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Ficus carica L, one of the oldest plant species in China, is abound in Shandong, Xinjiang, Jiangsu province. Fig belongs to the family Moraceae and genus Ficus. It is native to Middle East region (West Asia), but now it is widely distributed in Asia and North America.

Cultivars/Varieties: Depending upon the nature of flowers and the method of pollination there are four distinct classes of fig- i) Common fig or Adriatic fig ii) Capri fig, iii) Smyrna fig and iv) San Pedro fig. Kadota, Mission, Adriatic, Brown turkey, Celeste and Conadria are some important varieties of common fig.

Uses

Fig is consumed fresh or dried, preserved, candied or canned. Fresh figs are very delicious, wholesoms and nutritious and used as dessert or for making jam. Due to its highly perishable nature it is dried and marketed. The fruit fresh, or dried is valued for its laxative property. Dried and ground fig can be used as a substitute for coffee.

Grapes belongs to the family Vitaceae and genus Vitis. The region between Black and Caspian Sea is considered to be the origin of grapes. Its association with man is believed to be older than that of rice or wheat. Viticulture and wine-making started in Egypt at about 3000-4000 BC. It is presumed that it spread to India in 620 B.C. The medical treatises written by Charaka and Sushruta in the 1^st century AD reveal use of grapes for medicinal purpose. Viticulture in India started in early 1960 and today assumes an important position in horticulture crop in view of its area occupied, production, value addition and job creation in both rural and urban areas.

Popular Varieties of Grapes

Thomson Seedless and its clones viz.; Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka and Manik Chaman; Perlette, Banglore Blue (Isabella), Kishmish Chernyi (Sharad Seedless), Muscat Hamburg (Gulabi), Flame Seedless, Red Globe, Crimson Seedless and Manjri Naveen (A clonal selection from Centennial Seedless).

Uses

Grapes has several uses like table purpose, raisin, juice, wine making and canning, etc. It has several medicinal and curative properties. It is used in Ayurvedic preparations for making Kada or arishtam (herbal tonic or medicine). The grapes which are used as a fresh fruit are designated as table grapes. These are having attractive appearance, and good eating and shipping quality and long shelf-life. The grapes that can be dried are included in the Raisin grapes. Wine grapes which are primarily used to produce wine are known as wine grapes. In many parts of the world, grapes are grown for wine preparation. Grapes with high acid and low sugars contents are suitable for wine preparation.

Guava (Psidium guajava. L), a highly nutritious fruit very popular as poor man’s apple. Guava belongs to the family Myrtaceae. Guava is native to tropical America and is found growing wild from Mexico to Peru. Spaniards introduced guava in Phillippinnes and the Portuguese in India. Besides India, it also grown in Sri Lanka, Hawaiian Islandsm and Cuba. Guava had been introduced in India by Portuguese in 17^th century, and ever since it is an important fruit crop of India. In many countries it has been spread by birds, where it has been naturalized long back. In India it is cultivated in the plains in almost all the states but the major guava growing states are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnatak, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Chhatisgarh.

Cultivars: Allahabad Safeda, Lucknow-49, Chittidar, Nagapur Seedless, Bangalore, Dharwar, Akra Mridula, Arka Amulya, Harijha, Hafshi, Allahabad Surkha CISHG1, CISH-G2, CISH-G-3, Harija, Baruipur, etc.

Uses

Guava fruit is relished when mature or ripe and freshly plucked from the tree. Excellent salad and pudding are prepared from the shell of the ripe fruit. Ripe and unripe juicy fruits are eaten fresh. The fruits after removal of seeds, are used for preparing jam, jelly, paste, juice and nectar. It is also canned in sugars syrup and made into fruit butter. In some countries, the leaves are used for treating diarrhea and also for dyeing and tanning.

The jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. of the family Moraceae, is also called jak-fruit, jak, jaca and, in Malaysia and the Philippines, nangka; in Thailand, khanun; in Cambodia, khnor; in Laos, mak mi or may mi; in Vietnam, mit. It produces the largest known edible fruit. In South-India, it is a common shade tree for many plantation crops. A jackfruit contains 28.7% pulp, 11.5% seed and 59.8% rind, sheath and core.

The place of origin of Jackfruit is not knows exactly, but it is believed to be indigenous to the rainforests of the Western Ghats of India. It is found at low elevations throughout India, Burma, Ceylon, southern China, Malaysia, and the East Indies. It is common in the Philippines, both cultivated and naturalized. It is grown to a limited extent in Queensland and Mauritius. In India it grows in a wild and semi-wild state in Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and states along western Ghats range, particularly Kerala, Karnataka and Maharastra.

Cultivars: Rasdar, Khajwa, Rose-scented or Gulabi, Champa, Hazari, Rudrakshi.

Uses

Both mature and immature fruits as well as seeds are used for various purposes. Ripe fruit is used for dessert purpose and processing into various products, while unripe bulbs are used for making chips. The immature fruit and seeds are used as vegetable. The bark is used for tanning purpose. Heart-wood yield a yellow dye. A yellow dye can also be extracted from the wood particles and used to dye cotton. The latex which flows from all parts of the plant when injured is also used as adhesive. The resins within the latex may also have some value in varnishes. The timber is a medium hardwood with desirable characteristics for making furniture, oars, implements and musical instruments and the wood is also used in construction. It is termite proof and fairly resistant to fungal and bacterial decay. The roots of older trees are good materials for carving and picture framing Leaves are utilized as a green fodder. Several processed products, such as squash, nectar, fruit bar, toffies, jams, canned and dehydrated pulp, beverages, etc. are prepared from the pulp. The seeds can be eaten boiled, roasted or dried and salted as table nuts, or they can be ground to make flour and blended with wheat flour for baking (International Centre for Underutilized crops, 2003).

Jamun, Syzygium cumini Skeels, belongs to the family Myrtaceae and genus Eugenia which comprises about 1000 species of evergreen trees and shrubs. Some of the old-world Eugenia spp., are now placed in the genus Syzygium. The genus Syzygium is a multipurpose genus with many important species.

The original home of jamun is considered to be India (Singh, 1969), while it is also found in Thailand, Philippines, Madagascar and other African countries. In India, jamun is mainly grown in eastern Himalaya, Kumaon, Gangatic plains, Tamil Nadu, Assam and Andamans. It grows well in marshy land and also in neglected wastelands.

Cultivars/Varieties: There are no improved variety of jamun for commercial cultivation. The most common type grown in north India is known as Raja jamun. This is a large-fruited type having oblong fruits of deep purple colour. A type having large- sized fruits is known as Paras in Gujarat. Another type found in Varanasi has no seed. A selection with desirable traits has been located by the CSA University of Agriculture and Technology at Faizabad. It has been named as Narendra Jamun 6.

Uses

Jamun fruits are deep purple to violet in colour and are, therefore, very attractive. The anthocyanin pigment is responsible for the colour. The products made from jamun are jellies, jams squash, beverage, wine vinegar and pickle. In Goa and the Philippines, jambolans are an important source of wine, somewhat like Port, and the distilled liquors, brandy and “jambava” have also been made from the fermented fruit. Jambolan vinegar, extensively made throughout India, is an attractive, clear purple, with a pleasant aroma and mild flavor.

Kokum (Garcinia indica L.,) is an evergreen tree found in the tropical forests of India. It is a plant in the mangosteen family (Guttiferae), and is a fruit tree that has culinary, pharmaceutical, and industrial uses. The extract/concentrate of this fruit is called aagal in Konkani and Marathi. It is used for preparation of sol kadhi when mixed with coconut milk. The outer cover of fruit is dried in the sun to get aamsul or kokam. It is used as a souring agent in recipes from Maharashtra. It is a preferred substitute for tamarind in curries and other dishes from Konkan. It is also used in Konkani cuisine, in Gujarat, and some cuisines of South India. As kudam puli, it is an essential ingredient of traditional fish recipes of Kerala. It is particularly seen in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Kerala, Assam and West Bengal.

Uses

The acidic sweet fruit is mainly used as souring agent for vegetable curry and dal. Sun drying is practiced for preservation. Dried Kokum fruit rinds are widely used in cooking as they impart a sweetish-tangy flavor to the food. The fruits contain citric acid, acetic acid, malic acid, ascorbic acid, hydroxycitric acid and garcinol. Fresh are cut in to halves and the fleshy portion containing the seeds is removed. The rind which constitutes about 50 per cent of the fruit is repeatedly soaked in the juice of the pulp during sun drying. It makes excellent beverage with pleasant flavour. Kokum butter is a product of commerce obtain from seed. It is also used in soap and candle making and suitable for ointment and other pharmaceutical preparations. This fruit is known to reduce obesity and regulate blood cholesterol level.

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is a popular subtropical evergreen fruit tree. The Litchi (lychee) is the most renowned of a group of edible fruits of the soap berry family, Sapindaceae. It is botanically designated Litchi chinensis Sonn. (Nephelium litchi Cambess) and widely known as litchi and regionally as lichi, lichee, laichi, leechee or lychee. Litchi is a tropical fruit tree native to southern China. It is also commonly found in Madagascar, India (Muzaffarpur), Bangladesh, Pakistan, southern Taiwan, northern Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Southern Africa. Great source of Vitamin C and potassium, it also contains phosphorous, calcium, magnesium and protein. The fruit is liked by everybody because of its excellent quality, attractive red colour and characteristics pleasant flavor.

Varieties

The varieties grown under different states are as below.

Bihar: Shahi, Rose Scented, China, Kasba, Purbi, Early Bedana, Late Bedana

Uttar Pradesh: Rose Scented, Dehradun, Calcuttia

West Bengal: Bombay Green, Kalyani Selection

Punjab: Muzaffarpur, Dehradun, Seedless, Late Bedana

Longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour), belongs to the family, Sapindaceae. It is a hardy subtropical fruit tree very similar to litchi in habit and appearance. The longan is native to southern China, in the provinces of Kwangtung, Kwangsi, Schezwan and Fukien. The longan is less important to the Chinese as an edible fruit, more widely used than the lychee in Oriental medicine. It is also now widely grown in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Vietnam, Myanmar, Indonesia, Malyasia, USA, New Zealand and Australia. The longan was introduced into India in 1798. In India it is mainly grown in Western ghats, Assam and West Bengal.

Cultivars: Most important cultivars of major Longan growing areas of world are Ilao, Wai, and Fuhko No. 2.

Food Uses

Although longan is mainly used for dessert purpose. It can be dried, frozen or canned. Preserved longans are considered by many as superior to preserved litchi, the flavour being more delicate. Longans are much eaten fresh, out-of-hand, but some have maintained that the fruit is improved by cooking. In China, the majority are canned in sirup or dried. The canned fruits were regularly shipped from Shanghai to the United States in the past. Today, they are exported from Hong Kong and Taiwan.

The dried longan product is black, leathery and smoky in flavor and is mainly used to prepare an infusion drunk for refreshment. A liqueur is made by macerating the longan flesh in alcohol. (Morton, 1987).

The loquat, Eriobotrya japonica Lindl., (syn. Mespilus japonicus Thunb.), belongs to the rose family, Rosaceae. It is also called Japan, or Japanese plum and Japanese medlar. The loquat is indigenous to southeastern China and possibly southern Japan, though it may have been introduced into Japan in very early times. It is said to have been cultivated in Japan for over 1,000 years. Cultivation spread to India and southeast Asia, the medium altitudes of the East Indies, and Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Chinese immigrants are assumed to have carried the loquat to Hawaii.

The loquat fruits are round, oval or pyriform, pale yellow to orange in colour and are borne in loose clusters. The flesh is firm, meaty or melting, deep orange in colour, juicy and sub acidic in flavour.

Cultivars/Varieties: There are two groups of loquat cultivars – Chinese and Japanese. The Chinese type are large, pyriform and deep orange in colour, while Japanese type is smaller, light coloured and sometimes slender in form. The well-known cultivars are California Advance, Tanaka, Thales, Pyriform, Golden yellow, Improved golden yellow, Pale yellow. Other named cultivars are Improved Pale yellow, Fire Ball, Large Round, Gold Nugget, Safeda and Mammoth.

Uses

Loquat is commonly eaten as a fresh fruit. Loquat can also be processed into several products like jam, jelly and chutney. Seeds are usually taken out from the fruits, otherwise they may impart a bitter taste. The fruits are also used in gelatin desserts or as pie-filling, or are chopped and cooked as a sauce. Loquats canned in syrup are exported from Taiwan. Some people prepare spiced loquats (with cloves, cinnamon, lemon and vinegar) in glass jars. The fruit is also made into jam and, when slightly underripe, has enough pectin to make jelly.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.), the choicest fruit of India, is said to be the king of fruits. Mango belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and genus Mangifera. The fruits are lusciously juicy, with pleasant aroma and sweet taste. In nutritive valve and popularity, no other fruit can match it. It is an outstanding source of vitamin A, a good source of vitamin C, apart from normal minerals and other vitamins. In, India, it occupies the same position as apple does in temperate countries and grapes in certain other regions.

According to de Candolle, mango has been under cultivation in India for over 4000 years. References indicate that Alexander the Great noticed a beautiful mango plantation in the Indus Valley in 327 BC. Early foreign traveller like Huen-tsang (632-645), Ibn-Haukul, (902-968 AD) Ibn- batuta (1325-1349 AD) and Ludovici de Varthema (1503-1508) also praised the mangoes grown in India and mentioned it in their travel notes.

Mango is native to southern Asia, especially eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands. Besides India, mango is cultivated as a commercial crop in many countries, such as, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Fiji Island, Tropical Australia, Egypt, Israel, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, the USA (Florida, Hawaii and Puerto Rico), Mexico, Brazil, Haiti and West Indies.

Varietie/Hybrids: Dashehari, Langra, Chausa, Fazli, Malda and Bombay Green are the popular varieties in Northern and Central India. Alphonso, Kesar, Pairi, Rajapuri, Jamadar, and Totapuri are widely grown in Western India. Bangenapalli, Suvarnarekha, Neelum, Totapuri, Malgoa and Alphonso are popularly grown in Southern India and Gulabkhas, Kishen Bhog, Himsagar, Zardal, Fazli and Langra are grown mainly in Eastern part of the country. Mallika, Amrapali, Manjeera, Ratna, Niranjan, Neeleshan, Neelishwari, Neelphonso, Arka Aruna, Arka puneet, Arka Anmol, Sidhu and CISH-M1 are some of the hybird varieties available.

Garcinia mangostana Linn. (GML) belongs to the family of Guttiferae and is named “the queen of fruits”. It is cultivated in the tropical rainforest of some Southeast Asian nations like Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Philippines, and Thailand. The mangosteen fruit is round in shape, dark-purple, 2 to 3 inches in diameter and contains 4 to 8 segments of snow-white, delicious soft flesh. The fruit may or may not contain seeds. Encasing the flesh is a purple skin 6 to 10 cm thick. Because of its taste and medicinal properties, the mangosteen is often called “The Queen of Fruits”. For centuries, the mangosteen has been honored and cherished by the peoples of Southeast Asia. It is a delicately flavoured fruit of temperate zone.

Mangosteen is native to Malaya Peninsula, and mainly cultivated in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, India, Vietnam, Philippines, China, California (USA), Hondurus, Panama, Hawaii, Trinidad and Cuba. In India it is cultivated in lower slopes of Nilgiris, Kerala and West Bengal.

Uses

Mangosteen is mainly used as a fresh fruit. Aril of the seed is edible after being boiled in water. The cortex of the fruit contain tannin, and is used as a commercial dye. The rind of fruit is astringent, which is used in chronic dysentery and diarrhea. The bark and young leaves are used to gargle for sore throat. It contains a crystalizable substance known is mangosteen.

The papaya (Carica papaya L.) belongs to the family Caricaceae. It is an important fruit of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. It is the most important plant in the home gardens, and where green papaya is also used as a vegetable. Ripe fruits are eaten as dessert, which is available throughout the year.

Papaya is native to West Indies and Central America (Mexico). It is a common fruit in nearly all parts of tropical and sub-tropical world. It is abundantly grown in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, South America, Pakistan, Australia, Mexico, Costa Rica, Hawaii, Kenya, Taiwan, Puerto Rica, Peru, USA, Philippines. It was introduced in India in 16^th Century. In India it is mainly cultivated in Kerala, Assam, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Cultivars: Honey Dew, Coorg Honey Dew, Washingtan, Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Giant, Co. 1 to Co. 7, Arka Surya, Arka Prabhat, Pusa Nanha, Pink Flesh Sweet, Pant 1, Sunrise Solo and Taiwan Red Lady, are the most popular varieties under cultivation in India.

Passion fruit, (Passiflora edulis Sims) belongs to the family Passiflora. Within this species, there are two distinct forms, the standard purple, and the yellow, distinguished as P. edulis f. flavicarpa Deg., and differing not only in color but in certain other features. The purple passionfruit is native of southern Brazil. The yellow form was unknown in India until just a few decades ago when it was introduced from Ceylon and proved well adapted to low elevations around Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Uses

Passionfruit juice can be boiled down to a sirup which is used in making sauce, gelatin desserts, candy, ice cream, sherbet, cake icing, cake filling, meringue or chiffon pie, cold fruit soup, or in cocktails. The seeded pulp is made into jelly or is combined with pineapple or tomato in making jam.

The peach tree (Prunus persica L.) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit called a peach. It is a deciduous tree growing to 4–10 m (13–33 ft) tall, belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It is classified with the almond in the subgenus Amygdalus within the genus Prunus, distinguished from the other sub genera by the corrugated seed shell. Among the temperate fruit’s peaches require relatively less chilling temperature. Now peach is a commercial crop in Argentina, Austria, Canada, Chile, Europe, USA, China, India and Japan. In India, it grown in hills of Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

Cultivars/Varieties: Sun Red, Red, Nectarine, Kateroo, Flordasun, Florda gold, Sharbati, Maygold, Kanto-5, Stark Early Flame, Summerset, Early White Giant, Redglobe, Alexander, First Gold, Early Gold and Sweet Gold.

Uses

Peachs are grown both for dessert and processing purposes. It is also used for making wine. Peach fruit juice is a common drink. Peach kernel has high protein and its oil is used in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. The cake after extraction of oil can be used for various purposes. Peach flowers and leaves are anthelmintic and purgative.

The pear or naspati (Pyrus spp) is a popular temperature fruit next to apples. It ranks high among sub-acid fruits as it contains less acid than almost any other fruit. Pear belongs to the genus Pyrus under the family Rosaceae and sub- family Pomoideae. The European pear (Pyrus communis) with a persistent calyx, fleshy pedicels and pyriform shape is different from Pyrus pyrifolia or Pyrus serotina (Asiatic pears) and are non-fleshy pedicels with apple shape.

It has been used as a food from time immemorial. The pear is a wholesome fruit and at par in importance with the apple. The flesh of the pear is, however, slightly harder than the apple, but it is juicier than the apple. Like the apple, it has few seeds. It grows on a comparatively large tree. It has generally yellow and brown colour. Sometimes, there is also a tint of red. It has several several varieties across the world.

It originated in mountainous reach of western China. The major pear producing countries are Italy, USA, Japan, Spain, France, Germany, Turkey and Australia. In India, it is mainly grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and hills of Uttar Pradesh.

Cultivars: In India, Bartlett is widely grown in Kashmir. Kieffer, a cross between Pyrus communis and Pyrus pyrifolia, is popular in South India. In Punjab, the popular varieties ar Patharnakh, Le Conte, Smith and Kieffer.

Popularly known as Japanese, or Oriental, persimmon, it is also called kaki (in Spanish, caqui), Chinese plum or, Chinese fig when dried, belongs to the family Ebanaceae. The tree is native to Japan, China, Burma and the Himalayas and Khasi Hills of northeastern India.

Uses

Fully ripe Japanese persimmons are usually eaten out-of-hand or cut in half and served with a spoon. The flesh may be added to salads, blended with ice cream mix or yogurt, used in pancakess, cakes, gingerbread, cookies, gelatin desserts, puddings, mousse, or made into jam or marmalade. The pureed pulp can be blended with cream cheese, orange juice, honey and a pinch of salt to make an unusual dressing.

Phalsa belongs to the family Tiliaceae where only one genus, Grewia, yields edible fruit. The only species of any importance is G. subinaequalis DC. (syns. G. asiatica Mast), long referred to in literature as Grewia asiatica L. Phalsa is the most used vernacular name in India, where there are a number of local names. The plant is called falsa in Pakistan. Phalsa is commercially cultivated in India in states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

Cultivars/Varieties: Two distinct types, viz. Tall and Dwarf were recognized in Hisar and dwarf type was found to be more productive. Some call them as ‘Local’ and ‘Sharbati’.

Uses

The fruits are eaten fresh as dessert, are made into syrup, and extensively employed in the manufacture of soft drinks. The fruit is used in making juice and squash. The bark is used as a soap substitute in Burma. A mucilaginous extract of the bark is useful in clarifying sugar. Fiber extracted from the bark is made into rope. The wood is yellow-white, fine-grained, strong and flexible. It is used for archers’ bows, spear handles, shingles and poles for carrying loads on the shoulders. Stems that are pruned off serve as garden poles and for basket-making.

The pineapple is the leading edible member of the family Bromeliaceae which encompasses about 2,000 species, mostly epiphytic and many ornamentals. Pineapple (Anans comosus (L) Merr), belonging to the family Bromeliaceae, is one of the most important commercial fruit of the world. Its pleasant characteristic aroma and taste make it a choicest fruit both for fresh consumption and processing.

Now known botanically as Ananas comosus Merr. (syns. A. sativus Schult. f., Ananassa sativa Lindl., Bromelia ananas L., B. comosa L.), the fruit has acquired few vernacular names. It is widely called pina by Spanish-speaking people, abacaxi in the Portuguese tongue, ananas by the Dutch and French and the people of former French and Dutch colonies; nanas in southern Asia and the East Indes. In China, it is po-lomah; in Jamaica, sweet pine; and in Guatemala often merely pine.

The region which includes Central and Southern Brazil, northern Argentina and Paraguary, is believed to be the place of origin of Pineapple. From here it has spread to all countries of the tropic and some parts of the sub-tropics. It has been introduced to India in 1548. The major pineapple producing countries of the world’s are Hawaiian, Island, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, Brazil, China, Kenya, Mexico, Taiwan, South Africa, Australia, India and Indonesia.

Cultivars: Kew or Giant Kew, Queen, Mauritius, Cayenne, Red Spanish, Singapore Spanish, Haricharanvita, Charlotte, Rothchild. In Assam there are two indigenous varieties–Jaldhup Desi and Lakhat, both of which fall in Queen group.

Plum belongs to the genus Prunus under family Rosaceae. The European plum are Prunus domestica and Japanese plums are Prunus salicina and hybrids. Mature plum fruit may have a dusty-white coating that gives them a glaucous appearance and is easily rubbed off. This is an epicuticular wax coating and is known as “wax bloom”. Dried plum fruits are called dried plums or prunes, although prunes are a distinct type of plum, and may have pre-dated the fruits now commonly known as plums. The major plum producing states are Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Mizoram, Punjab, Tamil Nadu (Ooty) and Uttarakhand.

Cultivars/Varieties: Damson plum, Greengage plum, Mirabelle plum, Victoria plum, Satsuma plum and Yellow plum.

Uses

Plums are mainly used consumed as fresh fruits. They are also used widely for making jam, jelly chutney and squash. Certain varieties of European plum are specially suited for drying to produce prunes. Prunes are firm fleshed fruits of P. domestica cultivars having sugar content which can be dried whole without fermentation around the pit, to make a firm tasteful product that can be stored for long period.

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) belongs to the family Punicaceae and is one of the favaourite table fruits of tropical and subtropical regions. The fresh fruit is of delicate quality while its processed products are highly appreciative. It is now extensively grown in Arid regions. Pomegranate is in fact native to Iran and is extensively cultivated in Mediterranean countries. It is distributed in Spain, Morocco, Egypt, Afghanistan, Arabian countries, Pakistan, Myanmar, China, Japan, Chile, Argetina, Mexico, USA, Bulgaria, Italy, India and Iraq.

Cultivars: Important pomegranate varieties cultivated in India are Bhagwa, Ganesh, Alandi or Vadki, Dholka, Kandhari, Kabul, Muskati Red, Paper Shelled, Spanish Ruby, Ganesh (GB I), G 137, P 23, P 26, Mridula, Aarakta, Jyoti, Ruby, IIHR Selection, Yercaud 1 and Co 1.

Uses

The pomegranate is commercially grown for its sweet acidic taste arils. The fresh fruit has exquisite quality, while its processed products such as bottled juice, syrups and jelly are highly appreciated. Pomegranate is a delicious fruit consumed for its medicinal value. Its juice is sweet with pleasant aroma and is refreshing. The fruit is widely used for Ayurvedic and Unani medicines. Some of the commercial products of pomegranates are juice, squash, syrup, jelly. Anardana is obtained by drying the seed along with pulp and sun. The rind is used as a valuable tanning material. The flowers yield a red dye.

The rambutan is native to Malaysia and commonly cultivated throughout the archipelago and southeast Asia. Though a close relative of the lychee and an equally desirable fruit, this member of the Sapindaceae is not nearly as well-known. Botanically, it is Nephelium lappaceum L. (syns. Euphoria nephelium DC.; Dimocarpus crinita Lour.). In the vernacular, it is generally called rambutan (in French, ramboutan or ramboutanier; in Dutch, ramboetan); occasionally in India, ramboostan.

Sapota is a hardy, evergreen small tree belonging to the family Sapotaceae. It is known botanically as Manilkara zapota van Royen (syns. M. achras Fosb., M. zapotilla Gilly; Achras sapota L., A. zapota L.; Sapota achras Mill.). Sapota, sapodilla, chiku is a hardy tropical fruit tree. In India, it is mainly cultivated for its delicious fruits. The sapodilla is believed native to Yucatan and possibly other nearby parts of southern Mexico, as well as northern Brazil and Northeastern Guatemala. But now its cultivation is extensive in India (Morton, 1987).

The major varieties under cultivation in thes states are as follows:

Andhra Pradesh: Pala, Kirtibarthi, Cricket Ball, Dwarapudi, Guthi Jonavalasa and Jonavalasa Round.

Gujarat: Kalipatti, Bhuripatti, Piilipatti, Dhola Diwani, Jhumakhia and Cricket Ball Maharashtra-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, and Murraba

Karnataka-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, Kirtibarthi, DHS 1 and DHS 2

Tamil Nadu: Guthi, Kirthibarthi, Pala, Co 1, Co 2 and PKM 1

Soursop, Annona muricata L., also called as Bullock’s heart, is a larger fruit than custard apple. The flesh is spinny and has a white fibrous flesh in which large black seeds are embedded. It is completely tropical in habitat. It resembles small jackfruit with spines on the surface. Soursop is native to the West Indies. It is very popular in Cuba and Mexico. It is found in India and many other parts of Polynesia.

Uses

Soursop is used for the preparation of sherbet and other refreshing drinks. In Indonesia, the tender fruit is used as a vegetable. Seeds have insecticidal properties and leaves contain an essential oil. Excellent jelly can be prepared from soursop fruit. Unripe fruit powder is prescribed for chronic dysentery. Buds and flowers are considered to be an excellent remedy for cough. Soursop is used as an astringent and also as a blood complement. It has the use as an antidysentric and vermifuge. A black dye is produced from the dye unripe fruit. Seed oil is used as an insecticide and for making agriculture implement. Essential oils extracted from soursop (pulp) have industrial applications and the oils are also thought to improve the flavour of processed fruit products.

Fragaria is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, commonly known as strawberries for their edible fruits. It is a low perennial creeping herb which is widely grown in temperate and subtropical regions of the world.

There are more than 20 described species and many hybrids and cultivars. Cultivated strawberries are based on two species, Fragaria chiloensis (L) Duch., native to the west coast of North America and Fragaria virginia Duch., native to eastern coast of North America. Hybrids of these two species are ancestors to all the modern strawberries. The most common strawberries grown commercially are cultivars of the garden strawberry, a hybrid known as Fragaria × ananassa. Strawberries have a taste that varies by cultivar, and ranges from quite sweet to rather tart. Strawberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world.

The major producers of strawberries are USA, Mexico, Poland, Japan, Italy, Israel, Australia, New Zealand and Turkey. In India it was introduced during 1960’s and is grown to a limited extent in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and some parts of southern India (Karnataka and Ooty).

Cultivars/Varieites: Tioga, Tufts, Surecrop, Fresno, Toro, Heidi, Hood, Northwest, Puget Beauty, Olympus, Ozark Beauty.

Tamarind (Tamarindus indicus L.) belongs to the family Fabaceae. Genus Tamarindus is a monotypic taxon having only one species. Tamarind is native to tropical Africa, probably Sudan, where it grows wild and is cultivated throughout South-East Asia and America. It is also found growing in Camaroon, Nigeria and Tanzania. Tamarind has a long gestation period of 10-20 years and long-life span of even 100 years.

Cultivars/Varieties: In some regions the type with reddish flesh is distinguished from the ordinary brown-fleshed type and regarded as superior in quality. There are types of tamarinds that are sweeter. One in Thailand is known as ‘Makham waan’. Another one is known as ‘Manila Sweet’. No other improved or named varieties are available.

Uses

Tamarind pulp is an important condiment as a sour ingredient in the Indian cuisine. Pulp has an excellent keeping quality. Timber is used for making agricultural implements. The wood yields excellent charcoal and is used for making gunpowder. Starch is obtained from seeds and is used in the textile industry. Seeds can be fed to animal after roasting and removing the outer skin. Seed is also a good source of tanning. Oil is obtained from seeds and is used in paints and varnishes. Leaves and flowers are also edible. It is rich in medicinal properties. Fruits is considered as digestive, carminative and laxative. With the addition of water and sugar, tamarind yields a cool drink which is quite popular in Latin America.Today India is the largest producer of tamarind in the world.

Vegetables are important accompaniments for the main course of meal, which is by and large a carbohydrate-based food (wheat, rice or millets). It not only makes the meal more palatable, but also wholesome with its diverse color, smell and taste. More importantly it facilitates the easy movement of food through the bowel, better absorption by the body and till the elimination. Besides hunger satiation, it helps to maintain the health by providing the essential micronutrients and prevent lifestyle disorders.

As a nutritious food, it provides the vitamins, minerals and phyto-chemicals which are required in small quantities for physiological processes and metabolic activities. They are cheap sources of beta-carotene, vitamin-B complex, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, etc. They are rich in minerals like iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, etc., and dietary fibres. It has now been proved that minerals are better absorbed by the body in presence of several other factors of plant matrix, than as mineral supplements. It also provides small amounts of carbohydrates and proteins. Vegetables are important as protective foods as their consumption prevents many diseases. They are important sources of antioxidants and phytochemicals. Each vegetable has been found to have certain specific phyto-chemical which besides being a free radical scavenger, is also inhibitor of certain conditions responsible for disease development.

Among the vegetables, tubers like cassava, potato and sweet potato being highly rich in carbohydrates, served as staples for several countries for very long time, in the history. For the same reason, there are a variety of food products based on these tubers. Others like carrot, radish, beetroot, and turnip in root vegetables, onion and garlic among bulbous crops; tomato, brinjal (egg plant), okra and capsicum among fruit vegetables serve as sources of phytochemicals (carotenoids, anthcyanins, lycopene, betalain, capsicum, bassiniloids, etc.). Beans, peas, cowpea, and other leguminous vegetables are important sources of proteins and leafy vegetables (greens) contribute to the much-needed minerals, vitamins and fibre (roughages) in the diet. Allicin and diallyl disulphide found in onion and garlic control blood cholesterol besides being anti-bacterial. The diphenylamine in onion is effective against diabetes. The ‘Charantin’ found in bitter gourd have hypoglycaemic activity. Diosgenin in yams are used for manufacture of contraceptive drugs. Cole crops like cabbage, cauliflower, Brussel sprouts and sprouting broccoli have anti-carcinogenic properties mainly due to hydrolysed glucosinolate derived isothiocynates and indoles. Similarly, health benefits and curative properties of many indigenous and exotic vegetables have been mentioned in several classical texts of India and China.

Cucurbits form an important and a big group of vegetable crops cultivated extensively in this country. This group consists of a wide range of vegetables, either used as salads (cucumber) or for cooking (all the gourds) or for pickling (cucumber) or as dessert fruits (muskmelon and watermelon) or candied or preserved (ash gourd). They are of tremendous economic importance as food plants.

2.1. Ash Gourd (Benincasa hispida)

Ash gourd (Benincasa hispida L.) belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae. The winter melon, also called white gourd, ash gourd, or “fuzzy melon”, is a vine grown for its very large fruit, eaten as a vegetable when mature. It is the only member of the genus Benincasa. This is a monotypic genus and the only cultivated species is Benincasa hispida (Thunb) Cogn, commonly known as ash gourd or petha. It has a Sanskrit equivalent ‘Kooshmanda’ indicating its antiquity in India.

Originally cultivated in Southeast Asia, the ash gourd is widely grown in China, India and other parts of East Asia. The immature melon has thick white flesh that is sweet when eaten. By maturity, the fruit loses its hairs and develops a waxy coating, giving rise to the name wax gourd, and providing a long shelf life. The ash gourd is known by many other names in India regional wise like komora (Assamese), pethakaddu (Hindi), boodagumbala (Kannada), Kumbalanga (Malayalam), Kohla (Marathi), neer poosanikai (Tamil) and Boodida gummadikaya (Telugu).

Uses

Ash gourd have enormous medicinal properties as it makes a valuable place as a popular natural cure of ailments in traditional medicinal practice. Being low in calories it is an ideal vegetable for diabetic patients and good for weight control. It also acts as a good detoxifying agent.

As per Ayurveda, ash gourd is used to treat epilepsy, asthma, lung diseases, urine retention, internal haemorrhage, and cough. It is said that the fruit juice is also effective in cases of mercury poisoning and snakebite. It could also treat mouth cancer, protecting teeth and gums when a mouth gargle of the juice is done regularly. It is also effective in bleeding of gums. Ash gourd is easily digestible and keeps the body cool. It is a natural blood purifier.

Cole crops are a group of vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (Syn: Cruciferae) and include cabbage, cauliflower, knoll khol, kale, Brussel sprouts, sprouting broccoli, etc. Cole crops are found spread all over Europe from the Mediterranean region, which is supposed to be the centre of origin. In the ancient Egyptian and Asian civilization, there was mention of cole crops and also by Aristotle in his writings on ‘Enquiry into plants’ there was mention about three types of coles. It is believed that it was first collected for food at the beginning of Neolithic times before being cultivated, and the cultivated forms of cabbage group like, cabbage, savoy, kales, collard, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower and kohlrabi gradually originated from wild species through mutation, human selection and adaptation.

Among the cole crops in India cauliflower and cabbage are the two most important crops while Kohlrabi is grown very less. In India it is cultivated in states of Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana. It is also grown in milder climates in southern India like Ooty, Bangalore, etc.

3.1. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.f. alba)

Cabbage, Brassica oleracea Linne (Capitata Group) is a popular vegetable belonging to the family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae) and is used as a leafy green vegetable. It is in the same genus as the turnip – Brassica rapa. Cabbage leaves often have a delicate, powdery, waxy coating called bloom. The occasionally sharp or bitter taste of cabbage is due to glucosinolate(s). Cabbages are also a good source of riboflavin.

In India cabbage is widely grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Cultivars/Varieties: Cabbage cultivars are classified on the basis of colour of head and maturity. In India white cabbage is important and these are available in pointed, round and flat shapes. Of these round cabbages are preferred. Common cabbage varieties grown are Golden Acre, Pride of India, Copenhagen Market, Red Acre, Pusa Drum Head, Pride of India, Pusa Agethi, Pusa Muktha, KGMR-1, Kateri, Hardam and Nakshatra.

In Solanaceae family there are 85 genera, which includes both tuberiferous and non-tuberiferous plants. Among the non-tuberiferous, tomato, brinjal and chilli are the important fruit vegetables.

4.1. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

Tomato has originated in Peru and Mexican region of South America. It got its name form the azetc work “Tomatl”. In India tomato is the second largest cultivated vegetable after potato. Though it is produced in almost entire country, the major producer states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Cultivar/Varieties: A large number of varieties/hybrids of tomatoes are under cultivation. The most popular among them are Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Saurabh, Arka Vikash, ARTH 3, ARTH 4, Avinash 2, BSS 90, CO3, HS 101, HS 102, HS 110. Hisar Anmol, Hisar Arun, Hisar Lalima, Hisar Lalit, Krishna, KS 2, Matri, MTH 6, NA 601, Naveen, Pusa 120, Punjab Chhuhara, Pant Bahar, Pusa Divya, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Hybrid 1, Pusa Hybrid 2, Pusa Hybrid 4, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sheetal, Pusa Uphar, Rajni, Rashmi, Ratna and Rupali.

Uses

Tomato adds richness to any dish it is added. Besides using for culinary purpose tomato is also used as salad and dressings and also as adjuvant in several locally available fresh snacks. It is used for thickening of gravies in many Indian curries. As a processed product tomato sauce and ketchup are on top of favourites. It is not only delicious in taste but also rich in its medicinal value. The pulp and juice are mild aperient, a promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. It is also considered to be intestinal antiseptic. It is said to be useful in sour mouth, canker of mouth and chronic dyspepsia.

Carrot, radish, turnip and beet root are major root crops grown in India. In addition, root crops like rutabaga, parsnip, parsley, chervil and celeriac are grown in a limited scale in different parts of the world. There are several other roots and modified underground plant parts that grow in forests and consumed by tribes, but they are not commercially cultivated. Carrot, radish, turnip and beet root are generally consumed as cooked vegetables or fresh salads or as pickled vegetables.

5.1. Carrot

Carrots belong to the Umbelliferae family, named after the umbrella-like f lower clusters that plants in this family produce. As such, carrots are related to parsnips, fennel, parsley, anise, caraway, cumin and dill. Carrot, Daucus carota L. is believed have been primarily originated in Afghanistan, South western Asia and Mediterranean region. Daucus carota ssp. Carota is the most common wild form in Europe and South West Asia, and the present day cultivated carrots have most probably originated from this sub-species.

Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Assam are the major producers of carrot in India.

Cultivars/Varieties: Varieties with long, orange coloured and smooth roots are preferred in India. Both indigenous and exotic varieties having different root length, shape and colour are grown. Temperate or European type varieties are Nantes, Half long, Early Nantes, Chantenay, Chaman, Pusa Yamadagni and Ooty-1, which require low temperature of 4-8°C for flowering. Tropical or Asiatic type varieties do not require low temperature for flowering and can be grown in plains also. The varieties belonging to this group are Pusa Kesar, Pusa Meghali and Hisar Gairic. Some varieties like Gold King, Indian Kuroda and Super Kuroda are also marketed by private seed companies.

6.1. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

Potato, Solanum tuberosum, is a starchy, tuberous crop belonging to the Solanaceae family. The name potato originally referred to a type of sweet potato, batata, in Spanish. Potatoes are occasionally referred to as “Irish potatoes” or “white potatoes” in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The potato was believed to be first domesticated in the region of southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia between 8000 to 5000 BC. The potato diffused widely after 1600, becoming a major food resource in Europe and East Asia. Greater geographic mobility of farmers led to the rapid spread of potato cultivation throughout China, and India. China is now the world’s largest potato producer and nearly one third of the world’s potatoes are produced in China and India.

Today potato is the fourth major food crop after rice, wheat and maize in the world. In India potato is a very important crop and are mainly produced in the states of Uttar

Cultivars/Varieties: Most of the improved potato varieties were developed by CPRI, Kufri, Shimla. Most of the earlier varieties released as clonal selections derived from foreign varieties have been replaced with high yielding new varieties from the same institute. The popular varieties under cultivation now are Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Jyothi, Kufri Lauvkar, Kufri Muthu, Kufri Dewa, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Lalima, Kufri Swarna, Kufri Jawahar, Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Megha, Kufri Sutlej, Kufri Pukhraj, Kufri Chipsona-1, Kufri Chipsona-2 and Kufri Giriraj.

Uses

Potatoes are used in different ways like boiled, fried, baked and roasted. Potatoes are used to brew alcoholic beverages such as vodka, potcheen, or akvavit.They are also used as food for domestic animals. Potato starch is used in the food industry as, for example, thickeners and binders of soups and sauces, in the textile industry, as adhesives, and for the manufacturing of papers and boards. Many companies are exploring the possibilities of using waste potatoes to obtain polylactic acid for use in bioplastic products; other research projects seek ways to use the starch as a base for biodegradable packaging. Potato skins, along with honey, are used in folk medicine for burns in India. Burn centers in India have experimented with the use of the thin outer skin layer to protect burns while healing. The potato is best known for its carbohydrate content, which is in the form of starch. Because of its high starch content, it is a staple food in several parts of world including in some parts of India. A small but significant portion of this starch is resistant to digestion by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine, and so reaches the large intestine essentially intact, thereby, increasing its physiological significance. Besides these the potato also provides various other nutritional constituents to the body. Potato is also processed into various products like chips, powder, pappad, savory items.

7.1. Okra or Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)

Okra (Bhindi) is a member of Malvaceae family, earlier known as Hibiscus esculentus, and is an annual vegetable crop grown from seeds in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Okra, also known as “lady finger” or “gumbo”, is a highly nutritious green edible pod vegetable. Botanically, this perennial flowering plant belongs to the mallow family but is grown as an annual. It is named scientifically as Abelmoschus esculentus. Okra originated in tropical and subtropical Africa and India is suggested to be the secondary centre of origin. There are four species under Abelmoschus genus which includes both cultivated and wild forms. They are A. esculentus, A. manihot, A. caillei and A. moschatus. In India, Okra is widely cultivated in states of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam West Bengal, Orissa, Gujarat and Bihar.

Cultivars/Varieties: Okra varieties differ in growth habit, height of plant, presence of purple pigmentation and ridges on fruit. The popular varieties under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arka Abhay, Arka Anamika, Azad Kranti, Co 1, MDU1, Gujarat Bhindi 1, Harbhajan Bhindi, Hisar Unnat, Parbhani Kranti, Perkins Long Green, Punjab 7, Punjab 8, Punjab Padmini, Pusa A 4, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa Sawani, Red Bhindi, TN Hybrid 8 and Varsha Uphar. Besides, a number of hybride from many private sector agencies/seed companies are marketed. Of these, Varsha, Vijay, Adhunik, Panchali, Hybrid No. 6,7 and 8, Nath Sobha, Supriya, Sungro 35, Aroh 1, - 2, -3, -9 and are more popular.

Uses

Different parts of the plant are used for different purposes. Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Leaves and seeds are considered as valuable traditional medicine. Abelmoschus moschatus is also called ‘musk okra’ a medicinal plant belonging the same family. The leaves and new shoots of this plant is also used as vegetable. The aromatic seeds of this plant are aphrodisiac, ophthalmic, cardio tonic, antispasmodic and used in the treatment of and intestinal complaints and anxiety.

Leguminous vegetables include peas, French bean, Lima bean, broad bean, cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean etc. They belong to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminosae). These are cultivated either as sole crop is sometimes as intercrop. In some areas they are used in backyard cultivation also. Most of them are short duration crops and are self pollinated.

8.1. Peas (Pisum sativum L.)

The pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a very common nutritioius vegetable grown in cool season throughout the world. It belongs to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminaceae) and genus Pisum. A pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seedpod of the pod fruit Pisum sativum L. The pea cultivars are grouped into several groups based on shape of seed, plant height, maturity and use of pods. This crop is cultivated for its tender and immature pods for use as vegetable and mature dry pods for use as a pulse. In both the cases the seeds are separated and used as vegetable or pulse. The central Asia is regarded as the place of origin for all legumes including pea. Based on the genetic diversity, Central Asia, the Near East, Abyssinia and the Mediterranean is considered to be its centre of Origin. Cultivated garden pea is not seen in wild state and it might have been originated from wild field pea or other related species. In India it widely cultivated states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka. Followed by Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Jharkhand.

Cultivars/Varietie: Peas varieties are grouped based on maturity (early, mid season and late) plant height (Bush or dwarf, medium tall and tall). The major cultivars under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arkel, Bonneville, Harbhajan, FC-1, Arka Ajit, UN 53-6 (whole edible type), Jawahar Matar 1, Jawahar Matar 2, Jawahar Matar 3, Jawahar Matar 4, Jawahar Matar 5, Jawahar Peas 83, JP 4 (JM 6), JP 19, Lincoin, Mattar Ageta 6, Pantnagar Matar 2, Pant Uphar (IP 3), P 88, PRS 4,Ooty-1 and VL 3.

9.1. Onion (Allium cepa L.)

The onion (Allium cepa), which is also known as the bulb onion, or common onion is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It has been used as food since time immemorial and is an important vegetable all over the world. The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense). The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the “common onion group” (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as “onions”. The Aggregatum Group of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots and potato onions. Onion is suggested to have been originated in Asia, particularly Pakistan and Iran.

China is the largest onion producer in the world followed by India. Largest area under onion is in India followed by China. The major onion producing state are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.

Cultivars/Varieites: Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency and maturation. The most popular varieties under cultivation are Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Agrifound Red, Agrifound Rose, Arka Bindu, Arka Kalyan, Arka Niketan, Arka Pragati, Baswant 780, Brown Spanish, Co-1, Co-2 Co- 3, Co-4, Early Grano, Hisar II, Kalyanpur Red Round, MDU 1 N-2-4-1, N-53, N-257-9-1, Punjab 48 (S 48), Pusa Madhavi, Punjab Red Round, Punjab Selection, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Udaipur 101, 102 & 103.

Leafy vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin C and minerals like calcium, magnesium, iron, etc., They are the riches sources of roughes or fibres essential in human diet. The ICMR recommended dietary allowances of green leafy vegetables for adult women is 100g/day and men are 40g/day while for school children above 10 years it is 50g/day. Greens are rich in vitamins and minerals essential for healthy functioning of organs of body. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, etc., are the major leaf vegetables grown in India. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking.

10.1. Amaranth (Amaranthus sp)

Amaranth is the most common leaf vegetable grown in India. Amarnath is an annual herb with erect growth and scarce to profusely branching habit. Stem is succulent and green or purple or mixed shades of these two. There are two sections in Amaranthus, viz., Amaranthus and Blitopsis. Majority of leaf cultivars grown in India belong to Amaranthus tricolor. Among the several kinds of greens Amaranthus occupy a special place because it has a large number of species grown in one or the other part of country.

Some of the important improved varieties released are CO-2 and CO-5 from TNAU, Coimbatore, Pusa Kiran, Pusa Kirti and Pusa Lal Choulia from IARI, New Delhi, Arka Arunima and Arka Suguna from IIHR, Bangalore. Amaranth are popular all over India by different names. While in northern parts it is popularly known as choulia, in south it is popularly called as keerai or cheera or koora or soppa. The general composition of amaranth is given below:

Normal distribution :- A random variable x is said to be normally distributed with population mean u and standard deviation σ if it assumes the following distribution

Introduction

In any experiment, for instance, a varietal trial or a treatment trial, the main purpose of the experimental design would be to detect the differences among the varieties or treatments. This assumes, as an obvious prerequisite that the experimental units, such as plots or animals, be as alike as possible so that differences observed in responses, such as yield in varietal trial, could be attributable to the varietal or treatment differences. But more often than not, this condition is not realized to a satisfactory degree in practice due to heterogeneity present in experimental units. In a field experiment, for instance, a big piece of land might be quite heterogeneous regarding soil fertility, moisture content, salinity, etc; so that experimental plots marked on this land would differ widely among themselves, though plots nearer to each other would be more alike or homogeneous than the plots scattered distant apart; also in the case of animal experiments, animals forming the experimental units might be heterogeneous regarding their ages , weights, genetic composition, etc. With such experimental units in the experiment, the variability produced in the observations will be comparatively high so that only large treatment differences are detectable, since small differences are obsecured by large error variability.

The randomized complete block design (RCBD), is perhaps the most widely used design of all experimental designs, mainly for its simplicity, flexibility and validity. The main objective of the design is either to control, remove or reduce the variability due to heterogeneity in experimental material, which is quite irrelevant for treatment comparisons. In CRD, the error variability as estimated from the residual sum of squares will be considerably high. The RCBD is a device introduced in this design for separating out the variability due to heterogeneity among experimental units from the variability due to all extraneous sources, thus purifying in one sense. The design is especially suitable for field experiments where the number of treatments is not large and the experimental area has a predictable productivity gradient.The primary distinguishing feature of the RCBD is the presence of blocks of equal size, each of which contains all the treatments.

Introduction

In many of the experimental designs considered previously like CRD and RCBD ,the main feature was to compare varieties,methods of cultivation,different kinds of fertilizers, etc. In general, in such experiments, only one factor is allowed to vary at a time, while all other factors known to affect the response are generally controlled. Such experiments are called ‘Simple’, or ‘Classical’ experiments.

Biological organisms are simultaneously exposed to many growth factors during their lifetime. Because an organism’s response to any simple factor may vary with the level of the other factors, simple factor experiments are often criticized for their narrowness. Indeed, the result of a single-factor experiment is, strictly speaking, applicable only to the particular level in which the other factors were maintained in the trial. But there are numerous occasions, especially in agriculture and animal experiments, where the main interest of an investigator does not lie with the effect of a single factor at a time but lies with simultaneous influence of many factors. For example, the interest of an investigator may not be in merely knowing the effect of spacing on the yield of a certain crop, but his interest would lie in finding out the simultaneous effect of both spacing and method of fertilizer application, that is, whether along with spacing, split dose of fertilizer at periodical intervals would be more beneficial than applying full recommended dose at one time. In order to answer this and many other questions, there are some special experiments called factorial experiments.

Introduction

The split-plot design is specifically suited for a two-factor experiment that has more treatments than can be accommodated by a RCBD. In a split-plot design,one of the factors is assigned to the main plot. The assigned factor is called the main-plot factor. The main plot is divied into subplots to which the second factor ,called the subplot factor, is assigned. Thus, each mainplot becomes a block for the subplot treatments (i.e the levels of the subplot factor). The split-plot design is profitably employed under the following situations.

1. An experimenter may have already possessed some knowledge about the main effect of a certain factor so that his interest lies in estimating the interaction effect of this factor with some other more important factor in whose main effect also he is equally interested. In either case he wants to estimate the latter two effects with greater precision for which he is prepared to sacrifice the precision in estimating the first mainfactor.
2. The second common type of situation when the split-plot design is automatically suggestive is the difficulties in the execution of other design. For instance, if ploughing is one of the factors of interest,then one cannot have different depths of ploughing in different plots scattered randomly apart. Similarly, if different levels of irrigation are chosen,then random distribution of these levels in an ordinary experiment may involve difficulties in the practical execution of such plans. This difficulty may,however, be offset partly by having strips of plots (in one unit of block,say), all treated alike ;receiving the same level of irrigation with different depths of ploughing; or different levels of irrigation with same depth of ploughing. Different levels of irrigation or different depths of ploughing can,however,be randomly distributed over such strips.
3. The third situation in which the experimenter may adopt a split-plot design is this. A particular factor (factors) under investigation exhibits large treatment differences which can be easily detected even in bigger plots,while a second factor (factors) requires comparatively smaller plots to detect smaller treatment differences with higher precision. Then the first factor will be tested in whole plots and the second factor whose treatment differences are small will be tested in small plots or subplots.

The split-split plot design is an extension of the split-plot design to accommodate a third factor .It is uniquely suited for a three –factor experiment where three different levels of precision are desired for the various effects. Each level of precision is assigned to the effects associated with each of the three factors. This design is characterized by two important features :

1. There are three plot sizes corresponding to the three factors, namely, the largest plot (main plot) for the main-plot factor, the intermediate plot (sub-plot) for the subplot factor, and the smallest plot (sub-sub plot ) for the sub-subplot factor.
2. There are three levels of precision, with the main-plot factor receiving the lowest degree of precision and the sub-subplot factor receiving the highest degree of precision.

The method of analysis is entirely analogous to that for the case of 2 factors. The analysis consists of 3 parts, between whole plots, between split plots within whole plots,between split-split plots within split plots, each part being put on the basis of a split-split plot in order that the parts may be combined into one complete analysis.

Introduction

As a chief feature of RCBD, formation of blocks is a necessity to achieve homogeneity of plots within each block so that an irrevelant source of variation existing to the error component could be removed for purposes of treatment comparisons. But quite frequently, in agricultural experiments, the fertility gradient varies in all directions so that the plots within a block in RCBD could still be heterogeneous. In order to control or remove this additional source of variation, one can think of extending the concept of blocking yet in another direction , orthogonal to the first direction, leading to a new design called Latin Square Design(LSD). In otherwords, if the blocking concept is one-dimensional in RCBD, it is two-dimensional in LSD. As a guiding principle for formation of two-dimensional blocks, it may be stated that each row-block and each column–block should remove as much variability as is possible from total variability so that error component becomes smaller. The chief restrictive features of LSD are:

Complete block designs become less efficient as the number of treatments increases,primarily because block size increases proportionally with the number of treatments,and the homogeneity of experimental plots within a large block is difficult to maintain.That is , the experimental error of a complete block design is generally expected to increase with the number of treatments.

An alternative set of designs for single –factor experiments having a large number of treatments is the incomplete block design.As the name implies, each block in an incomplete block design does not contain all treatments and a reasonably small block size can be maintained even if the number of treatments is large.With smaller blocks,the homogeneity of experimental units in the same block is easier to maintain and a higher degree of precision can generally be expected.

Square-Root Transformation for Counts

stabilizes the variance more effectively.

Counts of rare events, such as number of defects or of accidents tend to be distributed approximately in poisson fashion.

In many experimental situations, it becomes necessary to repeat an experiment over time ( for a number of seasons or years ) and / or over space ( a number of places). This repetition ( or replication ) of the experiment broadens the scope of the experiment in the sense that our recommendations will be applicable for a number of seasons /or a number of places . A single experiment performed in one place for only one season will provide recommendations for that place and for that season . It may not be applicable to other places or for other seasons . In the case of agricultural experiments , for example , there may be present treatment x place interaction and/ or treatment x season interaction . So the results of a series of experiments , performed over different places for different seasons with the same set of treatments,will have wider applicability .

We shall consider the simplest case of repetition of experiments of identical structure over a number of places ( it is the same for a number of seasons ). Let us consider randomized block experiments with t treatments in r blocks and conducted in p places. The analysis of the experiment in a place is based on the linear model . Before attempting a combined analysis for the p experiments ,it is necessary to perform the analysis for the p places separately and interpret the results separately .It may be of interest to find out whether differences among the treatments are the same in the different places so that a ‘ best ‘ treatment may be recommended for all the places, or whether different treatments are to be recommended for different places . The model for this combined analysis may be written as

This is an extension of the analysis of variance to cover the case where observations are taken on more than one variable from each experimental unit. Interest, however, centres on one of these (y, called the dependent variable) and the question is whether the variation of the dependent variable over the classes is due to class effects or due to its dependence on the other variables, (x’s, called the independent or concomitant variables ), which also vary from class to class. The analysis of covariance controls the experimental error by taking ito consideration the dependence of y on x.

The experimental design and analysis discussed in previous chapters refer essentially to experiments on annual crops. Even when these experiments are repeated in different years, this is done at a new site each year .The use of new crop production practices will generally change the important physical and biological factors of the environment. This process of change can take many years. Generally, the productivity of some types of technology must be evaluated by a series of trials repeated over time. Such trials are generally referred to as long-term experiments. Long-term experiments are those which are continued on the same set of plots over a series of years with a pre-planned sequence of treatments or crops or both. Treatments may be applied every year or periodically. The same crop may be repeated year after year or once planted may continue for several years as perennial trees ,or a sequence of crops may be grown in rotation as for instance rice-rice or rice-wheat (1 year sequence with 2 crops per year ) or sorghum,groundnut,cotton and wheat, each crop cycle being completed in four years. The main features of long-term experiments are as follows :

Experimental unit : An experimental unit is the material to which is applied the treatment and on which the variable under study is measured. In an agricultural field experiment, the plot of land, not the individual plant, will be the experimental unit; in a feeding experiment of cows,the whole cow is the experimental unit; in human experiments in which the treatment affects the individual, the individual will be the experimental unit.

Treatment : The different procedures under comparison in an experiment are the different treatments, i.e in an agricultural experiment, the different varieties of a crop or the different manures will be the treatments. In a dietary or medical experiment, the different diets or medicines, etc. are the treatments.

Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

The simplest design using the two essential principles of replication and randomization is the CRD. Suppose that we have t treatments (or t levels of a factor) under comparison and ith treatment is to be replicated r times, for i = 1,2, … t . A particular case of this is equal replication for different treatments, where r1=r2= =r6=r, so that n=rt.

A treatment is the combination of N & P

If levels of N & P are 5 & 10 respectively, so number of treatments are 5x10=50.

The difficulty in conducting a factorial experiment in an RBD is that, as the number of factors and/ or that of levels of the factors increase, the number of treatment combinations to be compared increases too. This in turn necessitates use of large sized blocks to accommodate all the treatment combinations i.e in a 2^4 – experiment there should be 16 plots in a block. But it has been found that the experimental error increases with an increase in the size of a block, for then it becomes less effective in controlling the heterogeneity of the units. A remedy has been found out : this is to divide a replicate (a complete block) into a number of equal blocks (incomplete blocks) and then to allocate the treatment combinations to these blocks so that only the unimportant treatment comparisons gets mixed up or entangled with the block comparisons. These treatment comparisons are then said to be confounded or mixed up with block effects. These effects cannot be separately tested or estimated. But the remaining treatment effects, which are not confounded with the block effects, are still capable of separate estimation and testing.