to meet basic needs of people.

Climate change is looming large on the globe. Food security is one of the key issues that inevitably needs to be resolved under the specters of climate change, particularly in the fragile ecosystems. Never before in the history has Indian agriculture been as vulnerable and uncertainty ridden as it is today. A glimpse of the dynamics of Indian agriculture reveals that it has systematically deviated away from its base environment, the prop that nourishes all biological resources. Today’s agriculture is valued against the prices it fetches from the market, especially the global market. Its contribution to human health and welfare, ecological integrity, resilience of nature etc., are grossly neglected.

Agriculture in developing countries must undergo a significant transformation in order to meet the related challenges of achieving food security and responding to climate change. Projections based on population growth and food consumption patterns indicate that agricultural production will need to increase by at least 70 per cent to meet demands by 2050. Most estimates also indicate that climate change is likely to reduce agricultural productivity, production stability and incomes in some areas that already have high levels of food insecurity. Developing climate–smart agriculture is thus crucial to achieving future food security and climate change goals.

The production, processing and marketing of agricultural goods are central to food security and economic growth. Products derived from plants and animals include foods (such as cereals, vegetables, fruits, fish and meat), fibers (such as cotton, wool, hemp and silk), fuels (such as dung, charcoal and biofuels from crops and residues) and other raw materials (including medicines, building materials, resins, etc.,). Production has been achieved through a number of production systems which range from smallholder mixed cropping and livestock systems to intensive farming practices such as large monocultures and intensive livestock rearing. The sustainable intensification of production, especially in developing countries, can ensure food security and contribute to mitigating climate change by reducing deforestation and the encroachment of agriculture into natural ecosystems

Green Revolution has increased food grain production by four fold since 1950–51 with the adoption of HYVs, intense input use, extensive tillage, burning of residues and irrigation. The intense cultivation has lead to degradation of natural resource such as soil, water, vegetation etc. In this context, globally conservation agriculture (CA) has opened a new paradigm as it has potential for higher resource use efficiency, water productivity and climate change mitigation through its key principles. Total area and percentage of total area under no tillage practised as part of conservation agriculture in different continents is given in Table 92.

The occurrence of periods of water deficit for crop production, referred to as climatic drought, is commonly observed and leads to low water availability for crops. Besides climatic drought, crop water stress may also result from low levels of plant available water in the soil profile due either to the existence of physical barriers to water infiltration (e.g., surface sealing) or to soil chemical or physical limitations to plant root growth and root water uptake. Drought resulting from such factors will be referred to as edaphic drought since it is caused by soil specific conditions rather than by limited rainwater supply, and can occur even under conditions of sufficient and well-distributed rainfall. Finally, even where water is very scarce, particularly in the driest areas, a surprisingly small proportion of the available water is actually transpired by the crop. Non-productive losses include surface runoff, deep drainage, evaporation from the soil surface and deep cracks, and transpiration by weeds. Dry land farming is a system of crop cultivation depending on rainfall as the only source of moisture and the technologies refers to the cropping pattern/ rotation and agronomic practices adjusted and adopted in accordance with the moisture regime. The crops selected should have short duration, deep root system, erect leaves, moderate tillering and photosynthetically efficient.

Successful crop production both in the rainfed and irrigated ecosystems depends on timely onset of monsoon, its distribution during the crop life cycle and collection of water in various storage structures viz; tanks, reservoirs and ground water table. It is therefore important that adequate supplies of water should be developed to sustain life. Development of water supplies should, however, be undertaken in such a way as to preserve the hydrological balance and the biological function of our ecosystems.

Consequently, the human endeavour in the development of water sources must be within the capacity of nature to replenish and to sustain. If this is not done, costly mistakes can occur with serious consequences. The application of innovative technologies and the improvement of indigenous ones should therefore include management of the water resources to ensure sustainability and to safeguard the source against pollution.

As land pressure rise, cities are growing vertical and in country side more forest area encroached and being used for agriculture. In India small farmers depends on monsoon where rainfall is from June to October and much of the precious water is soon lost as surface runoff. While irrigation may be the most obvious response to drought, it has proved costly and can only benefit a fortunate few. There is now increasing interest in the low cost alternative-generally referred to as “Rain Water Harvesting (RWH)”.

Water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater, which can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the ground water. Water harvesting is the collection of runoff for productive purposes.

Rivers, lakes and ground water are secondary source of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary source of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting is to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of rainwater at the place where it falls.

Improving water use efficiency or enhancing agricultural water productivity is a critical response to growing water scarcity, including the need to leave enough water in rivers and lakes to sustain ecosystems and to meet the growing demands of cities and industries. Rainfall is the main source of water for the existence of life on the earth. Timely onset of rainfall and its distribution during the crop growing season determine the success of agriculture and food production. Unfortunately, the human life has hardly any control over nature and prevailance of delayed onset of monsoon and dryspells during different stages of crop growth are commonly observed in the dryland agriculture. Drought is a weather-related natural disaster which makes greater impact on food production and it reduces life expectancy and the economic performance of large regions or entire countries. Drought is a recurrent feature of the climate. It occurs in virtually all climatic zones, and its characteristics vary significantly among regions. Drought differs from aridity in that drought is temporary; aridity is permanent characteristic of regions with low rainfall. Drought is related to a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time, usually for a season or more. This deficiency results in a water shortage for some activity, group or environmental sector. Drought is also related to the timing of precipitation. Other climatic factors such as high temperature, high wind and low relative humidity are often associated with drought.

Soil is a living, dynamic ecosystem that nurtures plants. Soil is responsible for Sustaining plant and animal life below and above the surface, Regulation water and fertilizer/pesticide runoff, Storing and cycling nutrients. But, the natural soil balance was disturbed by man due to agricultural activities to get food. The intensification of agriculture leads to soil erosion, which leads to creation of unproductive soils.

In agriculture, soil erosion refers to the wearing away of a field’s topsoil by the natural physical forces of water and wind or through forces associated with farming activities such as tillage. As a result of improper cultivation practices, deforestation and overgrazing aggravates the problem of soil erosion.

Globally soil erosion has reached a level that endangers the sustainable supply of food for the growing global population. It already threatens food production and ecosystem service delivery and therefore, there is a pressing need to address this threat. This is especially true in India where, in a total area of 328 million hectares (m ha), 121 m ha is undergoing soil degradation, 68% of which is attributed to water erosion. Water erosion rates range from 5 t ha^–1 yr^–1 in dense forest regions to rates in excess of 80 t ha^–1 yr^–1 where erosion is most severe, such as in the Shiwalik mountainous region. India’s average soil loss has been estimated to be 15t ha^–1 yr^–1; however, given the limited coverage of measurements, this should be treated with caution. In the light of the serious threat that soil erosion poses in the country, there is a pressing need for a systematic nationwide assessment of land degradation due to erosion using appropriate techniques. The area under ravine soil erosion is highest in UP to a tune of 12.30 lakh hectares and lowest in Maharashtra to a tune of 0.20 lakh hectares

Climatic classification is the method of identifying climatologically homogenous regions. The systematic study of climate and its analysis and processing, which is referred as climatology plays an important role in national weather, planning activities and decision making in human activities. Iso climatic regions are those regions which have same climatic conditions.

Specific objectives of climatic classification

To identify the climates for transfer of production technology developed at particular center.

To provide adequate indices of moisture availability for successful crop production in drylands.

To quantify the risk levels associated with production constrains to agriculture production.

Meteorology is defined as the branch of science concerned with the processes and phenomena of the atmosphere. It is also defined as the climate and weather of a region. The word meteorology is derived from two Greek words: Meteor and logus. Meteor means event occurring above the earth surface and logus means to study. Meteorology is science deals with the physics, chemistry and dynamics of atmosphere and also their direct and indirect effects upon the earth surface, oceans and thereby life in general.

Climatology: Climatology is scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time. Different regions of the world have different characteristic climates which determine the crops of any region. Climatology is derived from Greek word ‘klima’ – place/zone or slope of the earth and logs is study. It discovers, describes and interprets the climate on the basis of causes and long term effects on variation in regional and global climate. Climatology is the science which studies average condition of weather or the state behavior of the atmosphere over a place or region for a long period of time.

Agrometeorology: Agrometeorology is the study of weather and use of weather and climate information to enhance crop production. Agrometeorology is defined as the branch of meteorology that deals with relationship between weather and climate on crop, livestock production and soil management.

Soil is the top layer of the earth surface in which plants can grow, consisting of rock and mineral particles mixed with decayed organic matter and having the capability of retaining water. Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Earth’s body of soil, called the pedosphere, has four important functions

With renewed interest in rainfed agriculture during 1970s, both the national (AICRPDA and CRIDA) and international institutions (ICRISAT) have studied several aspects of rainwater management. Recommendations have been made after their through testing both at the research Stations and on farmer’s fields. Initially these technologies were accepted by the farmers because of the pursuation by the Scientists and the incentives, but many of them are forgotten once the support is withdrawn. It is now time for us to examine whether the technologies themselves were weak or certain components were missing malfunctioning of the software may be due to a bug right from the beginning or it entered into the system at a later stage. It is also possible that we neglected certain critical inputs which became major constraints making the system defunct. Whatever the reason it should be identified and set right if the technology has to continue as tool for tackling the challenges of rainfed agriculture.

Main constraints of dry land agriculture to enhance the productivity are classified as follows:

The term Rainfed agriculture is used to describe farming practices that rely on rainfall for water. It provides much of the food consumed by poor communities in developing countries. In India, about 52% of total net sown area comes under rainfed lands. Rainfed crops account for 48 per cent area under food crops and 68 per cent under non-food crops. India ranks first among the rainfed agricultural countries of the world in terms of both extent and value of produce. Due to population pressure on agricultural lands, the poverty is concentrated in rainfed regions. The climate in India’s rainfed regions is characterized by complex climatic deficiencies, manifested as water scarcity for rainfed crop production. The climate is largely semi-arid and dry sub-humid with a short (occasionally intense) wet season followed by long dry season. Rainfall is highly unreliable, both in time and space, with strong risks of dry spells at critical growth stages even during good rainfall years. The fluctuations are due to numerous factors affecting the monsoonal climate including the atmospheric circulation and strong links to El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean.

Rainfed areas in India are highly diverse, ranging from resource rich areas to resource-constrained areas. Some of the resource rich areas are highly productive and have experienced widespread adoption of technology. However, most of the areas are resource constrained and dry areas. In the resource constrained and dry areas, the farming is a survival mechanism rather than a growth oriented activity. Rainfed agriculture is practiced under a wide variety of soil type, agro-climatic and rainfall conditions ranging from 400 mm to 1600 mm per annum. Rainfed Crops are prone to breaks in the monsoon during the crop growth due to water stress. This water stress may be due to variability of rainfall, delay in sowing, diversity in crop management practice and variability of the soil type. The prolonged breaks can result in partial or complete failure of the crops.

1. Multiple Choice Questions

With the increasing health consciousness of consumers, there has been an increasing concern over the use of thermal processing methods like blanching, pasteurization, sterilization etc. for enhancing the shelf life of foods as these methods fail to preserve the fresh like nutritional, therapeutical and sensory qualities of the food. With the increased consumer demand for fresh and fresh-like foods, interest in minimal processing of foods is increasing. The trend is also shifting from the traditional heat processing to those technologies that employ no or minimum heat application, thereby retaining the quality to a maximum level. One of the ways to accomplish this is via use of non-thermal processes. Over the past few years a number of non-thermal processes or cold preservation methods have been invented and developed. These methods are being evaluated in pasteurization and sterilization of various foods or in the extension of shelf life of various packaged foods. Some of such novel technologies and the products prepared, have been discussed here under.

1. Extrusion

Extrusion is a size enlargement process wherein small granular food or powdered particles are re-formed into larger pieces with different shapes, textures, colours and flavours from the basic ingredients. In extrusion food is compressed and forced to pass through a fine opening (die). As soon as it comes out of the opening, the outside pressure is very less as compared to the pressure inside the screw of extruder and the food expands instantaneously. If the food is heated the process is called as extrusion cooking. It is a process which combines several unit operations including cooking, mixing, kneading, shearing, compressing, shaping and forming. Extrusion adds a variety to the products by changing shape, size, texture and even some of the minor ingredients of the food and at a reduced cost than most of the other processing methods. Extrusion cooking (not extrusion) is a high temperature short time (HTST) process that reduces microbial contamination and inactivates enzymes.

Before beginning the actual work on the establishment of a Fruit and Vegetable Processing Industry the following points should be considered:

Availability and possibilities of obtaining Funds: Investment of own money or obtaining loans from banks etc.

The scale of industry (Large, Small, Cottage or Home): Has to be decided based on availability of raw material, funds availability, land, labour and other resources.

The location: The processing unit should be located near to the actual production site of raw material so that the transportation costs of high bulk raw materials is reduced. There is no fun or justification of establishing apple processing industry in Lucknow or Bangalore and mango processing industry in Shimla as the related raw materials would have to be transported through long distances.

Site: Site selected in the location should be sunny area free from dampness and sufficient space for waste disposal should be ensured.

In a commercial horticultural enterprise, if the product is not marketed properly, safely and beneficially, all the investment, inputs, hard work goes in vain. Basically every commodity that is produced should reach the consumer and marketing is all about how the commodity reaches the consumer. There is no fun of producing any commodity if it does not reach the consumer.

The word market has been derived form Latin word “marcatus” meaning merchandise, where people conduct business. Market therefore refers to place where goods/ commodity and services are bought and sold.

Marketing is a sum total of business activities through which the goods and services are either bought or sold. Cundiff and Still defined marketing as “the business process by which products are matched with markets and through which transfer of ownership are affected.

Why Marketing of Fruits and Vegetables is Complex and Risky as Compared to Other Goods

Spoilage may be defined as the deteriorative process which renders the food inedible or results into reduction of quality.

Spoilage is Mainly of Two Types

Abiotic Spoilage: Less potential for causing health hazards to consumers. Occurs due to

Enzymes are biocatalysts that change the rate of reaction without being changed themselves. All (Most) enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes. Ribonuclease is the enzyme which is non- protein in nature.

Properties of Enzymes