eChapters

29.1 INTRODUCTION

Some historians believe that it was women who first domesticated crop plants and thereby initiated the art and science of farming. While men went out hunting in search of food, women started collecting seeds from the native flora and began cultivating those of interest from the point of view of food, feed, fodder, fibre and fuel. This view is strengthened by the fact that women have been traditionally seed selectors. Even today this tradition has continued in many parts of the developing world. Women have played and continue to play a pivotal role in the conservation of basic life support system such as land, water, flora and fauna. They have protected the health of the soil through organic recycling and promoted crop security through the maintenance of varietal diversity and genetic resistance. In many hill and remote areas of developing countries such as Himalyan region, agriculture is largely in hands of women. Men tend to go to towns and cities in search of salaried jobs for fulfilment of family income. Therefore, without total intellectual and physical participation of women, it will not be possible to popularize alternative systems of land management for shifting cultivation, arrest gene and soil erosion, and promote the care of the soil and the health of economic plants and farm animals. Women also tend to look at problems in their totality from the sowing of the crop to its ultimate utilization either as food, feed or raw material for industry. Since they are usually involved in of marketing, they generally possess a clear understanding of market preferences and prejudices. Therefore, for an economically and ecologically sustainable agriculture the involvement of women farmers and farm women (agriculture farmers with and without assets) in the process of modernization of farming practices and village industries is absolutely essential. Horticulture is a major part of Indian agriculture. Although belated, their importance has now been recognized in India not only to provide the much needed balanced nutrition and gainful occupation to our populace but also to develop viable internal and export trade. Fruits like banana and vegetables like potato being energy rich are considered prominent food crops e.g. banana can produce as high as 37 million calories per hectare. Unfortunately the component of fruits and vegetables in Indian diet is hardly six per cent which should be raised at least five times so that the per capita per day consumption mathches the recommended dose of 85g. fruits, 75 – 125g. leafy vegetables 85g. other vegetable and 85g. roots and tubers. To achieve this present production of fruits and vegetables would need to be pushed up considerably by increasing the production levels and the area both.

Abstract

Lichenized fungi or lichens represent the most successful symbiotic organisms on earth. They are the inconspicuous group of lower plants having numerous properties. Their different growth forms namely crustose, foliose and fruticose have been put to use in one way or the other. Since ancient times, they were used as food, fodder, dye and in perfumery. Lichens are a rich source of several important secondary metabolites because of which they are widely used as a source of medicine against several diseases and to improve the health of humans as well as animals. Most of the information related to the usage of lichens is gathered from the traditional knowledge holders. Therefore, there is a need to explore and document this traditional knowledge associated with lichens. The present paper thus makes an attempt to present and document the valued information on the ethnobiological uses of lichens from the Northwestern parts of the Himalayas, if not, the undocumented information will be lost for all the future generations. Ethnobiology of 39 species of lichens belonging to 08 families is being presented in this communication.

Abstract

Family Apiaceae (or Umbelliferae) is one of the largest plant group represented by 418 genera and 3257 species (TPL 2013). The plants members are mostly aromatic, used by local populace as traditional medicines as well as spice and condiments in their routine food preparations. They have characteristic aroma due to the presence of some essential oils or oleoresin. Members of this family possess large number of compounds having antibacterial, hepato-protective, vaso-relaxant, inducing apoptosis and antitumor activities. Although the family is distributed globally but Indian subcontinent is a major center of its diversification, where more than 200 species are distributed specifically in the Himalayan eco-terrains. Jammu province (Jammu and Kashmir, India) in North Western Himalaya having unique climatic conditions supports a large variety of medicinal and aromatic plants, and amongst these Apiaceae are well known. Local people uses these plants as vegetables, for culinary purposes and valued as traditional medicine like Bunium persicum (black cumin), Carum carvi (caraway), Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Cuminum cyminum (cumin), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Narthex asafoetida (Heeng), Trachyspermum ammi (ajwain) and Centella asiatica (Brahmi). People in Jammu province have their unique traditional way of using plants, knowledge of which is being transferred from generation to generation through oral dialect. As the data on the numbers of Apiaceae is scattered in the literature and difficult to be procured by the researchers. Therefore the current attempt is made so that the data along with some quantitative statistics can be provided at one platform only.

Abstract

Medicinal plants are being widely used either as single drug or in combination in health care delivery system. Hemidesmus indicus is a rare and endangered plant of Deccan plateau of India and is a potential source of several active principles of therapeutic value. Its immense medicinal values can bring H. indicus as a royal source of herbal medicine in India. It contains various phytoconstituents belonging to the category glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, sterols and volatile oils. The main pharmacological activity of H. indicus include anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidants, anti cancerous activity, anti acne activity, anti venom activity, antinociceptive, renoprotective, heptoprotective activity, anti arthritis and anti leprotic activity. The root of Hemidesmus indicus was used mainly for the preparation of drink locally called as nannari or sugandhapala. The drink is medicinal, which cools the system, gives good appetite and acts as a blood purifier and roots are used for preparation of chutneys and pickles.

2.1 Isotopes

In 1913, J.J. Thomson and Aston introduced atmospheric neon into the positive ray apparatus and got two parabolas corresponding to masses 20 and 22, with the intensities of the tracks corresponding to the ratio of 9:1, irrespective of the condition of discharge and pressure. This indicated that neon existed in two forms having atomic weights 20 and 22, and at the same time it could not be distinguished chemically. These two types are known as isotopes of neon (iso = same, topas = place in the periodic table). When the average atomic weight of the ordinary neon was calculated based on the abundance of these two forms in the ordinary neon, it was found to be 20.2 which agreed the chemical methods. Thus the existence of isotopes of a given element was discovered.

Formerly isotopes were defined chemical properties but with different atomic weights, the same atomic number and occupying the same position in the periodic classification. Later this definition was slightly modified and now isotopes are defined as nuclides with the same number of protons but differing in the number of neutrons, for example, ordinary hydrogen (also called protium ; proton =1 and neutron =0), deuterium (heavy hydrogen ; proton =1 and neutron = 1), and tritum super heavy hydrogen (proton =1 and neutron =2). Investigations using mass spectrographs have revealed more than 280 isotopes which are stable artificially radioactive isotopes.

Radioactivity

The discovery of radioactivity, in general, actually came about on a few different fonts. First was the discovery of x-ray radiation that was artificially generated in a laboratory, followed by the discovery of several elements that naturally emit radiation when the nucleus of the atoms disintegrates or decay. These are the elements that today are called radioactive elements and are said to have unstable nuclei.

9.1 Potential Tracer Difficulties and their Corrections

In radioactive measurements, the observed counting rate is not equal to the true disintegrations rate of the sample since a number of factors like nature of detectors tend to increase it or, in a majority of cases, decrease the actual counts. Some of the important factors responsible for this are

1.Background,

2.Backscattering

3.Absorption

4.Self absorption

6.Geometry

7.Instrument efficiency

9.1 Introduction

The sources and types of chemical pollution to which freshwater systems can be exposed are many and varied. The origins of pollutants entering these systems range from those that are predominantly point sources (i.e., industrial effluents) to those that are mainly diffuse, such as agricultural run-off and acid deposition. Some of these are effectively continuous, whereas others are intermittent or episodic.

Pollutants can also be characterized by their quality: general organic loading, specific organic toxicants, inorganic toxicants, and acids. While most of the sources listed above produce mixtures of these characteristics, particular components are enhanced. Industrial effluents generally are the source of specific toxicants, but might also lead to general organic loading.

Some consideration should also be given to the types of system exposed to these pollutants. Most freshwater systems flow, but some more rapidly than others; that is, lakes and ponds have a slow throughput, the so called lentic systems whereas that for rivers and streams is rapid. Because they flow rapidly, the so-called lotic systems have been used for the transport of materials, such as removing industrial pollutants from factories and organic effluents from sewage works.

A view exists that lotic systems that depend substantially on organic inputs from terrestrial ecosystems as a basis for their economy should have the capacity for self-cleansing of at least organic pollutants. However, this perception has been challenged recently (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 1992). Of course, “still” or so-called lentic waters may also be important repositories of pollutants, and are certainly exposed to diffuse inputs from agricultural land leading to eutrophication.

Thus, the challenge for aquatic ecotoxicology is to develop methods that can not only assess but also estimate the ecological impact of chemicals on a variety of complex ecosystems under diverse and complicated circumstances (e.g., periodic perturbations or steady trickles, and mixtures of varying complexity). The predictive approach is important in risk assessment used in the regulation of chemical pollutants. Assessment, at times referred to as a “retrospective approach,” is used to determine whether particular contaminants have an impact on specified natural ecosystems. This chapter reviews current methods, first predictive and then retrospective approaches, to address such problems. Initially, one must define what is to be measured, for it has relevance to both approaches.

15.1 Introduction

Statistics is mostly used as a tool for assessing the capability of the system. Statistics refers to facts shown in numbers. Modern statistical methods and data are being found increasingly useful in research in different fields such as hydrology, biology, water quality and forestry etc. Statistics when used effectively becomes so intertwined in the whole fabric of the subjects to which it is applied. Statistics assists in planning the initial observations, organizing them and formulating hypothesis from them and in judging whether the new observations agree sufficiently well with the predictions from the hypothesis. In statistical methods, there is an operation of multiple causes and the investigator has only limited control over there. But statistical methods are found extremely useful in predicting the consequences of a situation. It requires skill for acquiring and handling data. There is a methodology to deal with the data and analysis of data is based on scientific and engineering strategies (Ramakrishnan, 1995).

In a huge rainfall data over a period of 300 years, it is not possible to observe all the items. Statistical methods are developed to estimate the error or deflection from the true or real value when we are taking inference from a sample for a hydrological data.

In the modern world where life sciences is getting more and more importance. To meet our environmental problems and energy requirements due to rapid industrialization and population growth, scop of life science has taken its new shape. Based on statistical analysis, new field like environmental sciences, hydrology, genetic engineering, biotechnology and biosociology have been evolved. Experiments about crop yields with different types of fertilizers and different types of soils or the growth of animal life and plant life under different environmental conditions and diets are very often designed and analyzed according to statistical method. Even in the field of medicine and public health, statistical methods are used for testing the efficacy of new medicine and method of treatments. As a matter of fact, for a research worker in any field, which is concern with numerical results, a study of statistical method is not only useful but also necessary. Hence it can be rightly by remarked “Science without statistics bears no fruit, statistics without science have no root”.

Bone is the only tissue in the body able to heal without microscopical scarring. On the other hand fracture healing is a slow process causing long immobilization periods with consequently high costs for fracture healing giving rise to delayed healing, fibrous healing or non-healing with subsequent problems for both, the patient and the orthopedic surgeon. Fracture healing is complex phenomenon which involves numerous cells, regulators of cell function and biochemical interactions in the repair process. The healing potential of bone, in a fracture model is influenced by a variety of biochemical, biomechanical, cellular, hormonal and pathological mechanisms. A continuous occurring state of bone deposition, resorption and remodeling facilitates the healing process.

Biodegradable and bioinert ceramic materials such as hydroxyapatite (HA), tri­calcium phosphate (TCP), aluminum-calcium-phosphate (ALCAP) ceramics provides scaffold to support the attachment and migration of newly formed bone cells into the osseous defect and also help in formation of a vascular network through the newly formed bone. Bioceramic also act as a carrier to deliver stem cells for osteogenesis.

Specific bone-inductive proteins/growth factors can induce bone formation and healing in vivo. These morphogens are therefore, to be an ideal alternative to autogenous bone grafts. These findings initiating intensive research into bone regeneration orchestrated by putative soluble signals and lead to the discovery and identification of an entirely novel family of protein initiators collectively called the bone morphogenic protein (BMPs), which belong to transforming growth factors-ß (TGF- ß) super family. These growth factors might possess a biological activity that is site and tissue specific in the induction of bone formation. Different growth factors have been demonstrated to possess osteoinductive and fracture healing properties.

4.1. Downy mildew of sunflower

Pathogen: Plasmopara halstedii (Fort.) Berl.& de Tom.

Hosts

Over 100 host species from a wide range of genera in the family Asteraceae have been reported susceptible to this pathogen, including wild and cultivated species of Helianthus, e.g. sunflowers, which is the principal economic host. Wild Asteraceae hosts (e.g. species of the genera Helianthus, Artemisia, Xanthium, etc.) may also occur widely in the corresponding areas but their potential as reservoirs of the pest is not yet known (Virányi, 1984). For lists of hosts see Leppik (1966) and Novotel’nova (1966).

Geographical distribution

EPPO region: Present wherever sunflowers are grown, in Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Egypt, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Moldova, Morocco, Poland (unconfirmed), Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, Russia (European, Siberia), Ukraine and Yugoslavia.
Asia: Azerbaijan, China, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Russia (Siberia), Turkey. 
Africa: Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, Zimbabwe, Uganda.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

The term ‘Dolichos’ derived from Greek language means long pod and ‘lablab’, an Arabic term, means production of sound by dried seeds in the pods. In India, it is grown all over the country but compact large acreage for commercial production is uncommon. It is grown for whole pod. Fresh seeds and dry seeds are used as pulse grain. It is used as pod vegetable, feed and green manure crop. It is very popular in villages as well as cities where less area is available for cultivation. The young tender leaves are used in salads and the relatively old leaves are cooked as potherb like spinach. Its fresh green pods contain 86% moisture, 3.8% protein, 6.7% carbohydrate, 0.7% fat, 0.9% mineral matter, Vitamin A 312 IU. It is good source of Vitamin B, Vitamin C, proteins, minerals and dietary fibres. Trypsin inhibitor and several anti-nutritional factors such as tannins and phytates are present in mature and dark coloured seeds. On heating it is broken down into toxic cyanogenic glucoside which is soluble in boiling water. Therefore, it is necessary to boil the mature seeds in water before consumption. Sem is of two types.(A) Dolichos purpureus var. typicus (Graden Type) is with soft, edible pod wall having less fibre. (B) Dolichos purpureus var. lignosus(Field bean) that is grown for fresh dry seed as pulse, pod wall has high fibre content and has characteristic aroma. Hyacinth bean is a perennial herbaceous plant often grown as an annual and pole types are photosensitive.

Melons (Cucumis melo) are annuals with climbing, creeping or trailing vines of length up to three meters. The desert types quench thirst and add to the nutrient content of main diet. The non-desert types are used as vegetables. Muskmelon (Cucumis melo., 2n=2x=24) encompasses the netted, salmon -flesh cantaloupe, the smooth – skinned green fleshed ‘Honey Dew’, the wrinkled, white – fleshed, ‘Golden Beauty’ and several other dessert melons in USA.

Origin: Not known with certainty but, 40 or more wild species of Cucumis are found to occur in the tropics and subtropics of Africa. Wild species of Cucumis occur in Africa and it is likely that it originated in African continent. It does not appear to have been known to the ancient Egyptians, not to the Greeks and seemed to have reached Europe towards the decline of Roman Empire. Although melon was introduced into Asia at a comparatively later date there are undoubtedly well developed secondary centers of origin of C. melo in India, China and then Southern USSR. In India Oriental pickling melon (C. melo var conomon) and snap melon (C. melo var momordica) are unique and have considerable variability in Western Ghats of India. They are popular desert and preserving melons cultivated in Warm humid tropical condition of South India. It is also considered that China as primary center of origin and Indo-Burma as secondary center of origin. It has been introduced to Europe and from Europe to the USA by the early travelers. At present muskmelon is being cultivated throughout the world under tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. Polymorphism in leaf, flower, fruit shape and colour (Kirkbride, 1993), allowed the classification of horticulturally important melons into seven groups.

The measure of scatteredness of observation around their average is necessary to get a better description of data. The extent or degree to which data tend to spread around an average is called Dispersion or Variation. Measure of Dispersion also called the averages of second order; help us to measure the scatteredness of observation around an average. The commonly used measures of dispersion are as follows;

11.1 Introduction

Chi-square test is a non-parametric test. Such non-parametric tests have assumed great importance in statistical analysis and statistical inference because they are easy to compute and can be used without making assumptions about parameters as they are distribution-free tests.

These are the plants that grow mainly for its ornamental or attractive leaves rather than its flowers and grown indoor or around the house. Foliage plants are often cultivated to show a variety of unique or exotic leaf shapes, textures and colours.

There is a tremendous scope in the use of these plants to beautify houses, offices, hotels, hospitals and almost all public buildings. In the modern concept and practice of indoor gardening, the scope of growing plants has been extended too many areas in and around the house including balcony, verandah, terraces and patios. These foliage plants can be displayed in different ways to bring the beauty to the surrounding. Some of the house plants can be suited well for decorating the corners of the rooms like Aglaonema, Acalypha, Croton, Dracaena, Cordyline, Dieffenbachia, etc. whereas, for enhancing window sills and boxes suitable plants are Hedera, Coleus, Euphorbia, Kalanchoe, Pilea, etc. For hanging purposes Monstera, Scindapsus are the first choice.

Introduction

Carnation is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crops. It occupies prime position in the international cut flower trade and is a good commercial cut flower for internal market as well. Carnation flower can easily withstand long distance transportation as it has an excellent keeping.

The major breakthrough in carnation flower industry was evolvement of cultivar William Sim. This cultivar was produced in 1938 to 1939 by William Sim of the USA. From this red variety there have been mutations to white, pink, orange and different variegated forms.

The first genetically modified carnation variety Moondust was released in Australia by Florigene Company. They release another transgenic variety, i.e., Moonshadow.

In India carnation is grown intensively in Nasik, Pune, Srinagar, Bangaluru, Coimbatore, Delhi and Kolkata. Places having congenial climate like Kalimpong, Simla, Solan, Kullu, Ooty, Nainital, Chaubattia, Yercaud, Kodaikanal, etc. are most suitable areas for the production of cut flowers. From Himachal Pradesh and Ooty, rooted cuttings are supplied by the growers to the different parts of the country.

Introduction

Orchids are the most beautiful flower and have conquered the cut flower industry all over the world. They are valued for cut flower production and as potted plant. Their beautiful flowers varied in size, shape and colour, long life of flowers on the plants and an amazingly long keeping quality which no other plant can claim.

Many of orchids are source of important secondary metabolites as given below.

Vanillin produced from Vanilla planifolia is used in flavouring industries.

Dendrobine and nobilonine from Dendrobium nobile.

Laburnine from Liparis bicallosa.

Malaxine from Malaxis congesta.

Phalaenopsine from Phalaenopsis mannii.

4.2.1. Gear boxes

It is a unit fitted after the clutch. Forms a part of transmission and provides speed and torque conversions from a rotating power source to another device using gear ratios. Its primary function is to change the speed of the tractor to cater to varying field, road and load condition. It also helps in reversing the tractor.

Gears are usually made of alloy steel. Since the tractor has to transmit heavy torque all the time, the best quality lubricants, free from sediments, grit, alkali and moisture, are used for lubrication. SAE 90 oil is generally recommended for gear box.

The description about gear boxes stated below pertains to major tractors manufactured in India. The number of teeth in each of the gear and the engagement between gears of the main shaft and the corresponding gear on the counter/lay shaft also change in different tractors evolved over a period of time. Hence, information hosted in this section is only indicative.

Mechanization should not be an end in itself and therefore, in a free choice situation, Governments should refrain from making policies which will stipulate by which means or by how much, agriculture will be mechanized. The type and degree of mechanization should be decided by the producer to best suit his business and his own particular circumstances, and the choice of suitable methods will therefore be just one of a number of choices that the farmer has to make. The decision on if and how to mechanize is often a complicated mix of reasons with economic reasons paramount. The introduction of machines will not only make agriculture more acceptable but will also provide opportunities for the use of higher intelligence, skill and initiative. This chapter attempts to work out the comparative economics of some of the machinery that are useful for hill regions.

For the sustainable development of agricultural mechanization, it is needed to locally fabricate widely used agricultural tools, implements and machinery. However, the prevailing policy does not favour production of agricultural machinery locally (high custom duty of raw materials, no support in promotion, irregular power supply, high electricity cost, poor research & testing support etc.). Hence there is need of reform in policy and program to encourage and support local fabricators to fabricate/manufacture agricultural machinery locally. There is need of testing and standardization of agricultural machinery to reduce the accidents related to agricultural machinery and to provide quality standard agricultural machinery to the farmers.

A lot of infrastructure in the form of sheep breeding or production facilities such as sheep breeding research stations with adequate number of animals have been established and research technologies generated. The research technologies generated have however not been fully adopted by State Animal Husbandry Departments in the field except in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Parts of Rajasthan because of artificial insemination under field conditions due to migratory and semi-migratory practices in sheep husbandry, illiteracy among sheep farmers, their prejudices and convictions and difficulties in the preservation and storage of ram semen and main power requirement.

There is need to study the factors associated with adoption and rejection of sheep rearing as a subsidiary occupation and to know the attitude and knowledge of rural people. So that measures could be suggested to bring greater adoption of sheep rearing. The present study was undertaken to reveal the knowledge and attitude of adopters and non-adopters towards sheep rearing with the identification of factors helping and hindering the adoption of sheep rearing enterprise.

This chapter deals with the review of problems, objectives, hypothesis, research methodology and summary of major findings and conclusions based upon them. In addition, recommendations have also been made to accelerate adoption of sheep rearing programme in the five villages of Block Rajouri, District Rajouri, Jammu and Kashmir.

The present study was conducted to measure the knowledge and attitude of rural people towards sheep rearing and to find out the factors responsible for adoption and rejection of sheep rearing. Suitable measures are therefore suggested to bring greater adoption of sheep rearing in the hills of Jammu & Kashmir.

Seabuckthorn is an important plant of India and other regions of the world, where it is being widely used as an orchard plant for fruit production and in the ecological rehabilitation of waste lands and eroded areas. In India, seabuckthorn has been developed into a major environmental resource. Many areas that are virtually treeless and losses huge soil due to erosion, seabuckthorn has turned out to be useful because it withstands severe weather and grows huge root systems in poor soil. This is the reason that seabuckthorn is grown in Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir which is known as cold desert. In Mongolia several wild animal species have found a habitat in the sea buckthorn forest, including pheasant, hare and fox.

In Garhwal Himalayas, various economically important tree species including Seabuckthorn (Hippophae salicipholia) have been over exploited for fuel, fodder and seed, therefore presently exist only in some patches here and there. Due to excessive lopping for fodder, the seed are generally not available for natural regeneration. Hence, there is a need of developing technique for mass multiplication of these multipurpose tree species for afforestation and general well being of the rural people.

The financial system in India has grown rapidly in the last three decades and more. The functional and geographical coverage of the system is truly impressive. Nevertheless, data do show that there is exclusion and that poorer sections of the society have not been able to access adequately financial services from the organized financial system. There is an imperative need to modify the credit and financial services delivery system to achieve greater inclusion. The implementation of the recommendations made in this Report could go a long way to modify particularly the credit delivery system of the banks and other related institutions to meet the credit requirements of marginal and submarginal farmers in the rural areas in a fuller measure. However, creating an appropriate credit delivery system is only a necessary condition. This needs to be supplemented by efforts to improve the productivity of small and marginal farmers and other entrepreneurs so that the credit made available can be productively employed. While banks and other financial institutions can also take some efforts on their own to improve the absorptive capacity of the clients, it is equally important for Government at various levels to initiate actions to enhance the earnings capacity of the poorer sections of the society. The two together can bring about the desired change of greater inclusion quickly.

India is basically agriculture, which is the main source of livelihood for 70% of people. Livestock enterprise is not the exception. The primary sectors included the agricultural labourers, labours (workers) etc. The agriculture contributes about 40% of National income. And two problems in Agriculture are lack of Technology and Institutional arrangements. The investment is not possible an account of poor yielding resulting in pitiable economic conditions and. The establishment of NADARD with it objective in promoting health and strength of credits institutions forming front of the delivery system, i.e. COoperatives, Commercial Banks, RRBS is the Landmark in Agricultural Finance.

Recent advances in information technology are making it more feasible to provide farmers with marketing information they need. However, farmers are still lagging behind in getting the information as accessibility to this technology is not available to them for various reasons. The major reason for this is abundance of small and marginal farmers without formal education and training in proper decision making. This problem is more acute for North Western (NW) hill farmers as besides above constraints, accessibility to information centers is very difficult due to undulating topography and lack of communication and transport facilities.

In the North-Western hill states, not many initiatives have so far been taken to use the information technology for the rural/agricultural development. Presently, use of radio and television for acquiring the information is limited as these media do not give focused information for different target areas. Even newspapers, in their local versions, do not provide regular updates for different major mandis regarding vegetables. This area has also been neglected by AGMARKNET (www.agmarknet.nic.in) for the market information regarding hill crops. For Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, only one and three markets, respectively, has been covered. This shows the apathy of agricultural development departments towards incorporating ICT into the day-to-day activities of hill farmers.

Introduction

Plant genetic resources represent a huge reservoir of genes of economic importance, which acts as buffer against environment fluctuations. These genes are largely spread in the land races and traditional cultivars, which have been conserved by virtue of their specific merits. The human and natural selection interventions have resulted in establishment, improvement and differentiation of numerous types, which represent genetic wealth of the crop species and are commonly referred as plant genetic resources (PGR).

Genetic Erosion and Need for Conservation

In view of the availability of high yielding varieties/hybrids, the traditional cultivars/ land races have been disregarded by the farmers due to their low economic potential. Sustaining the green revolution, changing cultivation practices and intensification of land use pattern have been the potential threats for rapid erosion of plant genetic diversity. The erosion of these resources has resulted into the extinction of several valuable genetic materials. Realizing the consequences of genetic erosion and importance of plant genetic resources, more diversity needs to be conserved for future. Prior to conservation the collection and characterization of germplasm through morphological and molecular markers for establishing the identity of genotype is essentially required. For effective utilization of PGR in vegetable improvement programme, the proper characterization and evaluation of genotypes for breeder driven traits including biotic and abiotic stresses in target environments is urgently needed. In addition, value addition is an important area of concern especially in vegetable crops. After implementation of recommendations of Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the major thrust has been given on conservation of bio-resources. In view of the globalization and emerging IPR regimes (UPOV, TRIPS, ITPGFRA etc.), there is a need for having suitable mechanisms for the protection of bio-resources.

Introduction

Leafy vegetables belong to an important group of vegetables and are highly nutritious due to their richness in Vitamin A (Carotene), Vitamin C, Folic acid, Riboflavin, Thiamine and minerals like Iron, Calcium and Phosphorus etc. Appreciable quantity of proteins is also found in these crops. They also provide a variety of phyto-nutrients including beta-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin, which protect cells from damage, age-related problems, among many other effects. Dark green leaves even contain small amounts of Omega-3 fat. They are available at cheaper rate in the market as compared to other vegetables. They provide roughage and have an important place in the balanced diet. It is recommended that a daily intake of 100 g and 40 g of leafy vegetables in the diet of woman and man respectively. India is the 2^nd largest producer of leafy vegetables in the world after China, accounted for about 10% of the world production (Singh et al., 2006) but, the production levels of these leafy vegetables are very low because of lack of availability of high yielding varieties. Leafy vegetables are those crops from which leaves and associated parts are harvested for use as vegetable. The leaves of about 700 different kinds of plants belonging to125 families are consumed in the form of vegetables. The major leafy vegetables grown in the country are amaranth, spinach beet (desi palak), spinach and fenugreek. In addition to this a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leafy vegetables in specific regions. Leafy vegetables are usually grown in kitchen and market gardens. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking. Though leafy vegetables have high nitrate and oxalate levels, but adverse nutritional effects are not to be feared with a consumption level of 100-200 g per day. The commonly grown major leafy vegetables and their wild relatives are listed below

Introduction

Peas (Pisum sativum L., 2n = 2x =14) are consumed as fresh vegetables or dry seeds throughout the world. In India, peas are grown as winter vegetable in plains and as summer vegetable in the hills. As field pea, it occupies about 0.45 m ha area in India, accounting for only about 2% of the total pulse area. About 90% of its area and production is limited to Uttar Pradesh alone. The area under vegetable peas is on increase. The acreage of vegetable pea in India is 2.72 lakhs ha with a productivity of 9.9 tons/ha. Pea is a rich source of protein (7.2% in green pea & 20 % in dry pea) and minerals (0.8%).

The geographical region comprising of Central Asia, the Near East, Abyssinia and the Mediterranean is considered as centre of origin based on genetic diversity. According to Blixt (1970), the Mediterranean is the primary center of diversity with secondary centers in Ethiopia and the Near East.

Garden pea, seeds have been observed in archeological excavations of Mohan Jodaro and Harappa, there are distinct hot weather tolerant and round-seeded varieties which carry high resistance to fusarium wilt and powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni). These varieties have a different use as a pulse crop for meeting protein requirements of common people. These are considered as intermediate stages of domestication of the present day vegetable (garden) pea, which is sweet and wrinkled-seeded. In fact, the quick spread of Arkel variety, an introduction from England in seventies, has displaced some of the native round-seeded varieties like Asauji, Hara Bonia, Hoshiarpuri, Kaparkheda, Kalanagni, Lucknow Bonia etc. there is need to conserve these valuable germplasm, before they are swept away by genetic erosion.

1. OVULE DEVELOPMENT

The development of ovule occurs within the ovary, which provides a location for nurture and development of the female gametophyte, its sexual fusion with in the male gametophyte, and embryo development, survival, and eventual regrowth (Fig. 1). Ovule growth begins as a small outgrowth within the nucellus. As megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis continue, the region of the nucellus that is to become the ovule enlarges and differentiates into definite morphological characteristics. Secondary outgrowths, or collars (integuments), soon appear around the periphery of the nucellar outgrowths and envelop it. These usually consist of the inner and outer integuments and ultimately become the testa (seed coat) of the mature ovule.

1. CUT FLOWERS

1.1. Common name, scientific name and family

1. SEED TESTING

The science of evaluating the planting value of seed has been developed to achieve the following objectives for minimizing the risks of planting low quality seeds.

To determine the seed quality and its suitability for planting

To identify seed quality problems and their probable cause.

To determine the need for drying and processing, if any.

To determine if seed meets established quality standards for labeling.

To establish quality and provide a basis for price and consumer discrimination among lots in the market.

Pre-Independence Rural Development Programmes

Rural development traces back its history to the seventeenth century when voluntary efforts to serve the mankind were initiated by a religious society of people known as ‘Friends’ or ‘Quakers’ in England, then the other parts of World including India. It aimed at providing services to mankind transcending bonds of religion, territory and culture. During the British period, the British government was never serious about the rural development. But, they acted under compelling situation like famines and economic distress. During 1800 to 1825, it was reported that there were five famines; during 1825 to 1850, two famines; during 1850 to 1875, six famines; and during 1875 to 1900, there were eighteen famines in different parts of the country. Famines forced the British government in to action. The Famine Commission of 1880, 1898, 1901, the Irrigation Committee of 1903, the Commission on Co-operation of 1915 and the Royal Commission on Indian Agriculture were the efforts of the Government to improve the economic condition of the common man, but seldom were the reports of the commissions implemented in right spirit. However, during these periods, the most active role in the field of rural development was played by the Christian missionaries who aimed at the all-round development of their Christian converts. In the year 1987, British Government heeding to the representation made by Manchester Cotton Supply Association established the Department of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce. But, this department did not do much related to agriculture development except the collection of agricultural statistics.

Planned Strategies for Rural Development in India

The Food and Agriculture Ministry appointed a Committee to examine the Grow More Food activities of the Government which were in implementation and to suggest measures for ensuring rapid expansion of agricultural production. The Grow More Food Campaign Inquiry Committee pointed out that there was imperative “Need of an organisation for intensive rural work which would reach every farmer and assist in the coordinated development of rural life as a whole similar in conception to the “extension” or “advisory’” services in the U.S.A., the U.K. and elsewhere.” One of the recommendations of the Committee was that an extension agency should be set up for rural work, which would reach every farmer and assist in the coordinated development of rural life. The Planning Commission set up the Government of India in 1950 to formulate the First Five Year Plan summarized the reasons for failure of the earlier efforts by the governmental and voluntary organisations as follows

Evolution of Panchayati Raj System in India

In January 1957, the Government of India appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Balwantray Mehta to examine the working of the Community Development Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953), and to suggest measures for their better implementation. The committee expressed concern about the lack of participation of people in these programmes and made a string plea for devolution of power. The committee submitted its report in November 1957 and recommended the establishment of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralization’ through a three-tier system of local government from village to district Level-Gram Panchayat at village level, Panchayat Samiti at block level and Zilla Parisad at district level -which ultimately came to be known as Panchayati Raj in India. The recommendations of the committee were accepted by the National Development Council (NDC) in January 1958. The NDC did not insist on a single rigid pattern of panchayat raj system throughout the country but left it to the states to evolve their own patterns suitable to local conditions. But the basic principles and broad fundamentals of democratic decentralization remained identical throughout the country. Thus, the Panchayati Raj system came into existence in 1959 with two basic objectives. These were (1) democratic decentralization and (2) local participation in planned programmes. The new system of Panchayat Raj Institutions was first adopted in Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh in 1959, followed by Assam, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in 1960, Maharashtra in 1962, and Gujarat and West Bengal in 1963 and 1964 respectively. By the mid-sixties, the hype to strengthen the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) gave way to a growing tendency of centralization and the PRIs descended to ground zero. To revive the working of PRIs, the Janata Government in 1977 appointed a committee headed by Ashok Mehta to study the functioning of PRIs and to suggest measures for improvement. The committee suggested a minor change in the Balwantray Mehta Scheme. Mehta (1978), in the Report of the Committee of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) identified three phases of Panchayati Raj in India

Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA)

Extension Reforms were introduced during 2005-06 by the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India as a major intervention in addressing the constraints as observed in T & V and post T & V system by making the extension system farmer driven and farmer accountable through process and institutional reforms mechanism. The institutional mechanism in the form of Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) at district level was pilot tested under Innovations in Technology Dissemination (ITD) component of National Agricultural

Technology Project (NATP) in seven states viz. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Orissa and Punjab covering 4 districts in each State from 1998 to 2004. The key features of reforms are:

1.1. FYM compost

Decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with litter and left over materials from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle.

Farmyard manure contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P₂O₅ and 0.5% K₂O.

Urine contains one per cent nitrogen and 1.35% potassium.

10 to 20 t/ha is applied, but more than 20 t/ha is applied to fodder grasses and vegetables like potato, tomato, sweet potato, carrot, radish, onion etc., respond well to the farmyard manure.

Crops like sugarcane, rice, oranges, banana, mango and coconut respond good to FYM.

10.1. Heterosis

Occurrence of a genetically superior offspring from mixing the genes of its parents.

Superiority of F₁ hybrids over its both parents in terms of yield and vigour.

8.1. Definition

Managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools to minimize economic, health, and environmental risks.

8.1. Comparative advantage principle

Different areas or regions or farmers will tend to produce those products for which they have greatest comparative and not just absolute advantage.

Due to an extension and application of principles of specialization and diversification.

Each farm or region produces those crops or raises that livestock which it can grow more profitably

For example, farmers in Tamil Nadu specialize in sugarcane cultivation and those in Punjab specialize in paddy cultivation.

2.1. Radio

A popular communication medium

2.1.1. Historic features

In India, Madras Presidency Club pioneered radio broadcasting in 1924.

Due to financial difficulties, gave it up in 1927.

In 1927, businessmen in Bombay started Indian broadcasting Company with stations at Bombay and Calcutta.

But, failed in 1930.

Different type of mycotoxins commonly present in different feed and fodder crops are produced by mould during cultivation and storage and are specific to certain region according to climatic and environmental conditions. Most of the toxins produced in crops are consumed when fed to animals. Among the mycotoxins, aflatoxin B-1 is present in highest concentration which enters rumen following ingestion of aflatoxin contaminated feed stuffs. In the rumen, AFB-1 is degraded into aflatoxicol and the remaining portion of the aflatoxin is absorbed in the digestive tract by passive diffusion and metabolized in the liver into aflatoxin M-1 (Kuilman et al., 1998). AFM-1 circulates in the blood as a stable compound until excreted in milk, urine and bile. The following are the sources of AFM-1 contamination in milk and milk products and it occurs through two modes of contamination viz., indirect contamination and direct contamination.