eChapters

Seed is a vital input for successful flower production and it is considered as the starting material for most bedding plants and many of the cut flowers produced. The production of bedding plants and cut flowers is both capital and labour intensive. In order to optimize production efficiency and maximize profit, it is important for growers to use high quality seeds. Production of seeds of annual flowers has immense scope as an area of diversification in floribusiness. The flower seed industry is international, operating in many countries of the world. Large quantities of flower seeds are required both by developed and developing countries for adding to the beauty of private and large gardens and also for cut flower production. Worldwide, nurseries engaged in production of seeds of seasonal flowers have a booming business. The great diversity of flower seed crops is a fascinating facet of the world seed industry and they are of high value and low volume in contrast to the high volume and low value seeds of cereal seed crops.

Orchids belong to family Orchidaceae, which is the most highly evolved among monocotyledons with over 800 genera and 35,000 species and over 74,400 natural and manmade registered hybrids. Orchid is the first horticultural plant cloned by tissue culture methods on a commercial scale (Goh, 1990). Rapid multiplication using tissue culture techniques is an important strategy for preserving the valuable orchid wealth in India. Vegetative propagation through division of rhizomes and separation of offshoots and keikis is very slow. Both these problems can now be successfully alleviated through micropropagation. The technique has revolutionized the orchid industry and now it is possible to multiply unlimited number of desirable clones. Rotor (1949) was the first to have employed tissue culture techniques to multiply Phalaenopsis, and since then micropropagation potential of a variety of monopodial taxa has been successfully tested.

Dry flowers are naturals, dried and preserved with an everlasting value the can be cherished for longer period. According to APEDA investigations, dried flowers accounted for 15% in the total floriculture export during 1988-89 and increased to 64% in 1994-95. Export value of dried plants and planting materials increased from Rs. 109.21 million in 1993-94 to Rs. 364.55 million in 1995-96.
 
India exports dry flowers to U.K., Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, U.S.A., Japan and Singapore. Dry flower production is labour intensive, provides self-employment and job opportunities for a large number of workers and aids in development of subsidiary industries. The industry has many advantages.

Gladiolus is a flower of breathtaking beauty with a wide range of colours, size and form. Its magnificent inflorescence has won for it, a place of pride in gardens and value as a cut flower. Except true blue and green practically all colours are available in gladiolus. Flowers are long lasting and stand transport well. They are widely used in flower arrangements, bouquets and indoor decorations. It is estimated that gladiolus is grown throughout India over on area of 1270 ha (Arora et al. 2002).

The field of talent management continues to mature from agri-business to extension service, but it is also being impeded both by the scale of debates taking place. The field continues to agree that talent management “adds value” to the organisation such as extension system. To understand the development scenarios of strategic talent management, we need a “theory of value” to understand the elements of talent management which are the most valuable for business-led extension service (BLESS) effectiveness. “Theory of Value” is a generic term which encompasses all the theories within economics that although explain the exchange value (or) price of goods and services. Alternatively, “Value of Theory” encompasses a range of approaches in extension system to understand how, why, and to what degree humans should value things, whether the thing is person, idea, object, (or) anything else for effective functioning of strategic business-led extension service to sustain its clients system.

Farmers require a diverse range of information to support their farm enterprises. Information is needed not only on best practices and technologies for crop production, but also for post -harvest aspects. Agricultural Extension is an essential pillar for research and development in agriculture. Despite a wide range of reform initiatives in agricultural extension in India in the past decades, the coverage of, access to, and quality of information   provided to marginalized and poor farmers is uneven. Approaches to agricultural extension in India and worldwide continue to evolve.

Throughout the history of Indian agriculture, the contribution of farmers to agricultural technology development and dissemination has been very significant. Farmers’ practices are useful not only for scientific technology development, but also for sustainable agricultural development. Rural economy will sustain only when it effectively utilise the available local resources. But recent agricultural development witnessed that those modern agricultural practices slowly replacing the farmers’ practices. In this juncture the basic challenge for sustainable agriculture is to make better use of these internal resources. This can be done by minimizing the external inputs used, by regenerating internal resources more effectively or by combinations of both (Rolling and Pretty, 1997).

In any work environment the managers, facilitators are equipped with some specific type of skills to perform their activity effectively. In this study, multi stakeholders were involved in the process of Precision Farming from land preparation to marketing. Every stakeholder has a specific task to be performed so as to lead the client in the direction desired. In order to achieve this, the skill components viz., Management and Facilitating skills possessed by them and their own perception on those skills were assessed.

Farmer Field School (FFS) is a capacity building method based on adult education principles for group of farmers. FFS is best described as a ‘school without walls’, where farmers learn through observation and experimentation in their own fields. FFS methodology is potential extension approach to enhance farmer’s knowledge which is a basis for adoption of improved practices (Manoj and Vijayaragavan, 2014). In Andhra Pradesh Department of Agriculture initiated FFS programme in the name of Polambadi during 2006.

e-SAP is one of the important emerging and efficient dissemination tool for agricultural pest management. e-SAP refers to electronic solution for  agricultural pest management. e-SAP is a ground – breaking application built on the backdrop of agricultural pest management. Its foundation lies on a unique platform that facilitates the storage access and transfer information between all stakeholders in agriculture. It enables rapid and delivery of farm data in various forms including multimedia to researchers, policymakers and other users in real time.

Introduction

It is well-known that soil testing is agronomically sound, beneficial and environmentally responsive tool for monitoring the nutrient as well as pollutant status of soils, and also for making precise fertilizer recommendations for various crops and cropping sequences. Soil testing with associated plant and water analysis is the only tool known which helps to control soil fertility. Nutrient supplying power of soils, crop responses to added nutrients and fertilizer and amendment needs can safely be assessed through sound soil testing programme. Monitoring of soil fertility, against depletion and accumulation of certain elements in toxic proportions over time, is also possible through appropriate soil tests. This also helps to economize on cost of fertilizers and also in increasing fertilizer use efficiency.

Water and nutrients are the most important, and readily manageable, variables for producing a profitable crop. Efficient management of water and essential plant nutrients is imperative for achieving sustainable agriculture and maintaining necessary increase in food production to feed the burgeoning population while minimizing economic losses and environmental impacts. Technology here can play a catalytic role in striking a common ground between these environmental and economic goals. Recent advances in sensor technologies indicate that efficient nutrient management in crop fields can be attained through the application of Precision Agriculture (PA)-based geo-spatial technologies such as global positioning system, geographical information system, remote sensing,

Introduction

Increasing consciousness about conservation of environment as well as health hazards associated with agrochemicals and consumers’ preference to safe and hazard free food are the major factors that lead to the growing interest in environmental friendly forms of farming in the world. Organic agriculture is one such broad spectrum of production methods that are supportive to the environment. The basic requirement in organic farming is to increase input use efficiency at each stage of farm operation.

Introduction

Soil is a complex system consisting of physical, chemical and biological components. These components dynamically interact making it functional to sustain life. All life forms rely on soil microbial processes for their survival. Microbial diversity in the soil is greater than the diversity of any other group of organisms existing in the earth. Microbes as inhabitant of soil are responsible for diverse metabolic functions that affect soil and plant health (Table 1).

Introduction

Nano science is the study of the properties of structures of the size smaller than several hundreds of nano meter (nm). Nanotechnology consists in techniques for designing and manufacturing these structures as well as applications arising from these. The development of nanoscience and nanotechnology is in line with the trend towards miniaturisation. As nanoscience and nanotechnology developed, they make the barriers between traditional scientific and technological disciplines more permeable.

Introduction

India is the largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses in the world, accounting for 25 percent of the global production, 15 per cent trade and 27 per cent consumption, being an inseparable ingredient in the diet of the vast majority of population. Since time immemorial, pulses have been cultivated on marginal and sub-marginal lands, which are characterized by poor soil fertility and moisture stress, and consequently their yield potentials have not been realized. Further, more than 90 per cent areas under pulses are rainfed.

A tool is a handheld item that aids in accomplishing a task. It is an instrument or machine that aids in achieving a task. Tools are something you use to do a job. ICT tools that can be used for betterment of Agriculture Research, Education and Extension are discussed here.

    1.    Computer: Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the users and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called progamme) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the further use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.

ICTs are emerging as very important tools for agricultural extension and it is now essential for every extension worker to have working knowledge of ICT tools and devices like computers, internet, mobile phone, kisan call center, information kiosks, e-mails, expert systems, touch screen systems, mobile telephony and World Wide Web. Keeping in mind wide scope of ICT application in agriculture, the entire study entitled “Status and prospects of ICT application in agriculture through extension functionaries” was undertaken with following specific objectives.

Abstract

Recycling of organic wastes by chemical amendments and bio-inoculants are the recent developments in the technology for composting to manage voluminous wastes with economic advantages as well as environmental and social perspectives. Various composting technologies such as vermicomposting, P-enriched vermicompost, phospho-sulpho-nitro compost, phosphocompost and microbial enriched compost have been developed utilizing agro-industrial wastes, municipal solid wastes, distillery effluents and press mud, amended with certain mining waste materials such as rock phosphate and pyrites for increasing the nutrient supplying potential of the compost. It was observed that matured enriched compost (after 110 days of composting) contains 3.2 to 4.2% P and 1.5 to 2.3% N. In vermicomposting, earth worms helps in accelerating the decomposition processes and bringing down the composting period from six to eight months to around 2-3 months. Thus, enriched compost helps to produce higher yields of crops and also improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions, thereby, enhancing productivity and sustainability of agriculture.

Abstract

A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the genotypic variability with respect to agronomic and physiological traits of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.) landraces collected from three contrasting environments during 2010-11 in a randomized complete block design with nine replications under transparent shade house at the University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus in Semenyih, Selangor.

Abstract

A field experiment was conducted at Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur to assess the effect of weed management practices on production, resource use efficiency and monetary benefit in cumin. The experimental field was predominantly infested with weed species such as Chenopodium murale, C. album, Asphodelus tenuifolius and Heliotropium oralifolium.

Abstract

Kachchh with 45,652 sq. km. geographical area is the biggest district of Gujarat. The monsoon is very erratic and the frequent occurrence of drought or scarcity of rainfall is very common feature in this region. The soils as well as water are saline at most of the places and the irrigation is mainly through underground water. The agriculture under these conditions is becoming increasingly vulnerable. Hence a study was conducted to assess the economic viability of crops having access to assured irrigation facility in Kachchh district of arid Gujarat in 2009. A total of 60 farmers were randomly selected for detailed data collection from five selected villages in three talukas namely Bhuj, Anjar and Mundra. The study revealed that cultivation of cereal crops like pearl millet and wheat was mainly to meet out family needs while cultivation of crops like cotton, castor, groundnut, mustard and coriander was solely for market purpose and intention is to maximize the returns per unit of investment.

9.1  Write True/False

Q.1    In the subject matter of order statistic, the useful beta distribution is written as :

Introduction

The Web-enabled infrastructures, practices and strategies are creating confusions disruptions for virtually every institution and enterprise. The responses to these disruptions are progressively leading to new practices, business models, and strategies in a variety of domains posing challenges to the profession of librarianship. The acquisition, assimilation, and sharing of knowledge is one such sphere that is really experiencing a revolution.

Introduction

The basic concept of digital libraries is the sharing of information and resources globally for providing right and nascent information to the right user at the right time. It is the computing terminals having linkage to different sources of information in electronic or digital form. Digital library is a collection of information that is both digitalized and born in digital form, which offer capabilities beyond those of the agricultural and traditional libraries. Digital library is not only digitization of physical resources, but also thoughtful organization of electronic collection for better access.

1. Bibliometric

Bibliometrics is the application of quantitative techniques to analyze the volume, the movement, the frequency and the characteristics, etc of published documents and the related activities. Alan Pritchard was first to use the word “Bibliometrics” in an article “Statistical Bibliography or Bibliometrics” published in the 1969 issue of the “Journal of Documentation”. He defines Bibliometrics as “the application of mathematical and statistical methods to books and other media of communication.” In a later article, Pritchard explained Bibliometrics as the “metrology of the information transfer process and its purpose is analysis and control of the process”. Bibliometrics is a set of methods used to study or measure texts and information (Wikipedia, 2011).

Introduction

E-publishing and information accessing have become easy and convenient mainly because of Internet and the World Wide Web technologies. Most digital libraries were developed in the past by taking up projects based on specific disciplines and then developed into full-fledged digital libraries. The inter-networking communication links, low cost storage solutions, powerful desktops, workstations, servers and multimedia hardware and software technologies are now available for initiating the Digital Library projects in India. Development in ICT (Information Communication technology) have brought about the merger of the computing, information, Communication, entertainment, mass media industries thereby providing a means of exchanging information in the digital format used by computers.

ABSTRACT

ICT has seen its vertical as well as horizontal growth in various domains, be it rural livelihood sectors and governance. India is well poised to take the benefits of ICT to the common man. There has been consistent progress in addressing the challenges that exists - be it infrastructure or social barriers. The India Development Gateway (InDG) initiative is in response to limitations that exist at the social front. InDG facilitates rural empowerment through provision of relevant information products and services that respond to the real and strategic needs of the rural communities, in their local languages.

ABSTRACT

Jharkhand state is endowed with vast and rich natural resources. It’s 80 per cent population resides in 32,620 villages and depends mainly on agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood. Rural population in Jharkhand still suffers from several ailments, weakness and constraints which come in the way of the use of ICT for agricultural development. Low level of literacy, poor socio-economic status, low penetration of extension services, language barrier, lack of electricity, etc., are some of the problems due to which  the farmers are unable to access the latest techniques in farming through different ICT services and are using the traditional knowledge and techniques which yields very less.

ABSTARCT

The  Himalayan Institute Hospital Trust (HIHT) has been working in the agriculture field since, 1999. At present, it is focusing on a Research-based project on the cultivation of Aromatic/ Medicinal plants aiming to promote Medicinal and herbal cultivation and increase the income and participation of community. Initially the grant -in-aid is being provided to some farmer groups in  Shilogi village of Tehri District and  Malethi village in Pauri District.  These farmers came forward and offered their land for research work. The project supported the community through both, backward and forward linkages. Rural Development Institute, HIHT, is facilitating the whole operation, from choosing the coordinators to the advisory agencies. RDI is trying to make sure a proper people (especially poor) friendly delivery mechanism through village Resource Centre.

ABSTRACT

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are for everyone and that does not mean for urban or rural communities. Recent developments in the fields of information and communication technology are indeed revolutionary in nature. By definition, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are a diverse set of technological tools and resources to create, disseminate, store, bring value-addition and manage information. Knowledge thereby becomes the fundamental resource for all economic and developmental activities in the knowledge society, of which rural poor form an equal part. The process of synthesis of knowledge possessed across communities with the global pool of knowledge and with the scope for further enrichment provides the genesis for information sharing.

ABSTRACT

Agricultural growth is a catalyst for broad based economic development in most of the low-income countries. Over the last few decades, the share of agriculture in GDP has steadily declined in India from over 50 per cent in the 1950s to 18.5 per cent in 2006-07. The role of extension personnel in this juncture has become immense and there is a mammoth task ahead in the era of contract farming, organized retailing and market led extension. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is an umbrella that includes all technologies for the communication of information.  It caters for individualized instruction and the contents could be easily updated and expanded.

ABSTRACT

Probably since the beginning of agriculture, farmers have recognized the value of rows of trees/ shrubs planted in the farm (called as Agroforestry) which offers environmental protection, crop and livestock production and reduce the soil health hazards. The role of agroforestry is immense in the undulating terrains like North East India, rain fed area like Central India or the problem soils in general. Even though research and extension work is on the way to increase the trees out side the forest, the information and knowledge on best tree + crop combination is either scarce or limited to regions in the form of research articles, books or  journals. The recent scope of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and its applicability due to its easy, fast and any where accessibility have opened the window of opportunity towards the scientific agroforestry and farm forestry developments. One such means of ICT is through the availability of useful databases and websites on agroforestry.

ABSTRACT

Communication is now one of the central issues in developing societies. Knowledge expansion, information technology and technology dissemination are the three very important dimensions of any development system be it agriculture, industry and whatever. Revolutionary changes in communication policies, techniques and strategies are needed in order to make information is a fundamental right to the poor rather than making communication a privilege enjoyed by the rich and powerful. Transfer of agricultural technology generally aims at speedy diffusion of novel agricultural information from the place of invention to the place of adoption. In the current Information and Communication Technology (ICT) era, human dependency on computer and allied modern electronic gadgets for executing day to day activities is inevitable. All fields are being influenced by the interventions of ICT and agriculture is in no way an exception to it.

ABSTRACT

The concept of the Kissan Call Centres-KCCs (Farmers’ Call Centres-FCCs)) was a logical outcome of the Government of India’s (GOI’s) commitment to leverage the ICT for overcoming the constraints of distance and time in providing new generation extension services to the farmers of the country by facilitating their direct virtual contact with the agricultural extension and expert personnel. The study on KCC has shown that farmers in the age group of 29 to 48 years are the biggest user group of KCC helpline. In terms of academic background, farmers with a minimum exposure of six to seven years to formal schooling (86%) seek to utilize the KCC support and relatively inexperienced farmers with less than 10 years of experience are more likely (47.5%) to call the KCC. The scope to enhance awareness and access among women farmers to the KCC helpline is huge as their current levels of participation are negligible. As regards the performance of KCCs, 84% of the farmers who called the KCCs expressed overall satisfaction from the advice provided through the helpline.

Abstract

Production technology has been worked out for crops and several inputs have been recommended which are to be applied in proper quantity at most suitable time to get the maximum return. Nutrition in the form of fertilizers is a must. However, injudicious use of agro-chemicals has resulted in diseases called ‘iatrogenic plant diseases’. Under the circumstances it is important to know the relationship between soil nutrients and plant pathogens which are causing the diseases of economic importance. Author has given adequate emphasis to micronutrients as at a very minor quantity they reduce the disease to an acceptable level. He has also discussed in detail about all the major and minor nutrients required by the plants and how their deficiency or over doses affect the plant pathogens and in turn the diseases.

Keywords:  Soil nutrients, plant pathogens, diseases, relationship

Abstract

A field study of seven arid districts of Rajasthan was undertaken to evaluate the occurrence of selected tree species and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) associations with them. Five genera were identified in the rhizosphere of these selected tree species. A high diversity of AMF was observed which varied between different host tree species. Among the five genera, Glomus occurred most frequently, with four species, Acaulospora and Gigaspora were found with three species, while Entrophospora and Scutellospora was detected with two species. Gigaspora margarita, Gigaspora rosea, Glomus deserticola, Glomus constrictum, Glomus fasciculatum, Glomus mosseae and Scutellospora calospora were the most dominant species. The AMF spore density was not clearly affected by the host tree suggesting that biotic factors may be relatively less important than abiotic/edaphic factors for establishing population pattern. The spore density of AMF had a strong positive correlation with soil pH and organic carbon content and a negative correlation with Olsen’s P content of the soil. The association with AMF of these tree species native to the harsh environmental conditions of the Indian Thar Desert may play a significant role in the re-establishment and conservation of these multipurpose desert tree species.

Fermentation was known to mankind from time immemorial. But, development of biochemical principles of  fermentation  was originated by  Lavoisier in France in 1789 by way of analysing chemical composition of  sugar and its fermentation products such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and  acetic acid. Many products are produced by fermentation process. In fermentation, controlled action of selected microorganisms is used to alter  texture of foods, preserve foods by production of acids or alcohol or to produce fine flavours and aromas which increase value of raw materials.

Common rules for fine laboratory techniques call for:

    ·    A laboratory should have a record and a complete up to-date record of all the equipments and their operating manual.
    ·    A laboratory should have a record and detailed up to-date record of all the chemicals including the name of manufacturer with their     grade and arranged alphabetically in specific area
    ·    Strong acid and bases in safe area.
    ·    Chloroform, alcohol which are volatile or toxic must be stored in fume hood.

One of the most essential factors governing the growth and morphogenesis of plant tissues in culture is the composition of the culture medium. The basic nutrient requirements of cultured plant cells are very similar to those of whole plants. The basic nutritional requirements of cultured plant cells as well as plants are very similar. However, the nutritional composition varies according to the cells, tissues, organs and protoplasts and also with respect to particular plant species.  The appropriate composition of the medium largely determines the success of the culture. A wide variety of salt mixtures  have been reported in various media. A nutrient medium is defined by its mineral salt composition, carbon source, vitamins, plant growth regulators (PGR) and other organic supplements. When referring to a particular medium, the intention is to identify only the salt composition unless otherwise specified. Any number and concentration of amino acids, vitamins, growth regulators and organic supplements can be added in an infinite variety of compositions to a given salt composition in order to achieve the desired product.

Blotting is the procedure through which nucleic acids or proteins are immobilized onto a solid support generally nylon or nitrocellulose membranes. Blotting of nucleic acid is the central technique for labeling and hybridization on membranes have formed the basis for a range of experimental techniques involving understanding of gene expression, organization, etc. More recently the identification of abnormal genes in genomic DNA has become increasingly important in clinical research and genetic counseling. We can identify inherited disease, infectious agent present in the sample by using blotting technique. It is also used to mapping restriction sites in single copy gene.

Probiotics are measured in colony forming units (cfu). CFUs are generally measured in the millions or billions per serving. Probiotics are most commonly beneficial bacteria, but can also be friendly fungal or other organisms, that are typically freeze dried to stabilize them in an inert state during storage and production. Then their continued stability and viability, as measured by CFU counts when cultured, is dependent on limiting their exposure to stimulating environmental conditions such as temperature and moisture. Besides refrigeration, this protection can be done by packaging in glass or by adding freshness packets that helps to absorb and reduce moisture in the package.

Spices play important roles in daily life and India is a rich repository of spices. Various biotechnological approaches like micropropagation, somaclonal variation, in vitro conservation, synseed technology, protoplast fusion, production of flavor and coloring components, and development of novel transgenics have great significance in conservation, utilization and increasing the production and productivity of spices. Protocols for micropropagation and production of disease free planting materials are available for many spices. Efficient plant regeneration protocols are also available for exploiting somaclonal variation ,where the available natural variability is relatively low. Technologies for isolation and culture of protoplasts were reported in a few spices. Development of transgenics for disease resistance is gaining momentum. Synseed and Micro-rhizome technology are also available for many spices for safe propagation, conservation, movement, and exchange of germplasm. In vitro and cryo preservation technologies for conservation of spices germplasm are available for many spices.

In global competitive agriculture market, the need of the hour is to provide uniform and quality agricultural produce which can compete in market and give remunerative returns. For this, the agriculture production needs to be addressed on more scientific grounds and full package of practices are to be adopted to produce quality produce for global market. Earlier, the orchards were established using seedling material where uniformity of the produce was not guaranteed. Thus, in recent years more emphasis is being paid on scientific establishment of orchards which requires true to type planting material from which uniform produce is expected. This true to type planting material can only be produced by vegetative methods. Thus, standardization of vegetative propagation in horticultural crops, particularly in perennial crops has gained much importance. Some references are available on propagation of plants which shows that vegetative propagation  methods were also practiced in ancient time as mentioned in old treaties literature viz. Upvan vinod,  Ain-e-akbari, etc.

Pomegranate  (Punica granatum L.)  also  known as anar, dalim  is   an ancient  fruit and cultivated in semi-arid to arid regions of the country. However, pomegranate plants are found throughout the country from temperate to tropical climate. It has enjoyed a reputation for its healthy dietetic and medicinal properties. Pomegranate has versatile adaptability, drought tolerance, high value fruits, steady and high yields of the crop (Vishalnath et al., 2007). The pomegranate fruit has therapeutic value (Julie Jurenka, 2008); good keeping quality, high export potential and is mainly grown for table purpose, though several value added products are also available.

Indian gooseberry or aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.), is an important fruit crop of 21st century and it has been regarded as ‘Amritphal’ in ancient literature, and has been identified as an ideal plant for various kinds of wastelands viz, moisture stress, eroded, ravines, upland, riverbed and the areas with undulated topography (Korwar et al., 2006) as it possesses some specific characters like intensive and deeper root system, summer dormancy of zygote, reduced leaf area, synchronization of fruit growth and development with moisture availability period and selective absorption of cations and anions which enable it to grow in fragile agro-climatic conditions. India is principal aonla growing country and Uttar Pradesh is the leading state and Pratap garh district, U.P. is well known for aonla cultivation throughout the country. Aonla is a deciduous tree, small to medium in size and distributed in tropical and sub-tropical forests in India. Looking to its high demand and value added products, now, it is being commercially cultivated in different parts of country. It can tolerate alkalinity and salinity and can be grown in wide range of soils.

Karonda (Carissa carandas L.) is found growing throughout India, mainly in the semi-arid  and arid regions. It is widely cultivated in the home gardens, farmer’s fields and orchards as hedge plant. Karonda is commonly used as a condiment or additive to Indian pickles and spices. Karonda is one of the few fruits indigenous to India while 30 species of genus Carissa have been reported; many species are found growing wildly in India while other species came from Malaysia and South Africa (Hayes, 1957). It is cultivated throughout India in tropical and sub-tropical areas for fruits (Rai and Gupta, 1996). In India Carissa are found growing most widely in plains and  Siwalik hills and grow wild in Deccan Peninsula, Maharashtra along the western ghats, parts of Gujarat, Punjab, lower ranges of J & K, U.P., Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh M.P. and Aravalli hills, Mount Abu (Rajasthan). It also cultivated in other countries like Bangladesh, South Africa, U.S.A., Denmark, Ghana, Israel, Nepal and Pakistan.  It is also grows in the Sri Lanka lowland rain forests. It can be grown in any type of soil however; it is most suitable for planting in marginal lands (Sharma and Badiyala, 2002). It is a very hardy, drought-tolerant plant that thrives well in a wide range of soils. However, it is susceptible to very low temperature/frost under hot arid conditions (Singh et al., 2012).

Fig (Ficus carica  Linn.)  also called ‘Anjeer’ is a nutritive and delicious fruit. Its tree is native to western Asia. It is rich in calories (269), protein, and calcium (higher than milk), iron and fibre content. The small deciduous plants of fig are grown in different parts of the country. Fig has been cultivated since ancient period (4000 BC.) and well known through out the world. It is originated in Middle East and naturalized in many parts of the world. Fig tree plantations cover 426,244 ha. area in the world with an overall yield 1070676million tones. The largest fig growing countries are Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Greece and Algeria (Pasqual and Ferreira, 2007). It is also grown in some parts of Australia, California, New- Zealand and Argentina.

Abstract
 
The definition of what drought is and what drought is not, has profound implications for the environment and all segments of society, yet it may be different for each. Many attempts have been made to develop a comprehensive and meaningful definition. A generic definition provides a starting point:  Drought is a persistent and abnormal moisture deficiency having adverse impacts on vegetation, animals, and people. The public perceives “drought” as a serious departure from normal water conditions, a departure that requires a public response to reduce negative impacts. About two thirds of the geographic area of India receives low rainfall (less than 1000 mm), which is also characterized by uneven and erratic distributions.

Abstract

Groundwater flow modeling in hydrological sciences is one of the main tools used to assess the resource potential in terms of quantity and to predict the future impacts under different stresses/scenarios. This case study is prepared to present the  groundwater flow model for the Osian-Mandore pilot area with 12 villages of Mandore Block and 21 village of Osian Block in Jodhpur district of Rajasthan. The spatial model parameters and spatio-temporal fluxes were acquired and processed using remote sensing, GIS and Groundwater flow modeling interfaces. MODFLOW software was used to model the groundwater flow system in three interfaces PMWIN 5.3.0, Groundwater Modeling System and Visual MODFLOW.