eChapters

16.1 Entering Biological Data into Computer

After the forms have been designed, the database in ready for entry of biological data. Biological data is entered one record at a time. To enter the biological data, the user issues a command, which calls up and displays the appropriate form with blank fields. The user then keys in the data for each field in the appropriate spaces. In this manner, the user enters the data for the first record, then for the second record, and so on. In most database systems, the records are automatically assigned a number as they are entered.

16.2 Saving Biological Data into Computer

While entering data into the fields, the tab key or enter key is usually used to move to the next field. Pressing enter or tab key in the last field on the form saves the record in the database and moves to a new, blank form for the next record to be entered. In addition to using the tab or enter key to move forward through fields, one can directly go to any field on the form at any time by clicking on it with the mouse.

The status of gardening during ancient time has been presented in Ramayana, written by Valmiki. Ayodhya city was described as having wide streets, large houses, richly decorated temples and gardens. These gardens were planted with fruit trees and flowering plants and had lakes full of lotus (Nelumbo sp.) and different kinds of birds. During exile, Lord Rama and Sita are believed to have observed a number of trees and were fascinated by beautiful flowers; one of them was Sita Ashok (Saraca asoca).

Mahabharata, written by Saint Vyasa also contains description about gardens. During the Mahabharata era, pleasure gardens were planted with flowering plants. The famous tree of this era was Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), which is associated with Lord Krishna.

The systematic gardening in India is as old as civilization of Indus of Harappa, which existed between 2400 B.C. and 1750 B.C. At that time, people were living in well-planned roads cut across one another almost at right angles. There are many evidences which prove that trees and ornamental plants were associated with the Harappan civilization. India has a long history of close association of people with flowering plants. It begins with the arrival of Aryans to India in 1600 B.C. They were literate people and brought with them the four Vedas viz., Rig veda, Atharva veda, Yazur veda and Sam veda and the Puranas. They appreciated the beauty of flowering plants, lakes, mountains, forests, etc. and named their children after flowers like Kamal, Champa, Bela, Chameli, Rukmani, etc. The followers of Hindu religion worship their Gods and Goddesses with flowers early in the morning.

The life of Lord Buddha was associated with a number of trees from birth to his Nirvana. He was born in 563 B.C. under the tree of Ashoka (Saraca asoca) at Lumbini. Further, Buddha attained his enlightenment under a Pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree, spread his new teachings under shady banyan and mango trees and breathed his last in a Sal (Shorea robusta) grove.

When Lord Buddha visited Vaishali, Amrapali presented a park known as Amravana which was dominated by flowering trees. Buddhists were planting trees and flowering plants on a large scale for making surrounding peaceful and place ideal for meditation.

The history of gardening in India is older than civilizations of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. During the pre-Aryan period (around 2500 B.C.), Indians were cultivating flowers and plants of religious significance. Later importance of gardening was not properly understood in India. But presently, importance of landscaping and gardening is realised by planners and landscaping has now become an integral part of any new establishment or property. Due to urbanization and industrialization, pollution has increased considerably and landscaping is one of the best options to reduce the problem. Landscaping is an art of beautifying a piece of land or garden or a landscape with planting materials and non-living materials in order to create a picturesque effect or to imitate nature in that particular land for human use. The importance of landscape gardening can be divided into three categories.

Landscaping is an art of beautifying a piece of land or a landscape with planting material, non-living material in order to create a picturesque effect or to imitate nature. Landscaping makes a place more peaceful, beautiful, appealing or pleasing, where people can rest and enjoy with their family, friends, etc.

Landscape gardening is landscaping of a garden. More or less landscape gardening and painting on a canvas or paper sheet is similar. In both cases colours are used to form a picture, only difference is that painting is non-living 2D image and garden is collection of living plants with non living things in 3D form.

When going for landscaping, one can put anything or collection of different articles of interest in a place. It requires proper planning and for planning landscape, there are principles or facts that should be followed. It is not necessary and also possible to follow all the principles at a time in a landscape plan but there are 8 basic principles one should follow during landscape planning, which are discussed below.

Introduction

The concept of Computer Aided Design (CAD) for landscape gardening is comparatively new. It can be defined as design and drafting of a landscape garden with the aid of computer. It can also be defined as use of information technology in garden designing. The core of the CAD system is software, which makes use of graphics for product representation. Computer aided designing is an important industrial art, extensively used in industry and landscape architecture designing and for many more purposes. For landscape designs, it represents a practical solution for the imperative needs of helping to visualise the future. Now-a-days, CAD is used to create 2D or 3D computer models. CAD assists the designer

For maintenance of garden, a person should well acquainted with different types of tools and implements and their uses. A tool and implement is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, describe a procedure or process with a specific purpose. Tools that are used in particular fields or activities may have different designations such as instrument, utensil, implement, machine or apparatus. The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is called equipment. The knowledge of constructing, obtaining and using tools is technology. Varieties of implements and tools are required for carrying out the various garden operations like digging, breaking soil, clods, removal of weeds, levelling of ground, mowing lawns, planting of bulbs, layering and grafting, manuring etc. Some of the gardening hand tools are spades, garden forks, pitchfork, hoes, ploughs, shovels, pruners and ice choppers. Many hand tools have been replaced by electronic tools but gardening and landscaping hand tools are still preferred, because they are easier to use and cheaper. Garden tools can be made up of wood, metal or plastics. Landscaping and Gardening is one of the most rewarding and stress-relieving hobbies. The most common garden tool set includes: shovels, rakes, spades, diggers, trowels, etc. Gardening tools can be power or hand driven. There are some garden tools commonly used (Table 1).

Style of garden holds a distinctive appearance, typically determined by the principles according to which gardening can be worked out. There are basically four styles of gardening that are followed to establish any garden. Brief of them are given below.

1. Mughal garden

Mughal gardens are synonymous to formal style of gardening.

Broadly these gardens are categorized as Pleasure gardens and Tomb gardens.

Pleasure gardens are meant for kings and queens.

Tomb gardens are attached to tombs of kings and queens for giving peace to soul.

Gardens are symmetrically designed in rectangular or square plots.

The garden area is divided into four plots by water channels.

The four plots are planted with trees, shrubs, etc.

The four channels represent four rivers of life.

The running water provides coolness and freshness to the garden.

Reflection of sky and trees provide unique beauty to the eye.

The axis is straight and central and sometimes represented by tree line.

The water pool created in the centre with over flowing water serves as central specimen.

Fountains, cascades are linked to central pool to create scenic beauty

1. Achabal Garden, Anantnag, J&K

Also known as “The Place of the Princes”.

It was the work of Noor Jahan and built in 1620.

It was known for its gushing water.

The design was an adaptation of the traditional Persian Char Bagh.

It has three terraces with central water stream which is largest spring in Kashmir.

There are two walkways on either side of the stream.

It has varieties of fruit trees and surrounded by trees of Cheenar.

1. Aquarium/Under water garden

It is a glass enclosed controlled environment place for growing small tropical plants under water along with or without ornamental fishes.

It can be landscaped with artistically designed wood, stones, oyster shell, lime free coarse sand, etc.

If such aquarium contains fishes, then timely feed must be given to fish.

Plant species suitable for it are Alternanthera, Aponogeton crispus, Azolla, Cabomba caroliniana, Nymphaea, Sagittaria, Vallisneria gigantean, etc.

1. Banks of rivers and canals

The banks of river and canal passing through town and villages are well suited for landscaping. Landscaping is one of the important processes for beautification and preventing the soil erosion near the bank of river and canal. With the help of landscaping, people can take advantage of pleasant scenery and natural environment. The plants themselves will objects of beauty and their reflection on the water surface is an additional attraction.

Garden Features

In order to break the monotony and to enhance the beauty, any garden should contain components of varying nature. Some features are not only essential but also an important part of the visual design. Besides this, any garden feature allows to discover and save the creative ideas on a wide sheet of natural green carpet. Following are important features.

1. Arbour

It is a recessed or somewhat enclosed area shaded by trees or shrubs that serves as a resting place in a wooded area. In a more formal garden, an arbour is a small structure with vines trained over lattice work on a frame, providing a shady place. A true arbour includes a bench sheltered underneath for seating, which distinguishes it from a trellis. There are different types of arbours such as archway, wood, plastic, metal, etc. Arbour can be developed at several locations of the garden such as entrances at the main gate, pergola area, patios area, pathway entrance, pool area, etc.

Definition: Bio-aesthetic planning is recognized as the aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants to create a picturesque effect.

The term bio-aesthetic planning was coined by Lancelot Hogben. Egyptians were the first to adopt this type of planning in their cities. In India, M.S. Randhava was the flag bearer of bio-aesthetic planning.

India is one of the twelve mega-biodiversity countries of the world with 46,000 plant species and 81,000 animal species described so far from 70% of the total geographical area surveyed so far. Bio-aesthetic planned city in South India is Bengaluru and in North India is Chandigarh (Punjab and Haryana).

Scope: Benefits like environmental, ecological and socio-economic realizes a greater scope of bio-aesthetic planning. Potential of plants in combating pollution has not been utilized effectively so far. In bio-aesthetics, efforts should be concentrated to maintain for the next millennium, natural landscapes which appear healthy, harmonious, diverse and unique. Thus, bio-aesthetic planning can play an important role in environmental amelioration of urban and industrial areas along with their beautification.

Concept: Man has aesthetic sense and makes efforts to create orderliness and beauty. Natural forms, colours and textures have inspired most of the human art. Fulfilling recreational needs through ornamental plants and wild animals brings the idea of bio-aesthetic planning.

Definition: Ecotourism that involves traveling to relatively undisturbed natural areas with specified object of studying, admiring and/or enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals as well as any existing cultural aspects found in these areas.

OR A tourism which contains a visit to an ecosystem is ecotourism.

OR Ecotourism is now defined as “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people and involves interpretation and education” (TIES, 2015).

The word ecotourism has been derived from two words ‘Ecosystem’ and ‘Tourism’, together it is made Ecotourism. Green globe 21 International Ecotourism Standard has adopted Ecotourism Australia’s definition of ecotourism as “Ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservations”.

It entails not only travelling to such ecosystems, but also helping to conserve them. It involves travel to areas of natural or ecological interest, typically under the guidance of a naturalist for the purpose of observing wildlife and learning about the environment and at the same time focusing on conservation of wildlife and environment.

Definition: Annuals are the group of plants which complete their life cycle in one season or in one year.

Annuals are commonly known as seasonal as they complete the process of life like germination, growth, flowering and seed formation in one season and finally the plant wither out. Annuals are widely used for garden decoration, cut flower and pot plants. They are frequently grown as bedding plants and in rock gardens on the sides of lily pool and in shrubberies. Annuals are planted in the winter, summer and rainy season and die in a season or within a year.

Definition: A tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species.

Trees are not a taxonomic group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants to compete for sunlight. Trees tend to be long lived, living up to several hundred years.

Definition: Shrub is a woody plant with several stems/branches arising at or near the ground level from the main stem, which is perennial in nature and smaller than a tree.

Shrubs are the integral part of a garden and have immense importance in landscaping as these are used for various purposes. Shrubs produce flowers, foliage, fruits, berries and enhance beauty of garden tremendously. They are hardy in nature and require less care than other ornamental plants. Availability of a large number of species and cultivars, a wide range of variations in shape, size and growth habits, remarkable range of sizes, shape and colour of flowers and fragrance have made the shrub an important garden plant.

Definition: Climbers are woody or herbaceous plants which climb up the trees and other tall objects with the help of support of their special modified organs such as tendrils, roots, thorns, rootlets, hooks, etc.

Climbing plants are excellent examples of convergent evolution, i.e. having the same basic design that evolved repeatedly in unrelated groups. Majority of these plants are the dicotyledons but climbing plants have also evolved in monocotyledons. Examples are Vanilla orchid (Orchidaceae), Greenbriars, Smilax (Smilacaceae), Gloriosa (Colchicaceae), Semele androgyna (Ruscaceae), Dichelostemma volubile (Alliaceae), Asparagus (Asparagaceae), Bowiea volubilis (Hyacinthaceae), Chusquea (Poaceae).

These are the plants that grow mainly for its ornamental or attractive leaves rather than its flowers and grown indoor or around the house. Foliage plants are often cultivated to show a variety of unique or exotic leaf shapes, textures and colours.

There is a tremendous scope in the use of these plants to beautify houses, offices, hotels, hospitals and almost all public buildings. In the modern concept and practice of indoor gardening, the scope of growing plants has been extended too many areas in and around the house including balcony, verandah, terraces and patios. These foliage plants can be displayed in different ways to bring the beauty to the surrounding. Some of the house plants can be suited well for decorating the corners of the rooms like Aglaonema, Acalypha, Croton, Dracaena, Cordyline, Dieffenbachia, etc. whereas, for enhancing window sills and boxes suitable plants are Hedera, Coleus, Euphorbia, Kalanchoe, Pilea, etc. For hanging purposes Monstera, Scindapsus are the first choice.

The wide range of climatic conditions in India provides a choice of various bulbous crops to grow them in different parts of country. The term bulbous includes a wide array of perennial plants that are grown from underground organs, including bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes. Any plant described as bulbous will normally have a swollen root or stem or even leaves underground. A large number of these plants producing attractive flowers are commercially grown now days. Normally bulbous plant has a three phases during a year growth, flowering and dormancy. Bulbous plants are grown commonly in beds, shrubbery, herbaceous border, grassy land and in pots and bowl. A brief description of some common bulbous crops is given below.

1. Amaryllis: Common name (CN): Belladonna lily, King or Star lily, Botanical name (BN): Amaryllis spp., Family (F): Amaryllidaceae, Origin (O): South Africa.

Amaryllis is an excellent bulbous plant with deciduous foliage. Leaves are produced after cessation of flowering. It is suitable for bedding, pot, window boxes, greenhouses, borders, etc. Flowers are sold in the market as cut flowers. The flowers are large, trumpet shaped and are borne in umbels having 3-7 florets in small flowered varieties whereas 2-4 florets of giant size in Dutch hybrids. Amaryllis is propagated by vegetative means. They are mostly propagated through bulbs. They are also commercially propagated through tissue culture. Important species are Amaryllis belladonna, A. angustifolia, A. leopolidii, A. moreliana, A. papilio, A. striata, A. miniata and A. traubii.

An unbranched evergreen tree of tropical and warm regions with a crown of very long feathered or fan-shaped leaves and typically having old leaf scars forming a regular pattern on the trunk. Palms have great ornamental value and are planted in the garden for special effects.

Palms are native of tropics and belong to Palmae or Arecaceae family. They are varied in forms, size and habit of growth. Palms do not increase in thickness and also do not show any distinction in bark wood and pith. Flowers are produced on spikes that hanged gracefully in many species. Inflorescences are highly diverse from large panicles with many orders of branching to simply spikes. Flowers may be bisexual or unisexual borne either on the same plant or on separate plant. Whereas, some palms are polygamous.

Cactus: A succulent plant with a thick fleshy stem which typically bears spines, lacks leaves and has brilliantly coloured flowers.

Succulents: Plants that have some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions.

Together cactus and succulents are important group of ornamental plants which have the ability to store water and survive in hot and dry conditions.

Definition: Ferns are flowerless plant that has feathery or leafy fronds. These are reproduced by spores released from the undersides of the fronds.

It is a member of a group of about 10,560 known extant that differ from mosses by being vascular (i.e. having water-conducting vessels). Like other vascular plants, they have branched stems and leaves.

A wide range of beautiful plants exist among ferns which are very popular worldwide. Ferns are grown for their beautiful foliage and their gracefulness. Most of the house ferns are native of tropical regions and are ideal for indoor planting, as they can grow well under shaded or semi-shaded situations. Many species of ferns are native to India. Some of them can be easily grown while others are much difficult, but can be grown well preferably under suitable growing media and proper management.

Definition: Ground covers are low growing plants which are useful for covering large areas in the landscape Or Ground cover refers to any plant that grows over an area of ground, used to provide protection from erosion and drought and to improve its aesthetic appearance. An ideal ground cover must be easily established.

Ground covers are living plants or non-living materials used to cover areas. In general, plant related ground covers have a creeping or prostrate growth habit and grow no taller than 60 cm. A good ground cover should be evergreen and provide a permanent covering. Effects that cannot be achieved with turf grass or other plantings are possible with ground covers. Ground covers provide variation in plant height, texture and colour.

Definition: A lawn is an area of land of closely mowed grasses that is primarily developed for aesthetic and recreational purpose.

A lawn is an integral part of a garden or landscape. Besides aesthetic and recreational purposes, lawn serves several other purposes. The distinguishing characteristic of turf grasses is the ability to withstand close mowing and still providing a functional, dense and healthy ground cover. Its maintenance requires little patience and care, however the final result is always worth waiting as it gives very beautiful and soothing effect to the landscape. It is also called as ‘Heart of garden’.

Lawn can be called as turf, pitch, field, sod, yard or green depending upon the plantation, usage and continent.

Definition: Bonsai is an art of growing dwarfed, ornamentally shaped trees or shrubs in shallow containers or trays. It’s an art that expresses in miniature form of a natural tree. The word Bonsai is a Japanese term which literally means “planted in a container”.

This art form is derived from an ancient Chinese horticultural practice, part of which was then redeveloped under the influence of Japanese Zen Buddhism. Thus, origin of bonsai culture is China. Though it was popularized by Japanese. The ultimate goal of growing a bonsai is to create a miniaturized but realistic representation of nature in the form of a tree. In Japan bonsai is not only a hobby but also act as status symbol.

Definition: Flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping together flowers and plant materials to achieve harmony of form, colour and texture.

Types of flower arrangements

A. Japanese or oriental/eastern type: Japanese flower arrangements also called ‘Ikebana’ (Ikebana, also called Kado). Emphasis is given on spiritual and religious background and only few flowers are used. “Ikenabo” was the first school of Ikebana, meaning “the arrangement of flowers of the hermitage along a pond” which was started by Buddhist monk Semmu around A.D. 621. Ikebana was practiced by Buddhist monks as a concentration exercise (Dhyana). There are three basic lines that were followed in Ikebana namely, Shin meaning heaven is generally a central vertical line of the main branch in the arrangement. Whereas, Soe meaning man is the secondary branch symbolizes human kind. Ikebana artists position Soe to grow forward from the Shin line at a right angle. Third is, Hikae, symbolizes earth is arranged at the bottom, opposite the first two elements. In India, Ikebana was introduced during sixties and gradually becomes popular.

Definition: It is an event at which flowers are displayed and judged for awards.

Flower shows help to spread the world about the joys of gardening and serve as forums for learning and discussing the latest horticultural and design trends. Such flower show offers a wide variety of helpful resources for those interested in learning more about growing flowers for exhibition, designing floral arrangements or exhibiting plants. In addition, many national level flower shows offers training opportunities for members who are interested in becoming certified flower show judges. A Preliminary spadework has to be done to make a show successful. Success depends upon the co-operation between the exhibitor and the members of the flower show committee.

The association of flowers with mankind is evidenced since dawn of the civilization. For many centuries, flowers play an important role in each and every occasions of life and no social function is considered complete without the use of flowers. Flowers are regarded as the symbol of love, beauty and a gift of nature. In India, there is a popular saying that flowers are associated with man from birth till death.

Floriculture can be defined as a specialized branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of flowers, foliage plants, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti, succulents, etc., but also their marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from the traditional field crops due to higher returns per unit area. Flowers play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquillity and peace of mind. From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry, generating both income as well as employment. During the past few decades, appreciation of the potential of the commercial floriculture has resulted in the blossoming of this field into a viable agri-business option. The varied agro-climatic conditions prevailing in India and wide availability of natural resources are conducive for production of a large number of flowering and ornamental crops almost throughout the year. The commercial production and marketing of flowers and floriculture products have also increased during recent years due to improved marketing and communication facilities, making availability of these throughout the country and generating a huge employment.

Introduction

Anthurium is a perennial herbaceous plant of great beauty and grown either for its showy cut flower or for attractive foliage. They are valued for their colourful long lasting spathe and spadix. It is also known as Flamingo flower or Flamingo lily. In India the cut flowers of Anthurium andreanum are cultivated for considerable length of time. Its commercial cultivation is concentrated in North-eastern states and Kerala. The anthurium is getting increasing popularity in the Indian market and therefore, most of the locally produced anthurium is sold in the domestic market against reasonable prices. Its export possibility appears very promising as the flowers are already exported to the Middle East. The development of main flower distribution center in Dubai offers important possibilities for Indian floriculture.

Introduction

Bird of Paradise is known as Strelitzia as its genus is Strelitzia. The shape of flower and its brilliant orange and blue colour it resembles bird and called bird of paradise. Due to unique appearance of the flower, it is exceptionally popular as a cut flower which appears periodically throughout the year. Commercial production of cut bloom is done in California, Hawaii, Israel, France, South Africa and Japan.

Bird of paradise occupies a place of pride in the garden and is an important choice for landscaping. It is grown in backyard and also for mass effect. Plants of strelitzia can be used in the landscape in a low growing ground cover to enhance the beauty of garden. They serve well anchoring island beds when surrounded by lower growing annuals or ground cover.

Introduction

Carnation is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crops. It occupies prime position in the international cut flower trade and is a good commercial cut flower for internal market as well. Carnation flower can easily withstand long distance transportation as it has an excellent keeping.

The major breakthrough in carnation flower industry was evolvement of cultivar William Sim. This cultivar was produced in 1938 to 1939 by William Sim of the USA. From this red variety there have been mutations to white, pink, orange and different variegated forms.

The first genetically modified carnation variety Moondust was released in Australia by Florigene Company. They release another transgenic variety, i.e., Moonshadow.

In India carnation is grown intensively in Nasik, Pune, Srinagar, Bangaluru, Coimbatore, Delhi and Kolkata. Places having congenial climate like Kalimpong, Simla, Solan, Kullu, Ooty, Nainital, Chaubattia, Yercaud, Kodaikanal, etc. are most suitable areas for the production of cut flowers. From Himachal Pradesh and Ooty, rooted cuttings are supplied by the growers to the different parts of the country.

Introduction

China aster is one of the most popular annual flowering plant grown throughout the world. Among annuals it ranks next to chrysanthemum and marigold. It can easily be grown in the open fields for cut and loose flowers. Cut asters last long and are used in vases and floral decoration. When asters are grown in large mass, they make very showy bedding plants and are valuable for filling up the gap in mixed herbaceous border. The dwarf types are put in front and the taller behind.

Some varieties are used as pot plants. The prominent colours of flowers are blue, violet, lavender, rose, white, etc. The commercial importance of China aster is increasing in India especially in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra.

Genetics

China aster (Callistephus chinensis L. Nees) belongs to family Asteraceae. The genus Callistephus has only a single species i.e. C. chinensis. The ploidy level is diploid (2n = 18).

Introduction

The chrysanthemum is one of the most beautiful and perhaps the oldest flowering plant. It is commercially grown in different parts of the world. Chrysanthemum is commonly known as Guldaudi. In Dutch cut flower auction, chrysanthemum ranks second after rose. It is preferred practically due to vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting floret life, diversity of height and growth habit of the plant, exceptionally hardy nature, relative ease to grow all the year round and versatility of use.

It is one of the most important traditional flowers of India mainly used as a potted plant, loose flower, cut flower and as border plant in the garden. Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium inflorescences are of considerable importance in the manufacture of pyrethrin insecticides.

Introduction

Crossandra is an important traditional flower crop of South India. The word crossandra is derived from Greek words ‘krossoi’ meaning fringe and ‘aner’ meaning male, thus word crossandra means fringed stamens. It is grown for loose flower production and commonly used in temple offering and for making Gajras and Venis to use as hair adornments. Owing to their attractive colours, light weight and good keeping quality, crossandra flowers are ideal for garland making. Steady market demand and assured and regular income have made crossandra a profitable venture for South Indian farmers.

Genetics

The genus Crossandra belongs to family Acanthaceae. The diploid chromosome number of crossandra is 2n=40. This genus consists of around 50 species of tropical plants with only a few cultivated species such as Crossandra undulaefolia, C. mucronata, C. guineensis and C. sebacaulis. Crossandra undulaefolia is an important species which is grown for commercial value across the world.

Introduction

In modern garden, dahlias are extensively used for exhibition, garden display and decoration. It can be grown in any form in the garden; in beds, in borders or even in mixed borders along with other plants. It grows well in pot also. For border purpose dwarf growing type are preferred, while in pots usually large flowering dahlias are grown. The long stemmed flowers of various forms and colours are used in flower arrangement. Dahlias make excellent cut flowers, which typically last about a week in the house and are also used in making garlands.

The tubers of dahlias contain appreciable amount of insulin and fructose and small quantities of phytin and benzoic acid which are of medicinal and nutritional value.

Introduction

Gerbera is a herbaceous flower crop with leafless stalk and daisy like flowers. It is also known as Transvaal daisy. Gerbera is a popular cut flower grown throughout the world. It is ideally suited for flower beds, borders, pots and gardens.

In California and Florida, it is grown in outdoors and is becoming increasingly popular as potted plant and bedding plant, whereas in other parts of United States it is cultivated in greenhouses. Gerbera cultivation has emerged as a very important option to progressive farmers in many parts of India, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, North Eastern states, U.P. and Uttarakhand.

Genetics

The genus Gerbera belongs to family Asteraceae. Gerbera comprises about 70 species, which are of African and Asiatic origin. The basic chromosome number is n=25. G. jamesonii is a diploid species with somatic chromosome number 2n=50. Among the different species, G. jamesonii is the only species under cultivation.

Introduction

Gladiolus is an important commercial flower crop and is very popular as cut flower both in domestic and international market. It is a bulbous plant. Gladiolus was introduced into cultivation towards the end of the sixteenth century. The flowers are used in flower arrangement, in bouquets and for indoor decorations. In India gladiolus is commercially grown in West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan.

Genetics

Gladiolus commonly called Sword Lily belongs to family Iridaceae and subfamily Ixioideae. There are about 260 species of gladiolus. It has the basic chromosome number n=15. Most members of genus are heteroploids having very small chromosomes ranging from 2n=30 to 120 (Diploid, triploid, tetraploid, pentaploid, hexaploid, octaploid and hyperaneauploid).

Introduction

Plants are grown both as shrub and climber. Flowers and flower buds are used for making garlands and Veni and for religious offerings. Jasmine oil extracted from the flower is highly valued as it is used in manufacturing perfumes, cosmetics, creams, hair oils, soaps and shampoos.

Flowers are used in jasmine tea or herbal or black tea. As a medicinal plant, jasmine has traditionally been considered an aphrodisiac and calmative. In India, it is grown in different states especially Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal because their flower and floral buds are in great demand.

Genetics

The genus with basic chromosome number of n=13 generally consists of forms with 2n=26. However, natural occurrence of higher ploidy was also observed in J. sambac cv. Gundumalli (2n=39), cultivated variety of J. flexile (2n=52), J. primulinum (2n=39) and J. angustifolium (2n=52).

Introduction

Lily is one of the most important ornamental bulbous flowers. It is commercially cultivated for cut flower production. The flower stems of lily are long and it has longer vase life. Lilies are very useful flowering plants which can be planted in any location as they do well in the bed or border with other perennial.

Asiatic and oriental lilies are leading cut flower group and in the international market it is dominated by the Netherlands. Oriental and Asiatic hybrid lilies are compact, with plant height of 60 to 150 cm that bears many flowers.

Introduction

Marigold is an important flower crop in India. They are extensively used for making garlands, beautification and other purposes i.e. oil extraction and therapeutic uses. Apart from these uses marigold is a widely grown plant in gardens and for pots. Marigolds are also grown commercially for extraction of carotene pigments mainly xanthophylls. The carotenoid extracted from petals are added to poultry feed for intensification of yellow colour of egg yolk. Lutein which is the major constituent of xanthophylls is used for colouring food stuffs.

Marigold plantation has been found beneficial to reduce the population of nematodes. Root-knot (Meloidogyne spp.) can be effectively managed in the field without pesticides.

Genetics

Marigold belongs to family Asteraceae. There are about 33 species of the genus Tagetes. Important species are T. erecta, T. patula, T. tenuifolia, T. lucida, T. lacera, T. lemmonii, T. minuta, T. pusilla and T. corymbosa. The chromosome number in diploid species i.e. T. erecta, T. tenuifolia, T. elongata, T. lemmonii, T. jaliscensis and T. lucida is 2n = 24, however, tetrapoid species i.e. T. patula, T. minuta, T. remotifolia, T. mendocina and T. biflora is 2n = 48.

Introduction

Orchids are the most beautiful flower and have conquered the cut flower industry all over the world. They are valued for cut flower production and as potted plant. Their beautiful flowers varied in size, shape and colour, long life of flowers on the plants and an amazingly long keeping quality which no other plant can claim.

Many of orchids are source of important secondary metabolites as given below.

Vanillin produced from Vanilla planifolia is used in flavouring industries.

Dendrobine and nobilonine from Dendrobium nobile.

Laburnine from Liparis bicallosa.

Malaxine from Malaxis congesta.

Phalaenopsine from Phalaenopsis mannii.

Introduction

The rose is one of the oldest flower in cultivation and rank 1^st position worldwide as cut flower. There are two types of roses; first stemless rose supplied by field grown roses for making garlands or extraction of rose oil or rose water. Second is stemmed rose, which is mainly grown under protected conditions for cut flower production used for making bouquets or interior decoration.

The cultivation of this flower has developed with the distillation of rose as mentioned in Ayurveda by Charaka around 100 A.D. At present, it has become the most important commercial flower. A large quantity of rose flowers is used for decoration purpose.

Introduction

Among ornamental bulbous plants, tuberose occupies a very prominent position. Tuberose flower is much adored for its prettiness, elegance and fragrance. It is commercially grown as cut flower, loose flower as well as for its potential in perfume industry.

The flowers of tuberose are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and buttonholes. The long flower spikes are excellent as cut flowers for table decoration when arranged in vases.

Plants of tuberose can be used in landscapes, in all-white gardens or with other plants. Variegated varieties with golden or yellow striped leaves are very attractive and these varieties are suitable for garden beautification. Potted plants can be put in decorative containers and used for entranceways and interiors.

Seed is defined as “Fertilized and ripened ovule, consisting of the plant embryo, varying amounts of stored food material and a protective outer seed coat”. It is one of the most vital and important inputs for increasing production of crops. Commercial flower seed production is an international business involving highly specialized growers. Demand of flower seed production increased due to recent advances in commercial production of bedding plants, plug production technology, increased area of gardening, flower growing in home gardens and cut flowers with highly viable seeds and very high percentage of uniform seedlings. It seems to have great scope for expansion in developing countries like India, especially under north Indian climate having favourable growing conditions, skilled and cheap labour.

The world germplasm contains more than 1500 different varieties of flowers and ornamental crops. Each species of flower grown for seed has its own specific time, culture, problem of pollination and harvesting and storage requirements. Growing flower from seed is an important component of commercial flower production and their uses in landscape gardening.

The association of weeds with field crops was started when ancient man started cultivating plants as crops commercially. However, type of weed flora went on shifting with the passage of time, due to changing climatic conditions, cropping pattern, agronomic practices, crop cultivars etc. When crops are cultivated invariably a variety of volunteer undesirable vegetation come up simultaneously which competes with the crop for all growth factors viz., nutrients, soil moisture light, space etc.

Definition of Weed

Weed is a plant that originates under a natural environment and in response to imposed and natural environments, evolved and continues to do so as an interfering associate with our desired plant and activities.

Weed is a plant growing out of place. They are unwanted not useful, persistent and prolific, effectively competing with the beneficial and desirable crop plants for space, nutrients, sunlight, and water, interfere with agricultural operations and thereby reducing the yield and quality of produce.

Weeds are unwanted and undeserved plants that interfere with the utilization of the land and water resources and thus adversely affect crop production and human welfare. Thus a plant out of its place or a plant growing where it is not desired is a weed. This definition was given by Buchholtz in 1967. E.g. Bajra is a weed in pulse, pulse is a weed in bajra, tomato is a weed in brinjal field. Weed is defined as the unwanted, undesirable plant growing out of their proper place which interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, competitive, harmful and even poisonous in nature and can grow in adverse climatic conditions (Jethro Tull: Father of Weed Science).

Weediness: Weediness is defined as the state or condition of a field, flower beds, lawns and so forth in which there is an abundance of weeds.

Weeds are plants that are unwanted in a given situation and may be harmful, dangerous or economically detrimental. Weeds are a serious threat to primary production and biodiversity. They reduce farm and forest productivity, displace native species and contribute significantly to land and water degradation. The costs of weeds to the natural environment are also high, with weed invasion being ranked second only to habitat loss in causing biodiversity decline.

Weed Biology

Weed biology is the study of the establishment, growth, reproduction, and life cycles of weed species and weed societies/vegetation. Weed biology is an integrated science with the aim of minimizing the negative effects, as well as using and developing the positive effects, of weeds.

Life Cycle - Based on life cycle weeds are classified as annuals, biennials or perennials.

Annuals

Annuals complete their life cycle from seed in less than one year. There are two types: summer and winter annuals. Summer annuals germinate in the spring, mature, produce flowers and seeds and die before fall. Winter annuals germinate in the fall, overwinter in a seedling or rosette stage, mature, produce flowers and seeds, and die in the spring or early summer. Because of the seedling stage, annual weeds are generally easy to control. There are usually few annual weeds present in low bush blueberry fields.

Biennials

Biennials generally complete their life cycle over two years. The first year the seeds germinate and form a basal cluster of leaves and a tap root. The plant overwinters in this stage. During the second year the weed produces a flower stalk, sets seed and dies. Examples of biennial weed are evening primrose and wild carrot.

Weed Ecology

Ecology is the study of reciprocal relationship between organisms and their environments. The ecology of weed is thus concerned with growth characteristics and adaptations that enable weeds to exploit the ecological niches left open in those environments altered by man for his use and the survival mechanisms where by weeds persist in such environments. In simple words weed ecology is reciprocal relationship of weeds with their environments. Weeds grow voluntarily in all crops raised by human beings since ancient ecology of weeds is divided into two categories (types).

1. Weed Auto Ecology

It is study of only one population i.e. how an individual species in a population interacts with its environment at all stages of its life cycle. So, in case of auto ecology competition within same species (intraspecific) or with crop plants (inter specific competition) is studied.

2. Weed Synecology

The study of relationships between communities of different weed species with their environment is called weed synecology. Different weed species grow in certain combinations and in specific patterns in the ûeld. The population of different weed species interact with the external environmental conditions and among themselves. Weed communities differ from field to field and crop to crop in the same locality. The community character is dynamic and changes in form and composition of weed flora takes place in course of time due to some external and internal factors prevailing in the community. This process is called ecological succession. With the passage of time there will be series of changes in the composition of weed community which ultimately results in stable community. This is termed as climax community.

Weed monitoring is conducted to detect significant weed problems, rank them for relative severity and sort them by management type annuals, biennials, perennials, grasses and broadleaves. Weed monitoring provides information to tailor weed management efforts that reduce the impact of the weeds. The primary objective of weed survey and mapping is to accurately identify and delineate land with populations of unwanted plants. These surveys are conducted so that scientists and managers can predict those areas potentially subject to weed invasion; understand the biology of the invasion process and determine means by which weeds spread; develop, implement and evaluate weed management plans; assess the economic impact of weed invasion and increase public awareness, education and weed management efforts. Weed survey information is collected and compiled into maps showing the distribution and severity of infestation. Weed monitoring involves repetitive surveys to track weed populations over time. A standardized system of weed surveying and mapping is necessary to provide consistently reliable information that can be compared from year to year. Further, a standardized system allows weed survey data to be incorporated into a state wide weed survey database for the production of state wide noxious weed maps.

Methods of Weed Control

Prevention, eradication and control are the fundamental principles of weed control.First basic step is to prevent the infestation of a weed(s) in a locality in order to avoid their further spread. If one fails in preventing spread of weeds, eradication step must be adopted. Eradication is limited on a very small scale and adopted only when suitable methods of complete weed removal are available as eradication is cent per cent control of weeds alongwith its root system and other propagative parts. Further, if one fails in prevention and eradication techniques then different weed control methods must be strictly followed in which the objective is to bring down the weed population (with any method) to a level that economical crop yields are possible. The aim of each weed control method is to achieve reasonable good control of weeds. Following methods for controlling weeds are very common:

Preventive Methods

Try to prevent spread of weed seeds/vegetative parts with the adoption of following preventive techniques.