eChapters

12.1. Sprayers

Atomizes spray fluid into a small droplets and eject it with little force for distributing it properly.

Regulates amount of pesticide to avoid excessive application that is wasteful or harmful.

Semiochemicals are chemical substances that mediate communication between organisms.

Classified into pheromones (intra specific semiochemicals) and allelochemicals (inter specific semiochemicals).

10.1. Classification of pesticides

10.1.1. Based on organisms

9.1. Plant quarantine

Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and between states within the country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and diseases in areas where they do not exist.

Plant quarantine regulatory measures are operative through the Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1914 (Act 2 of 1914) in the country.

8.1. Definition

Managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools to minimize economic, health, and environmental risks.

7.1. Early shoot borer: Chiloinfuscatellus snellen

1. Damage symptoms

6.1. Cotton

6.1.1. Leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)

5.1. Groundnut

5.1.1. Aphids - Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

4.1. Black gram, green gram, lablab and cowpea

4.1.1. Bean aphid: Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

1. Host range: Groundnut, redgram, peas, beans, safflower, lablab, niger

3.1. Paddy

3.1.1. Thrips: Stenchaetothrips biformis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

2.1. Causes of pest outbreak

Activity of human beings which upsets biotic balance of ecosystem is prime cause for pest outbreak.

10.1. Seed Act (1966) and Seed Rules

To ensure the availability of quality seeds, GOI has enacted Seed Act in October 1966 and Seed Rules in September 1968.

Seed Act passed by the Indian Parliament in 1966.

6.1. Genetic principles

6.1.1. Maintenance of genetic purity during seed production

1. Steps suggested by Home (1953)

5.1. Seed village

Compact area approach in which the whole village is involved in seed production.

Concept is a win-win model (Deepak Mullick)

4.1. Seed policy

4.1.1. Seed policies formulated for governing seed quality control system

3.1. Seed generation system

Seed multiplication is nothing but production of a particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage.

2.1. Seed

Defined as a mature ovule or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, reserve food and a protective cover.

1.1. Floral biology

1.1. 1. Types of inflorescence

Group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches.

3.1. GM or transgenic crop

Plant that has a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology.

GM crop contains a gene(s) that has been artificially inserted instead of plant acquiring through pollination.

In 1994, Calgene’s delayed ripening tomato (Flavr-Savr) is first GM food crop.

2.1. Biotechnology institutes

Regional office of ICGEB (International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology) at New Delhi (Headquarters at Trieste, Italy established in 1983).

Lal Bahadhur Shastri Centre for Advanced Research in Biotechnology at IARI, New Delhi

National Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Hyderabad

Term Biotechnology was first coined in 1919 by Karl Ereky which means products are produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms.

Bio means life.

Technology means application of knowledge for practical use.

14.1. PPVFR Act

TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) agreement of WTO (World Trade Organization) was signed.

Enacted PPVFR act in 2001.

Regulation formulated in 2003.

13.1. Germplasm

Also known as genetic resources or gene pool or genetic stock.

Sum total of hereditary material i.e. all the allele of various genes, present in a crop species and its wild relatives

12.1. Variety release

Superior cultivars are to be purified by breeder and tested for genuiness in 7 generations.

Then, they are forwarded to MLT after RYT, RRYT, PYT and CYT in respective research station.

Based on results of the MLT, strain is forwarded to Adaptive Research Trials (ART).

Crop production is challenged by abiotic and biotic stresses results in low yield and high production costs.

Magnitude and intensity of stresses are increasing dramatically due to climate change causing recurrent droughts, increased temperature (heat) and emergence of new diseases and pests.

10.1. Heterosis

Occurrence of a genetically superior offspring from mixing the genes of its parents.

Superiority of F₁ hybrids over its both parents in terms of yield and vigour.

9.1. Molecular breeding and marker assisted selection

Using conventional breeding, developing new varieties takes atleast 15-20 years.

Molecular breeding shortened the time to 7-10 years.

One of the tools for faster variety development is Marker Assisted Selection (MAS).

MAS-refers to use of DNA markers to assist phenotypic screening.

Plants that possess particular genes or quantitative trait loci (QTL) may be identified based on their genotype rather than their phenotype.

Refers to induced chromosome manipulation

Aneuploidy-One or few chromosomes extra or missing from 2n.

Autoploidy-Genomes identical with each other.

Refers to entire operation of the induction and isolation of mutants.

Term mutation was introduced by Hugo de vries in 1900 in connection with sudden heritable changes observed by him in Oenothera.

Done for both biotic and abiotic stresses.

Biotic stresses are disease and insect pests.

Abiotic stresses are drought, salt, flood, heat, cold, etc.

Introduction

Earthworms have been exists on the earth from over 20 million years. Decomposition of organic material that may be plant or animal origin by earthworms is called vermicompost. The earthworm is a natural resource of fertility of soil. Earthworm is lives in the soil. They feed on decaying organic material. After digestion, the undigested material moves through the alimentary canal of the earthworm; and a thin layer of oil is deposited on the castings. This layer corrodes over a period of 2 months. Although, the plant nutrients are immediately available, they are slowly released to last longer period. The digestive process in the alimentary canal of the earthworm can transforms organic wastes to natural fertilizer. Vermicompost is an odorless, clean, organic material containing adequate quantities of N, P, K and several micronutrients essential for plant growth. Vermicompost is an ideal nutrient source for organic farming. It is eco-friendly, non-toxic, consumes low energy input for composting and is a recycled biological product. Vermicomposting has gained popularity in both industrial and domestic scenery because as compared with conventional composting, it provides a way to treat organic wastes more quickly. It generates a product which has a lower salinity levels, and therefore more beneficial to plant mediums. Vermicompost is nutrient rich organic fertilizers which also contain water soluble nutrients and soil conditioner in a form that is relatively easy to absorb for plants. Worm castings are nothing but organic fertilizers because the earthworms grind and uniformly mix minerals in simple forms. Plants need least efforts to obtain these nutrients from vermicompost. The worm digestive system creates environment that allow certain species of microbes to flourish to help for creating the “living soil environments for plants”.

The chemical changes in organic wastes undergo include deodorizing and neutralizing. The pH of the casting is 7 (neutral) and the casting is odorless. The worm casting contains bacteria, so microbial activity is promoted. Excellent quality of compost can be produced in ambient temperature condition in a short period of time by using proper species of earthworm. The earthworms promote faster decomposition of organic material as compared to compost pits without earthworms.

Introduction

Geese are found all over the world. There is great demand for day old green gooseling. Currently it produces in various country, but about 80% of the world production from the France. Geese are well adapted to hot climates, shady areas and to high rainfall regions. They are especially well suited in warm, shallow and water ways. It is difficult to estimate the percent contribution of geese in poultry numbers, but it would be a fraction of 1%. This intended that, little effort has been made to improve the strains of geese in relation to their genetic capabilities. In future, breeders and producers are likely to take a more technical approach to goose production and need to give greater attention to breeding, feeding and general management.

Peculiarity of geese

Geese are mainly ornamental birds and good forager. They are capable for taking care of itself by foraging after reaching adult stage. Swimming water is not so essential. They can digest 40-45% fibre which is higher than other poultry. Geese kept as a watch dog in farms either by biting or making noise. Geese don’t need elaborate housing but is necessary to safeguard against predatory animal. Geese are hardy in nature and resistant to most of diseases. Meat is very palatable with great calorific value. Gander reared as weeders; for this 6 weeks old gooseling used. Gander eats grass and weeds as quickly as they appear but don’t eat crop. After weeding season, they are fed with fattening diet for 3-4 weeks and marketed. Age of sexual maturity is 24 month and produces 50-60 eggs/years. Hybrid varieties produce even 90 eggs and 60 gooseling per year. They are broody in nature. Egg weight is 200-250gm. Grow very fast greater than other species of poultry. Reach 3.2 kg at 6 weeks with feed efficiency of 2.5. At 9^th week have 4.5 kg body weight with feed efficiency of 3. Adult male of goose is called Gander. Sound produced by goose is called Honking. Young one of goose is called Gooseling.

Introduction

Pigeon are domesticated from 4500 B.C. Domestic pigeons are decedents from the wild pigeon, distributed in Rocky Ravines throughout the Asia and Europe. They are generally kept for ornamental purpose. The production of young meat pigeon provides alternatives income to the small farmers. Squabs are being reared as a side line in village, towns and on farms. Squab rearing can be made profitable source of income with good management and market. Squabs require little land since all breeders are kept in small pens and houses. There are fair demand of squabs in large cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Chennai and Bangalore. Squab rearing also has tremendous export potential to Dubai, Australia, Thailand and Singapore. A pigeon is a tradition part of Middle Eastern country diet. In China, pigeon meat is a popular restaurant dishes and there is a good demand from Jewish Community clubs all over the world. Rearing of pigeon using modern methods is a very profitable than traditional way.

Pigeons have been a friend of man from early times. They utilize not only for ornamentation but to get cheap food for the table. Pigeon are versatile birds and used for Sport of racing pigeon, Flyers and performers, showing of fancy pigeons and Meat production. In the earliest art, many used pigeons to symbolize love, peace and loyalty.

Introduction

Guinea fowl has been domesticated in the recent past as a meat producing birds. Guinea fowl species are found across sub Saharan Africa. Guinea fowls found fairly in large numbers in wild type. Guinea fowl is from the family Numididae in the order Galliformes. They are endemic to Africa and rank among the oldest of the gallinaceous birds. Guinea fowls are hardy, sociable in habit, move in flock and thrive well in tropical as well as in temperate climates. They survive well even under the subsistence agriculture through scavenging. Guinea fowls are resistant to some of the diseases which may fatal to chicken. Guinea fowl meat is tender but slightly darker than that of chicken. Its special gamey flavor makes it a special table delicacy. Guinea fowl meat is drier and leaner than chicken meat and has a gamy flavor. They have marginally more protein than chicken or turkey roughly half the fat of chicken and slightly fewer calories per gram. Their eggs are substantially richer than those of chicken.

Guinea fowl are the insect and seed eating, ground nesting birds with featherless head. Under natural condition, they are monogamous in nature. Wild guinea fowl are strong flyer. Their breast muscle are dark, enabling them to sustain themselves in flight for considerable distances if hard situation. Guinea fowl hens are not known for good mother, but in the wild the guinea fowl cock may help the young keets during the day by keeping them worm and finding feed. Sometime more than one cock will help to raise the young.

Introduction

The demand of diversified food has increasing due to health consciousness in the modern civilization. The European communities have gone in search of new foods which contributed mainly to the health diet of population. In this process, animal and avian species have contributed to a large extent in providing the required health foods like milk, meat and eggs. The tendency to go for low calories foods has resulted in increased demand for new species for meat purpose. At present, the ostrich meat ranks highest among health food in Europe. Ostrich meat in terms of health value is credited to less percentage of fat, low cholesterol, less calories, rich in protein and iron. The demand of ostrich meat has been increasing especially after the threat of mad cow diseases. The unique taste of ostrich meat has been added into different meat dishes. This meat has a great demand in restaurant in Europe, Japan, Australia and China in a big way. The popularity of this bird can be judged from the fact that presently 65 countries, including our neighbor Pakistan and China are engaged in ratite farming. The increased demand of ostrich over the past few years has given way to rearing birds under controlled system. The intensive system become popular because of adoption of scientific technologies reduced risk of diseases, through improved bio-security measures, genetic selection and nutritional innovation, health regimes and extensive diseases surveillance. Scientifically proven management practices resulted in low cost production and improvement in quality of ostrich products.

Introduction

Emu (Dromadius navaehollandiae) are reared commercially in many parts of the world for their meat, oil, skin and feathers, which are high economic value. Emu is considered as one of the latest emerging species in India. It is an exciting and rewarding new agri-business. Next to the ostrich, the Emu is the largest living flightless bird, standing more than 1.5 m tall, length varies from 130-190 cm, weight more than 45-55 kg, the wings are atrophied and the feathers are of earth-greyish to grey-brownish colour. Emus are curious and docile birds. Emu has a more slender body than an ostrich. But it has a shorter neck covered with feathers and fattier than an Ostrich. Body is covered with drab coloured plumage and both the sexes are similar having dark grey head and neck. There are no large decorative plumes in the male’s tail. The feathers are very primitive and look like coarse hair.

The anatomical and physiological feathers of these birds appear to be suitable for temperate and tropical climatic conditions. These birds can be well maintained on extensive and semi-intensive rearing systems with reasonably high fibrous diets. United state, Australia and China are leading in Emu. Emu is introduced recently into India. The Emu is a large flightless bird. They have 3 toes and long legs which allows them to run extremely fast. In this species, the female is larger than the male. Emu, feed on grass, leaves and small insects. They live all over Australia in grasslands. The female lays up to 20 eggs, which are large and are soft dark green in colour. These eggs are often prized not only by humans for decoration pieces, but by animals as a food source. The male incubates the eggs for a period of 7-8 weeks, and does not leave the nest for this period. When the eggs hatch, the male Emu looks after the hatchlings for another six month. The Emu is the world’s third largest bird. The Ostrich and Cassowary take the top positions. The nest of an Emu can be up to 1.5 meters wide.

Introduction

Rabbits are being domesticated in our country from a long time. Rabbit rearing is a profitable business. Rabbits are looking cute and small sized animal also. Some peoples can raise the rabbit as pet also. It can be reared in small land without much investment. They are a cute and soft and therefore are the good source of meat. There is very high demand of rabbit meat in the market. It is such as business where investment is low and profit is so high. There is high demand for fur obtained from Angora rabbits in India as well as from foreign. Rabbit meat is consumed by special population in India in which it further adds income from fur marketing. Good shed is necessary for keeping the rabbits to keep save from adverse weather condition, heavy rain, hot sun and various types of predators like dogs and cats etc. Rabbits adapt to a broad range of environmental conditions and are found in the wild and domestic state in all parts of the world. Rabbit has a good potential to produce meat, fur and wool. That’s why; rabbit is a good source of raising the income of farmers.

Introduction

Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) domestication occurred in Central Meso America at least 2000 years ago from wild turkey. Domestic turkey is a popular and it is raised throughout the world. Commercial industrial farming has made it very economical for the amount of meat produced. Commercial turkey farming is a profitable business. Turkey grows faster like broiler chicken and become suitable for slaughter purpose within a very short time. Turkey farming for meat production is very popular than egg production. Turkey farming is similar to other poultry farming like chicken, duck, quails etc. Turkey is a very social with human; and raising it is really very fun and enjoyable.

Turkey farming is a big business in U.S. and some other western countries. It is almost non-existent in India. America is leading producer (55%) and after that >France>U. K.>Netherland. It is one of the white meat choices famous for its leanness and delicacy. In India, small flocks reared in C.A.R.I., Haryana Agriculture University, Bangalore University, Kerala Veterinary University.

Introduction

Ducks are domesticated before 3000-4500 years. Ancestor of domestic ducks is wild mallard duck (Anas boschos) which are broody. Scientific name of domestic duck is Anas platyrhyncos. Duck farming is the part of poultry farming system. Duck can be raised for meat and eggs. In most part of the world, duck ranks next to the chicken in terms of egg and meat production. Commercial duck farming is increasing as this business has good potential to earn money through egg production. Duck can be feed on agro-industrial waste, swamp and marshy areas. These hardy birds can survive in such as areas where no other agricultural crops could be grown and other livestock raised. Duck farming business is a very profitable business as there are many duck breeds available all over the world. For commercial duck egg production and breeding, must go through water sources for raising ducks. It will reduce cost of feed. Duck can survive without water; but they need water pond kind things for fertile egg laying and mating. If pond is available then it is well and good for commercial duck farming. Chromosome number of duck is 80. Duck sound is whimpering or betch, honk. Incubation period of duck egg is 28 days. Egg weight duck is 72 gm.

Introduction

Poultry includes all that birds which are domesticated for commercial purpose i.e. chicken, duck, quails, turkey, geese, pigeon, emu, ostrich and other domestic birds. Indians represent a major success story of poultry industry. While agriculture production has been rising at the rate around 2 percent per annum over the past 2 to 3 decades but at the same time poultry industry has been rising at the rate of around 8 percent. There is no religious issue regarding consumption of eggs and chicken and are accepted by all communities and are available at the most reasonable price. In last two decades, the egg production has gone to 70 billion from few millions and the broiler production has gone to 3.8 million tones.

In Jammu and Kashmir, 84% off the population is mostly non-vegetarian. The peoples of J & K, consumed 121 crore eggs and 7.4 crore kg poultry meat per annum. From the last decade, poultry sector has tremendous growth in Jammu & Kashmir. Poultry farming has come up in a immense way in Jammu, Kathua, Udhampur, Pulwama, Srinagar and Budgam districts with large number of educated unemployed youth taking poultry farming as a sustainable means of earning their livelihood. More than 8000 youths in J & K have been engage poultry farming for self employment till date. It is high time to take several measures to increase local production so as to achieve independency in J &K youths. Most of the imports of poultry meat and eggs come from the Punjab and Haryana state. Nearly 90% of the poultry farmers of the borders belt of the Punjab are dependent on the supply to J & K, as there is huge demand of poultry products throughout the year in the J & K. Indian Nutritional Academy; Hyderabad has suggested consumption of 182 eggs per head per annum as standard. The national availability is 63 eggs while in J & K, it is only 38 eggs.

Commercial poultry farming in India has creating profitable business opportunity for entrepreneurs. Poultry farming business can provide a great employment source for the job seeking people. This is such as business in India that can never dry up. All types of poultry product have a great demand inside the Indian market. Highly productive local and foreign breeds are available for commercial production. Requirement of initial investment for poultry farming is not too high. You can start small scale production and elaborate it gradually. Bank loans are available throughout the country. Numerous farms are available and can easily learn about poultry farming from those established farmers, KVKs, Universities.

Introduction

Now a day, goat farming has become more commercial. Due to its good economic prospects, goat rearing under intensive and semi-intensive system for commercial production has been gaining momentum for the doubling the income of the farmers. There is good encouragement from governments with providing subsidies on especially stall fed goat farming. Goat is being raised for centuries as poor man’s cow due to its importance of providing employment in rural areas by producing healthy meat. Goats also play major role in agriculture economy of India. Goat is excellent source of additional income for poor and landless owners. The goat milk is nutritious and easily digestible milk to their kids. Goats are easy to maintain as they can graze on open land. Goat farming is an excellent option where fodder and forage is limited. Goat farmers can get good returns with successful goat rearing. Goats are among the main meat producing animal in India, whose meat (chevon) is one of the choicest meats and has huge domestic demand. High demand of goat and its products with potential of good economic returns have been deriving many progressive farmers, business, professionals, ex-servicemen and educated youths to take up the goat enterprise on a commercial scale. The emerging favorable market conditions and easy accessibility to improved goat technologies are also catching the attention of entrepreneurs.

Sheeps were first domesticated by human being, many thousands of years ago for their wool, meat and skins. It provides a source of income to the shepherds through sale of wool and animal. Sheep do not need expensive building to house them and require less labour than other kinds of livestock. Sheep are economical convertor of grass into meat and wool. Sheep will eat varied kinds of plants compared to other kind of livestock. This makes them excellent weed destroyer. Unlike goats; sheep hardly damage any tree. The production of wool, meat and manure provides three different source of income to the shepherd. The structure of their lips helps them to clean grains lost at harvest time and thus convert waste feed into profitable products.