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Concept of Review of Literatures

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper, which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provides the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research. The review of literature also indicates the following by providing referential inputs.

(i) Approaches

(ii) Methods

(iii) Variables used

(iv) Statistical procedure

(v) Expected results

Concept of Review of Literatures

The Review of literature is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners. The Review of literature is also a resource paper, which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. These are available mostly in academic and scholastic journals.

Review of literature provide the basics for research in nearly every academic f ield. The aim of review of literature is to highlight what has been done so far in the field of interest and how our findings are related to earlier research. The review of literature also indicates the following by providing referential inputs.

(i) Approaches

(ii) Methods

(iii) Variables used

(iv) Statistical procedure

(v) Expected results

(vi) Provides theoretical background to our study.

(vii) Helps justify how our findings are related to our body of knowledge in our field of research.

(viii) Establishes a link between what we propose to study and what has already been found. It helps us to refine our research methodology.

Ambasankar, K. and Balakrishnan, V. 2011. Influence of protected sardine oil on in vitro rumen fermentation and nutrient digestibility of complete diet. Indian J.  Anim. Sci., 81(1): 
84-86.
Amrutkar, S.A., Thakur, S.S. and Pawar, S.P. 2014. Economics of supplementing rumen protected methionine and lysine in the ration of lactating crossbred cows. Indian J. Anim. Nutr., 31 (1) : 14-19.
AOAC, 2005. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis. Washington, DC.
Arewad, G. R., Thube, H. A., Pandya, P. R., Parnerkar S. and Shankhpal S. 2011. Effect of feeding bypass protein based total mixed ration on performance of growing crossbred calves. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. 2011.28 (3) : 303-308.

Accorinti, J.1983. Antifungal products from algal origin. Rev Int Ocean Med, 72, 45-53.
Allnutt, F.C.T. 1996. Cyanobacteria (Blue -Green Algae) Biotechnology: Past, Present and Future. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. 55, 693-714.
Ananthanarayan, R. and Paniker, C.K.J. 2005. Textbook of Microbiology (VII Ed.) Orient Longman Pvt Ltd, Chennai-600 002. pp 1-657.
Asthana, R.K., Srivastava, A., Singh, A.P., Deepali, Singh, S.P., Nath, G., Srivastava, R. and Srivastava, B.S. 2006. Identification of an antimicrobial entity from the cyanobacterium Fischerella sp. isolated from bark of Azadirachta indica (Neem) tree. Journal of Applied Phycology. 18, Number-1, 33-39.
Ayehunie, S., Belay, A., Baba, T.W., and Ruprecht, R.M. 1998. Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by an aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis). J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 18, 7-12.

Bhatia, (1965) in his study on “Patterns of Crop Concentration and Diversification in India” has observed that physical, socio-economic and technological factors have affected the magnitude of crop diversification. Variations in above mentioned factors are responsible for variations in patterns of crop diversification in India. He has also evolved a new technique for measuring crop diversification in India. He has taken all the crops which are having 10 per cent or more than 10 per cent of the cropped area. He summed up the total area under these crops and divided the sum by the number of crops. According to his method, higher the index, lower is the magnitude of crop diversification and vice-versa.

Ayyar, (1969) in his study “Crop Regions of Madhya Pradesh: A Study in Methodology” has evolved a new technique for measuring crop diversification regions. He has taken all the crops which were having 1 per cent or more than 1 per cent of the total cropped area. Then he divided the sum of crops by the number of crops which are having 1 per cent or more than 1 per cent of the total cropped area. His method is an improvement over Bhatia’s and Singh’s methods for measuring crop diversification.

Patel and Pawar (1980) studied the marketing of fruits in Mahatma Phule market, Bombay. The study showed that there was close relationship between wholesale prices and supply position, whereas there was no such pattern in case of retail prices. The producers’ share in consumers’ rupee was 33.07 per cent for sweet oranges. In case of apples, mangoes and grapes, the share of the producer in consumers’ rupee varied according to the varieties and ranged from 33 to 54 per cent. The study also made some suggestions as standardization and grading, and establishment of cooperative marketing societies for getting better prices for the producers.

The aim of the research is to make a study of the role of Internet as a medium of interaction, its impact on the society from the social and cultural point of view. Keeping these objectives in mind, the researcher has referred to contemporary researches, books and articles available in the area. The researcher admits that the number of studies available in the area is very much dispersed. In the line of the research questions formulated for conducting the study, the researcher has explored the relevant studies undertaken so far by different researchers.

ABSTRACT

Decomposition of litter is a dynamic process. It regulates cycling of nutrients in ecosystem. The productivity of an ecosystem depends on the turnover of carbon and other nutrients. Microbes play an important role in releasing of minerals locked up in organic complexes. The release of nutrients, however, is regulated by various climatic factors. The microbial succession at different stages of degradation of litter is controlled by the litter quality and species composition and biological activity. The present paper reviews the status of litter production, decomposition, species diversity and Biological activities as affected by the climatic and edaphic factors in tropical ecosystem.

Keywords : Litter decomposition, microbes, species diversity, biological activities, edaphic factors, tropical ecosystem.

In India, the ivy gourd is also called as small watermelon, little gourd, gentleman’s toes” and “Tindora/Tondli/Kundru.” This vine climbs aggressively and spreads quickly across fences, trees, shrubs, and other supports. Its natural range includes India and stretches from Africa to Asia.

Botany and taxonomy: This is a single-tendered perennial climber with glabrous leaves. The leaves are 6.5-8.5 cm long and 7-8 cm broad, with 5 lobes. It’s a dioecious species. Female and male blooms have three stamens and emerge from the axils on the petiole. Scarlet gourds are a genus of 25 species (Coccinia from the Greek, kokkinia or kokkinias - “red” or “scarlet”). It is found in SubSaharan Africa, as well as South and Southeast Asia (with one species, C. grandis), and has been imported to the New World. This is a single-tendered perennial climber with glabrous leaves. The leaves are 6.5-8.5 cm long and 7-8 cm broad, with 5 lobes. It’s a dioecious species. Female and male blooms have three stamens and emerge from the axils on the petiole.

1. Introduction Millet is a heterogeneous group of small-seeded cereal crops classified based on their morphology as major millet and minor millet. Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) are small millets generally categorized as minor millet cereal crops. It is a self-pollinated crop that belongs to the family Poaceae and subfamily Panicoideae with a chromosome number of 2n=36 (Nandini and Bhat, 2019). It is a traditional cereal grain crop widely produced in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Western Myanmar. Little millet is widely cultivated in the tribal belt of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu in India for food and feed (Ganapathy, 2017). Indigenously, it is commonly known as samai (Tamil), kutki (Hindi), savior same (Kannada), chama (Malayalam) (Table 1).

1.1 Introduction Millets are nutri-cereals that have been the oldest food since time immemorial and are decisively the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millets generally include small seeded members of the Poaceae family globally used for food and fodder purposes. The word “millet” emanated from the French word “Mile” which means “thousand” signifying that a small quantity of millet may contain thousands of grains. Millets were erstwhile produced in marginal or degraded terrains with very low soil nutrients and semi-arid conditions with very little rainfall. After the green revolution, there was a shift away from millet in favour of wheat, rice, and maize as a result of more land becoming irrigated to alleviate extreme poverty and malnourishment in the country and to feed millions. Most of the millet crops possess the C4 photosynthetic pathway and are therefore able to withstand frequent changes due to environmental stresses. Consequently, millet production has declined and within a few decades post-green revolution, crops that were once eaten by every household were transformed into fodder crops. Millets are considered as ‘good for the planet crops’ as they take less to give more, due to such multi-faceted qualities millets are considered as miracle crops.

Millets, represents groups of small seeded cereals and grasses cultivated in Asian countries from ancient time and used for domestic purpose as feed and food. Being capable to grow under adverse environmental conditions (high temperature, dry land with limited rain) millets are the main food commodity of low income groups in various developing countries around the world.

16.1 Introduction

Littoral drift is a geological process by which sediments such as sand or other materials, move along a beach shore.Long Shore Drift is the movement of eroded material, in a zig zag way, along the coast. The process arises when waves approach the shore obliquely. That is to say, at an angle other than 90°. The effect of this is determined by factors such as the direction and fetch of the present wind and, in the long term, of the prevailing wind.

Waves striking the shore at an angle as opposed to straight on will cause the wave swash to move up the beach at an angle. The swash moves the sediment particles up the beach at this angle, while the backwash brings them, solely under the influence of gravity, directly down the beach. Some geologists consider a beach to be merely a shoreline feature of deposited material, but William Bascom (1980) has argued that a beach is the entire system of sand set in motion by waves to a depth of ten meters or more off ocean coasts. Submerged, longshore bars are therefore also part of the beach, and thus beaches can be viewed as either:

1. Live feed is also known as .........

 a) Natural food b) Fish food organisms

 c) Both a & b d) Algae

 2. Live feed are organisms used as food by .........

 a) Prawns b) Carps

 c) Oysters d) All of these

 3. The common phytoplankton used as live feed are…………

 a) Eudorina b) Volvox

 c) Pediastrum d) All of these

 4. The common  zooplankton used as live feed are .........

 a) Vorticella b) Artemia

 c) Cyclops d) All of these

Abstract

The Indian western Himalayas have wide variation in altitude, climate, soils, flora and fauna and socio-economic features. Livelihood options are limited due to small and fragmented holdings and inherent hill and mountain specificities. However, the physiographic and agro-climatic variability also offer opportunities of cultivating wide variety of profitable traditional and market oriented crops for exploiting niche advantage. Non-timber forest products play a vital role for livelihood security and demand that initiatives at local and governmental level are taken to develop and popularize technologies for collecting, processing and value adding to these products for commercial exploitation. Research and self help institutions are important in this context but strong regulatory policy framework is equally important. Further, need based and location specific trainings and demonstrations need to be organized to fill the knowledge void especially in traditional activities and emerging vocational enterprises. The national and international business concerns, engaged in exploiting natural resources such as hydro power and calcareous and limestone deposits should also engage more meaningfully in this task, under their corporate social responsibility (CSR) Livelihood generating scheme such as MNREGS should be extended to the non-conventional activities like weed eradication, management of wild (monkeys) and stray (cattle) animals that threaten livelihood security.

Switching over to alternate production systems, or adoption of modern production practices are far beyond the scope of Scheduled Caste and other vulnerable farmers due to their poor resource base and economic conditions

The agricultural production systems are largely dependent on rainfall, vagaries of climate, and biophysical environment including market dynamics. Continuously, threatened livelihood systems lead to low income generation, insecurity in food production, and compels to live in below poverty line (BPL).
 
The basic approach of agricultural extension focuses on reach to small, marginal/rural women/rural youth. It also includes strengthening and up-scaling of on-going extension reforms, provision of quality manpower and promotion of commodity based farmers organizations and thrust on market-led extension.

The National Development Council had visualised an overall growth rate of 10 per cent for the XI Five-Year Plan for which agriculture sector has to contribute a growth rate of about 4.1 per cent as against 1.7 per cent. Hence, there is a need for vibrant, dynamic and innovative approaches to be adopted for agricultural extension in order to achieve the targeted growth rate.

There are 437 tribes in India and Andhra Pradesh is inhabited by 33 tribes. Of these, 13 tribal groups  inhabit in high altitude zone of Visakhapatnam. Livelihood security is the ability of a household to meet its basic needs like food, health and shelter, basic education and community participation. Livelihoods can be made up of a range of on-farm and off-farm activities which together provide a variety of procurement strategies for food and cash.

ABSTRACT

The land available to grow food and trees is decreasing owing to population pressure in all the regions of the world. In the Shivaliks, the land available for crop and tree cultivation is further limited by steep slopes and inaccessibility of different land areas. The livelihood options in the Jammu Shivaliks are limited due to poor development of this area compared to adjoining plains. In such a situation, agroforestry is one of the options to increase the livelihood security of the people of this region as it results in concurrent and sustainable use of the limited land for production of food and tree-based products and improves the livelihoods of the rural people. Agroforestry improvement based on scientific inputs and its popularisation has the potential to improve the livelihoods of people of this region. This paper dwells on the role of agroforestry in livelihood security and constraints in realising the potential of agroforestry in Jammu Shivaliks.

Coldwater fishes exhibit enormous diversity and have great potential for generating livelihoods, mitigating poverty and unemployment. Coldwater fishery deserves attention for improving production by ensuring seed and feed supply. Other important issues in fisheries sector relate to marketing, value addition and farming. There is need to have separate action plan for low volume high values, and high volume low values fishes. Coldwater fishery sector can be strengthened using the available technologies such as hatchery and seed rearing, management protocol breeding and grow out protocols, fish specific feed formulations, exotic carp farming, and fish farming in polythene lined irrigation/ watershed tanks. The sustainable fishery development in hills requires attention on defining and granting appropriate ownership of resources, developing state of art infrastructure, initiation and implementation of fisheries conservation including focus on native and exotic species through enforcement of protective legislation. Strengthening of hill fishery education will play a central role. A “strength, weakness, opportunity and threat analysis” suggests an integrated approach by addressing the issues on genetic characterization and conservation, environmental impact analysis, development of niche specific aquaculture system, focus on post production and health management issues, implementation of demonstration programmes, enhancement of institutional capabilities, and development of human resources. Research areas relating to capture fisheries, culture fisheries, extension and transfer of technologies are also important.

1. Introduction

India has 536.76 million livestock as per 20th Livestock Census 2019. Livestock plays a vital role in improving the socio-economic conditions of rural masses especially for landless and marginal farmers; as well as an important role in the national economy. Livestock production and agriculture are closely related and vital for the overall food security. Agriculture diversification through animal husbandry is one of the primary factors of growth in rural incomes. A higher public investment in livestock sector is the need of the hour for doubling farmers’ income. Future economic growth would have to come from improvements in animal productivity. India is bestowed with a great degree of livestock biodiversity which can be elucidated in hosting more than 200 breeds across all the species. Along with producing A2 milk, desi cattle are renowned for withstanding heat, illness resistance, immunity to ticks and parasites and low maintenance requirements. The various indigenous breeds of agricultural animals are mostly the consequence of evolutionary processes. They were improved through field progeny testing & selection. Conservation and propagation of most precious high producing elite buffalo germplasm though the cloning technique is the contribution of the scientists to the buffalo rearing farmers of the country. The Indian Jamunapari goat is one of the ancestors of the American Nubian. Goat milk is an excellent source of vitamin A, is high in digestible protein, contains significantly lower levels of alpha-S1-casein, contains slightly less lactose, and has more non-digestible carbohydrates than cows’ milk.

Introduction

India is often criticized for the negative externalities to the ecology due to the largest livestock population of the country. Thus inspite of the fact that the integrated farming system followed in the country contributes towards not only saving the resources and improving the environment. This study quantifies the positive environmental externalities associated with the livestock production in the context of integrated farming system of rainfed areas. It included land saving due to recycling of agricultural by-products as animal feed and also due to use of dung- cake as domestic fuel, saving of chemical fertilizers due to use of dung as manure and prevention of carbon dioxide emission due to use of animal energy in agriculture.

Introduction

In current scenario of COVID-19 pandemic, Agriculture and its allied sectorare the only sector which is contributed positive growth rate due to hard work and total devotion of farmers towards it in both first quarter of the financial year 2022-23. Farmers are the backbone of our country but face different challenges such as scarcity of land due to fragmentation, water sources, impassable roads, unavailability of better financial services and new technologies. Since a decade number of small and marginal farmers keeps on increasing. Due to the fragmented holding of land and improper management practices in farming inadequate access to market, making them agriculture more unviable. Government motive to double the farmers’ income in 2022-23 by addressing the challenges of farm sector. The government affirmed that farmer producer organizations (FPO) are the most appropriate institutional form around which farmers can mobilize and build their capacity to collectively leverage their production and marketing strength. However, majority of these located in rural areas and suffer from the problems like Inadequate Professional Management and Manpower, poor start-up capital, lack of technically skilled man power, ineffective capacity building training programmes. There is a need to find the solution and to need bring policy changes to handle this problem to empower our farmers and Indian economy by farmers produce organisation.

Introduction

Agriculture accounts for a large share of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), exports, and employs more than 60% of the work force in India (FAO, 2001). The failure or success of agriculture determines the economic growth of the country. As human population grows so does the demand for food and, therefore, demand for land to grow food. Ironically, the demand to convert agricultural land to commercial and residential developments is also very high due to population growth and urbanization. This is reducing the amount of land available for agricultural purpose. This scenario is being noticed in most of the developing countries like India. Against this background, agriculture will be expected to meet food, feed, and fiber demands of a world population that is anticipated to grow from approximately 6 billion in 1999 to 11 billion by 2050 (USDA, 2010). Small and fragmented land holdings do not allow farmers to have independent farm resources like draught animals, tractors, bore wells, tube wells and other sophisticated farm machineries for various cultural operations. While crop production is the primary farming enterprise in the country, livestock raising serves as an auxiliary activity to crop production. About 90% of livestock population are in the hands of the smallholders where adequate supply of high quality forage is a common problem. Integrated farming system (IFS) models developed in different parts of the country involving dairy, duckery, poultry, horticulture, apiary, pisciculture and plantation crops viz. coconut, cocoa, nutmeg, banana, pineapple etc. along with crops, have been found to increase net profit significantly as compared to cropping alone.

Abstract

Local breeds of livestock represent embodiment of evolutionary wisdom fully in tune with ecosystem and able to produce and reproduce in spite of the prevalent hardships and shortages. Indigenous breeds survive and produce where others fail. Each of the recognized 144 indigenous breeds of livestock (covering cattle, sheep, yak etc.) has its unique qualities - some known and some yet unknown - but central to all features is ‘efficiency of production’ by local breeds. A breed in its own habitat makes the most efficient production system; under the same prevalent input system, any other breed from outside would not perform as efficiently. Another valuable common feature of the local breeds is their sustainability of survival and production. Production level may be medium as the animal has to spend energy in order to gain adaptability to high ambient heat, tolerance to drought, resistance to the prevalent diseases and be able to retain capability to digest low quality feed fodder which itself is not sufficiently available. In spite of such hardships, the local breed continues to survive and successfully procreates to sustainably maintain the production system over generations and thereby providing livelihoods to marginal people leading to inclusive growth. Innate features of sustainability of the local breeds provide sustainability to local livelihoods as well. It is noted that the livestock in its entirety, but especially the indigenous breeds proper, have the multifarious capability to provide livelihoods to our rural masses, infuse sustainability to animal-agriculture, and facilitate inclusive development by targeting and supporting the marginal people in the country.

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management.

20th Livestock Census of India

India has highest cattle population (192.49 million), buffalo population (109.85), in the world producing 24% is the highest milk yield (221.1 million tons in the year 2021-2022, and per capita availability was 444 gm/day) in the world (Source NDDB). India produces 43% of world buffalo meat production. Unfortunately, 80% cattle and 70% buffaloes are non-descriptive and yield very low amount of milk.

After independence Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed serval projects and plans for research and characterization of livestock species all over the country. Our country holds enormous genetic biodiversity in our domestic animals, result in increasing number of registered breeds in every decade. Breed registration Committee on its online meeting held on 5th December, 2023 approved registration of eight new breeds of livestock. This includes Aravali Chicken (Gujarat) Andamani Duck (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Anjori Goat (Chhattisgarh), Andamani Goat (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Bhimthadi Horse (Maharashtra), Andamani Pig (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Macherla Sheep (Andhra Pradesh), Frieswal Cattle (Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand). Endangered, critical and vulnerable breeds of livestock also have been identified by ICAR which need more scientific research and multiplication breed.

Livestock population meet the protein requirement of humans in addition to meeting from plants. The food chain starts from fodder crops to animals and from animals to humans. In human physiology, digestion of plant protein is much easier than animal protein, but however the digestion depends on climate (temperate climate, sub-tropical climate, tropical climate etc.,) wherein human kind live. Similar to crops, there is strong interaction between livestock and meteorological weather elements (temperature, relative humidity, wind etc.). But detailed study has not been published elaborately in scientific journals in the past. The weather elements have greater influence on livestock productivity in terms of milk, meat, skin, wool etc., pest and disease infestation and their housing needs. In this chapter how weather elements influence shed management, pest and disease problem and animals’ productivity and are discussed. In majority of the Veterinary and Animal Science University in India, they have one division on animal climatology, wherein both research and extension aspects are being attended. However, in depth research is the need of the present decade, since little works have been done in the past on animal climatology.

Irrespective of weather elements, the heat stress due to the combination of temperature and relative humidity plays important role in affecting the productivity of animals. There is a range of thermal conditions within which animals are able to maintain a relatively stable body temperature by means of behavioral and physiological means. Heat stress results from the animal’s inability to dissipate sufficient heat to maintain homeothermy (Sejian et al., 2017). High ambient temperature, relative humidity and radiant energy compromise the ability of the animals to dissipate heat. As a result, there is an increase in body temperature, which in turn initiates compensatory and adaptive mechanisms to re-establish homeothermy and homeostasis. Homeostasis refers to the tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state that is optimal for functioning. Animals have a specific balanced or normal body temperature. When there is a problem with the internal functioning of animal body, this temperature may increase, signaling imbalance. As a result, body attempts to solve the problem and restore homeostasis for normal body temperature. These readjustments generally referred as adaptations and this is essential for survival of the animals.

Livestock Development Programmes/Schemes

Gausalas

Recognizing the potential of Gaushalas (about 10000) in the country which were engaged in rehabilitation of disowned cattle, the government of India in 1952 set up the Central Council of Govsamvardana (CCG). Some of these gaushalas were providing quality indigenous / crossbreds / heifers / bulls at many places like Nasik, UrliKanchan, Amirtsar, Indore and Ahmednagar. One gaushala at Bombay had completed a century of devoted work in 1986 and had established two institutes, one for research and another for fodder research and grassland development. The Sabarmathi Ashram gaushala founded in 1915 by Mahatma Gandhi near Ahmedabad is now being managed by NDDB and has a training center for AI service including embryo transfer.

Economics

The term “Economics” is derived from the Greek words ‘OIKOS’ and ‘NOMAS’ or ‘NEMEIN’. ‘Oikos’ means house hold and ‘Nomas’ or ‘Nemein’ means management. So in its original sense economics means house hold management; i.e. satisfying as many wants of the house hold or family as possible by allocating the limited resources at the disposal of the family wisely among different wants. In the modern and practical sense Economics means management of day to day problems arising from unlimited wants and limited resources by wisely allocating limited resources to satisfy maximum wants. In other words economics is the study of how man manages his limited resources as it satisfies as many wants as possible.

ECONOMICS is the term derived from a Greek word ‘OIKOS’ means a HOUSE and NAMEN means TO MANAGE, i.e. to manage a household using limited funds available in most possible manners. The founders of Economics defined it as-‘The Science of Wealth’. In general, we may say that Economics is the social science that studies economic activities. Economists at different times have emphasized different aspects of Economic activities, and have arrived at different definitions of Economics.

Economics

The term “Economics” is derived from the Greek words ‘OIKOS’ and ‘NOMAS’ or ‘NEMEIN’. ‘Oikos’ means house hold and Nomas or Nemein means management. So in its original sense economics means house hold management; i.e. satisfying as many wants of the house hold or family as possible by allocating the limited resources at the disposal of the family wisely among different wants.

Abstract

Livestock sector plays an important role in rural livelihood, employment and income generation and is a preferred entrepreneurial area for women and unemployed youths. There are enormous enterprises to venture in livestock sector such dairy, poultry, sheep rearing, goatry, piggery, fisheries, hatcheries, processing, organic dairy, organic poultry, value added products, feed and fodder products, pet-vet consultancy and clinic etc. Women constitute about 69% of workforce engaged in livestock sector right from rearing of animals to production and product development activities. Market oriented milk & milk product production as well as poultry production will be key livestock activities to generate income on a steady daily basis for resource poor households. Livestock-based enterprises are pathways out of poverty for many people in developing countries like India, for whom animals are source of nourishing foods and regular incomes. With demands for milk, meat and eggs rising fast in many developing countries, the raising marketing of animals and animal products also allows many people to take advantage of the new growth opportunities in this sector. The projection of human population in India shows an increasing trend with alarming rate which in turn increases the demand for food especially of animal origin.

Demand of livestock products is on the rise in India. India?s demand forecast for milk, mutton, egg production is more than the current supply of these products. To meet this demand entrepreneurship initiatives are need of the hour .Further, younger generation of India seems more interested in commercial dairy farming rather than subsistence based farming. Therefore, entrepreneurial training to farmers is essential. An average entrepreneur faces several barriers to start a new enterprise. Some of them are as under

National institute for entrepreneurship and small business

Development (NIESBUD)

The National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD) was established in 1983 by the Ministry of Industry (now Ministry of Small Scale Industries), Govt. of India, as an apex body for coordinating and overseeing the activities of various institutions/ agencies engaged in Entrepreneurship Development Particularly in the area of small industry and small business. The Institute which is registered as a society under Govt. of India Societies Act (XXI of 1860). The policy, direction and guidance to the Institute are provided by its Governing Council whose Chairman is the Minister of SSI.

DEFINITION OF ENTREPRENEUR & ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Entrepreneurs: The word ‘Entrepreneur’ is derived from the French verb ‘ENTREPREDRE’, which means ‘to undertake’. The term is used to refer to anyone who undertakes the organizarion and management of an enterprise with independence and risk as well as the opportunity for profit. An Entrepreneur is a person who has a possession of any enterprise or venture and accepts significant accountability for the inherent risk and outcome.

Definitions of Entrepreneurs by Several Social Scientists are as follow

According to J.B. Say: An Entrepreneur is an economic agent, who unites all means of production, such as- Land, labour and capital to produce products.

The entrepreneur as a person brings in overall change through, innovationfor the maximum social good. Human values remain sacred and inspire him to serve society. He has firm belief in social betterment and he carries out this responsibility with conviction. In this process, he accelerates personal, economic as well as human- development.

The term extension is more recent in origin, and was first recorded in Britain in the 1840s in the context of ‘university extension’ or ‘extension of the university’. James Stuart, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, who gave several lecturers to women’s associations and working man’s clubs in the north of England during 1867-68, is considered as father of extension. The term extension was derived from the practice of British universities of having one educational programme within the premises of the university and another away from the university buildings. The programme conducted outside the university was described as “extension education”. The expression connoted an extension of knowledge from the university to places and people far beyond. But, the term ‘Extension Education’ was formally used for the first time in 1873 by Cambridge University of England to describe system dedicated to the dissemination of knowledge to rural people where they lived and worked. Within a short time, the idea had spread to other parts of Britain, Europe and North America. Extension work is an out of school system of education in which adults and young people learn by doing. It is a partnership between the government, the land-grant institutions, and the people, which provides services and education designed to meet the needs of the people (Kelsey and Hearne, 1966). The meaning of the term ‘extension’ has changed over time, and has different meanings to different countries. The term ‘’Agricultural Extension” was adopted in 1914 when the United States Federal Smith-Lever Act of 1914 formalized a nationwide cooperative federal-state-county programme and gave operational responsibility for this to the land grant colleges and Universities. In the beginning, agricultural extension was concerned primarily with the improvement of agriculture, using conventional teaching methods. As time went on, home economics, youth programmes and rural community resource development were included. Agricultural extension spread to tropical Africa, the Caribbean, Asia and Latin America following the involvement of the United States of America (USA) in bilateral AID programmes after the Second World War.

Livestock farming is a critical component of global agriculture, providing essential resources such as meat, milk, wool, and leather. This article explores the innovations and challenges facing the livestock farming industry. It discusses the latest technological advancements, such as precision livestock farming, genetic improvements, and sustainable practices, that are transforming the sector. Additionally, the article addresses the economic, environmental, and social challenges that farmers encounter, including market fluctuations, climate change, animal welfare, and disease management. By examining both the innovations and the obstacles, this article provides a comprehensive overview of the current state and future prospects of livestock farming, highlighting the need for sustainable and resilient farming practices.

Introduction

“Sustainable development as a concept represents the latest step in a long evolution of public concerns with respect to both natural resources and environment”. It is defined as “development that meets the needs for the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This definition indicates that to meet their needs, the present generations have no right to overuse natural resources and the environment, which will ultimately threat the living standards of the future generations. Therefore, stewardship of both natural and human resources is of prime importance (Freenstra 1997). Advocates of sustainable development perceive that the biosphere imposes limits on economic growth, express a lack of faith in either science or technology as leading to human betterment, are extremely averse to environmental risks, support redistributive justice and egalitarian ethics, profess concern over population growth and have faith in the wisdom of human capital development, and have survival of species and protection of the environment and of minority cultures, rather economic growth per se, as goals.

Functions of Livestock Housing

The most important purpose of livestock production is to increase the conversion efficiency of feed energy into the livestock products like milk, eggs, meat, wool, hair, hides and skins, draught power and manure (fertilizer). Scientific housing of livestock is necessary in order to get higher productivity from them. A proper housing design/structure should alter/modify the micro-climate inside the house so that animals are least exposed to the extremes of climatic conditions. Moreover, it should also provide better control of diseases & parasites, desirable working conditions for farm staff & better living conditions for the animals, better integration of various routine farm practices, opportunity for higher labour efficiency at farm, protection from predators & thieves, opportunity to express species specific natural behavior patterns and it must not compromise the welfare of the animals. Some of these functions are discussed in subsequent sub-headings.

LIVESTOCK INSURANCE SCHEME

Livestock farming is the main source of livelihood for millions of people in India. Animal husbandry as live resources primarily depends on monsoon-based feeds and fodder production along with the widespread incidence of diseases, droughts floods and fluctuations of market price in livestock products which makes it a risky venture. The natural, social and human risk and uncertainty in livestock farming hamper yield and production as a result of mortality and morbidity of animals to every farmer in the country. This risk is simply future issues that can be mitigated or avoided as a probability issue, whereas uncertainty is the lack of complete certainty with more than one possibility of true outcome or state or result or value as unknown. Individual farmers with limited resources are unable to face such risk and uncertainty of disastrous lost. To mitigate this nature-induced risk, livestock insurance has introduced as an institutional response in the countries in October 1965 as Crop Insurance and in later in 1970 the livestock insurance was started by the government of India.

Dairy rearing is central to livelihoods and survival of millions of people of India. It is estimated that approximately 100 million people derive their live hood from dairy rearing as primary or secondary source of income. Dairy related activities help to maintain regular in flow of income for these households. Small farmers in India generate nearly half of their income from dairy and the value of cattle represents a significant part of their wealth, so the death of cattle poses a significant risk and affects farmers’ net worth and income.

a. Type of risks to dairy based livelihoods

Large animal’s are expensive and thus carry higher risk exposure. Dairy losses due to the disease, accident, theft, natural calamity can cause significant losses to these household. Sometimes owners are forced to sell their animals due to loss due to incurable disease/ disorder/ fodder and water scarcity and they are unable to rebuild their stock. Many times animal losses force them into poverty trap from where they are unable to recover.

Risks faced by dairy owner’s dairy dependent livelihoods can be classified into two broad categories

Livestock rearing is central to livelihoods and survival of millions of people of India. It is estimated that approximately 100 million people derive their livelihood from livestock rearing as primary or secondary source of income. Livestock related activities help to maintain regular in flow of income for these households. Small farmers in India generate nearly half of their income from livestock and the value of cattle represents a significant part of their wealth, so the death of cattle poses a significant risk and affects farmers? net worth and income.

Type of Risks to Livestock based Livelihoods

Large animals are expensive and thus carry higher risk exposure. These risks are in form of losses due to the disease, accident, theft, natural calamity which can cause significant losses to these households. Sometimes owners are forced to sell their animals due to incurable disease/ disorder/ fodder and water scarcity and later they are unable to rebuild their stock. Many times animal losses force them into poverty trap from where they are unable to recover.

Biodynamic farming is an advanced agricultural approach that incorporates ecological, ethical, and holistic practices to create a self-sustaining ecosystem. A key component of biodynamic farming is livestock integration, which plays a crucial role in enhancing soil fertility, biodiversity, and farm productivity. This article explores the principles and practices of livestock integration in biodynamic farming, examining the benefits, challenges, and practical applications. By understanding the symbiotic relationships between animals, plants, and soil, farmers can create more resilient and sustainable farming systems. This comprehensive analysis provides insights into the methods and outcomes of integrating livestock into biodynamic farms, offering a roadmap for farmers seeking to adopt or enhance this practice.

A  disaster  (from  Latin  meaning,  “bad  star’)  is  the  impact  of  a  natural  or man-made event that negatively affects life, property, livelihood or industry often  resulting  in  permanent  changes  to  human  societies,  ecosystems  and environment.  The  event  itself  is  not  a  disaster;  it  is  the  impact  that  is  a disaster. Their possibility of occurrence, time, place and severity of the strike can  be  reasonably  and  in  some  cases  accurately  predicted  by  technological and scientific advances. Hence, we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage  though  we  cannot  reduce  the  extent  of  damage  itself.  Despite  the severe impacts suffered – including trauma, starvation, dehydration, infection, disease and shock-animals are often the silent victims of disasters, and there is a real need around for the provision of effective training and management programmes to ensure that their survival and welfare are adequately accounted for. This demands the study of disaster management in methodical and orderly approach.The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a ‘disaster’ as any occurrence that  causes  damage,  destruction,  ecological  disruption,  loss  of  human  life, human suffering, deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to  warrant  an  extraordinary  response  from  outside  the  affected  community or area (WHO, 1999). It is an event, concentrated in time and space, which causes social, economic, cultural and political devastation and which affects both individual people and communities (Kumar, 1998). 

Being an agricultural country with 1/5^th of the world’s population of cattle and half of the world’s buffaloes. The cows and bullocks are the backbone of agriculture and play major role in the rural economy. India stands first in milk production in the world. Corresponding increase in human population, the per capita availability of milk is 145 gm/day which is far lower than the recommended level of 285 gm/day/head.

Importance of Livestock Management

• Provides milk and milk products. Milk is a perfect food as it contains proteins, fat, milk sugar, minerals and vitamins. It is the only source of animal protein in vegetarian diet.
• Livestock gives us meat.
• Provides farmyard manure

Nearly 50 percent of the world’s population lives in urban areas, it is not possible that food production be adequate for their needs. In some areas of food production surplus, it must be brought to the deficit places where peoples live and work and made available at prices they can afford, otherwise many will remain hungry. This is why marketing is a crucial part of any campaign to relieve hunger. Marketing is the means by which food is brought from the place where it is produced to the people who want to eat it.

Marketing can be a very simple process and it can also be very complex. This depends on what must be done to the farmer’s product to get it from the field to the consumer in good conditions, in an acceptable form and to have it ready when the consumer wants.

Marketing is relatively simple in a village community which produces most of what it needs. Here the producer can sell directly to the consumers coming to his house, or he can attract them by displaying his produce in some central open space in the village which then becomes known as ‘the market’. The total volume of the livestock products sold in this way is still very large, especially in the less commercially developed countries. Direct marketing within the villages is sometimes praised because of its low cost, and also because it does not involve any ‘middleman’ between producer and consumer. But, if farmers sell their produce only to the local consumers, and if their land could produce more than they need, there is no way by which they can take advantage of these excess production potentialities. Similarly, if the consumers are only able to eat what is produced locally, which may confine them to a diet that is monotonous, unsatisfying and very expensive too. This is true of many people’s living in isolated areas, which requires much home processing and still has little nutritional value; and of the many others for whom most meals consist of hand-pounded cereals. Hence, this undernourishment on one side and excess production on the other side leads to the development of marketing concept.

MARKET & MARKETING: CONCEPT OF MARKET AND CLASSIFICATION OF MARKETS

Meaning of Market: The Term Market is derived from Latin word ‘Markatus’ means Merchandise, Wars, the Traffic, Trades or Place where business is conducted. The Market means a place, as an open space (in the village) or a larger building, where actual buying and selling takes place. The market is an assembly or a meeting of people for their private purchase and sale of goods at a stated time and place. Example-Village Fairs or periodical markets.

Goods and services are created through process of production. After production they have to be transferred or moved from the original producers to the final consumers. This involves the creation of market and the undertaking of number of activities such as buying, assembling, transportation warehousing, risk bearing, financing, selling etc. This constitutes the subject matter of marketing. Hence there is the need for the study of market.

1. Introduction

Livestock meat and fish are rich sources of high-quality protein and other valuable nutrients such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals and are an essential part of our healthy diet (Vladau et al., 2008; Mahmud et al., 2018; Mohanti et al., 2019; Mei et al., 2019). Food fraud and adulteration is an age-old distortive practice. The rising incidence of food contaminants and adulterants-induced health issues has challenged consumers to identify and consume safe livestock meat and fish products. Its significance has increased in recent years due to global trade, awareness among consumers, and sociopolitical issues.