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Systematic management of plant diseases dates back to 1885 with the invent of Bordeaux mixture by Milardet. Thereafter, a number of contact and systemic fungicides have been reported over the years for the management of various plant pathogens, of which many have become obsolete and many are still being used with excellence. However, the ecological hazards caused by the chemical fungicides have prompted scientists to search for other avenues of crop protection. Most of the conventional chemical and biological plant protection procedures, as well as the use of disease-resistant cultivars, tend towards the direct control of pests and diseases by their elimination. But these practices generally and particularly in case of monoculture crops like rice, raise problems. The risk of developing pesticide resistance in plant pathogens is enhanced by the long term use of the same chemical. The resistance genes of the plants can also be overcome by changes in the pathogens. Therefore the situation demands development of new strategies for plant protection which can supplement the use of resistance breeding and chemical control.

Introduction

Salinity in India is a major issue affecting the sustainability of irrigated as well as non-irrigated areas particularly in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Orissa. Salt affected soils are unproductive unless excess salts are reduced or removed. These soils occur most extensively in arid and semi-arid climates, but these soils are also found in coastal sea areas where soils are unundated by ocean or sea water. Soils are said to be saline if they contain an excess of soluble salts and sodic or alkali if they contain an excess of sodium salts. Again soils are said to be saline-sodic or saline-alkali if they contain appreciable amounts of both soluble salts and sodium. The impact of salinity manifests itself in several ways. As the salinity increases, not only does the productivity decline but sensitive crops also go out of cultivation and are replaced by salt-tolerant, low value crops and other plant species.

Vegetable occupy an important place in diversification of agriculture and have played a pivotal role in food and nutritional security of ever growing population of our country. The vegetable requirement of our country is estimated at 225 million tonnes by 2020 (Paroda, 2020) against only 134 million tonnes in 2009-10 (NHB, 2010). India is facing, today, with stagnation in crop productivity and slows down in agricultural growth. Declining soil health and fertility is considered as one of the factor for such a decline. The restoration of soil health and fertility is, therefore, a formidable challenge before us to ensure higher and sustainable productivity, profitability and national food and nutritional security.

Introduction

The Indian agriculture is very complex and carrying out multi-functionalities of providing food, nutrition and ecological security besides employment and livelihood for over 700 million people. Indeed, India has made a marvelous achievement in attaining self-sufficiency in food grain production after the introduction of Green Revolution which eventually resulted in maintaining all-time high buffer stock in warehouses of our country. Such rosy picture in production trends turned to be bleak in the past few years.

The management of storage in open and closed storage is critical before start of any seed processing activities. When seed lots reach the shop floor, they need to be stored properly. Unlike commercial produce seed lots cannot be stored in bulk. These need to be stacked lot wise and there is problem of “stackburn”-resulting from successive layers in building a bag stack. In crops like soyabean-”stackburn” can have detrimental effect on seed quality. The quality parameters like germination and viability can get lost instantly if not properly stacked on the pallets.

The management of a rabbit herd is a crucial aspect that requires careful planning and organization. As part of a larger scheme involving five medium-sized rabbit farms, the production and marketing of live rabbits and rabbit meat were streamlined into a single business. Although this may differ from the usual backyard production system, it serves as an ideal example of how one can modify their approach to suit specific needs. The success of this scheme lies in its detailed design, which ensures efficient management and optimal output for the herd. 

Acid soils occupy a considerable area in the country. There are about 90 million ha. of acid soils (27.4 per cent of total geographical area) spread across several states. They are found to occur in the Himalayan region, the eastern and north-eastern plains, peninsular India and the coastal plains under varying environmental conditions of landscape, geology, climate and vegetation. Thirty one million hectare area show severe soil acidity problems (pH 5.5) and 59 million ha. have pH between 5.6 and 6.5 (Sharma and Sarkar, 2005). Laterites and various latosolic soils are the large groups among acid soils. The other groups are podzolic soils, brown forest soils, peaty soils etc., Distribution of acid soils in different states of India is given in (Table 1 and Figure 1). Acid soils usually have problems associated with aluminium, iron and manganese toxicity, low nutrients status, nutrients imbalance and multiple nutrient deficiencies.

• General considerations

 • Ethics for veterinary diagnostic laboratory personnel

 • Safety measures in the laboratory

 • Accidents

 • First aid

 • Acid burns

 • Alkali burns

 • Poisoning

 • Burns caused by heat

 • Injuries caused by broken glass

 • Contamination by infectious materials

 • Bodily damage by electric shock

 • Precautionary measures

In whole of the world, about 6 to 7 m ha of agricultural land is becoming unproductive every year due to one or the other reasons (Gupta, 2018a). This is, however, more so in case of developing countries (Gupta, 2003). Productive lands are utmost important to meet the countryís growing needs for food, fodder, fuel wood, medicinal herbs and timber.

Fish is the most important source of protein for the people of Northeastern India where almost 100% people are fish eaters. So fish culture is very popular in this region. There is a huge demand for fish here and the most popular aquaculture practice is pond culture. The state of Tripura particularly progressed well in fish production and became self sufficient in fish seed production. The state is blessed with 22,895 ha of water bodies where more than 50% (12,895 ha) of area is used for aquaculture purpose. Composite fish culture and integrated aquaculture are very common here. These fish ponds are very productive both in eco-physiological and faunistic point of view. Most of the farmers have a pond area of less than one hectare for fish culture and are unable to go for any supplementary feeding. Average fish productivity is estimated as 1800 kg/ha. Preliminary experiments conducted in the Institute showed that timely application of the fertilizer and/or restricted supplementary feeding improves total production.

Introduction Fishermen of Gulf of Mannar coast were largely depending on traditional fishing gears, and they were mainly exploiting the coastal fishery resources before 1960’s. After the introduction of trawl gears and mechanized fishing boats during 1960’s fishermen were more comfortable with plenty of fish catch, especially the high-valued demersal shrimps. The fishing effort was also increased at a tremendous pace in this region with the addition of stern trawlers. Due to this increment in the fishing effort, the fishery resources and their life-supporting systems such as coral reefs and sea grass beds are seriouslydisturbed.

Abstract

Field experiments were conducted on integrated nutrient management in clitoria at Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Kukma-Bhuj, during 2009 and 2010 with four levels of nitrogen (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha^–1) and phosphorus (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha^–1). In another field experiment, response of clitoria to bio-fertilisers (rhizobium, phosphorus solubilising microbes (PSM) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) was assessed. Other experiments on standardising micronutrient application, seed rate, spacing and intercropping with grasses were also conducted.

Vegetable production in our country is significantly influenced by the seasonality and weather conditions. Extends of abundance and deficiency in production and availability cause considerable fluctuations in the prices and quality of vegetables. Vegetable production, at present, is also characterized by a strong dependence on chemical plant protection with its all inherent environment and health hazards, both for growers and the consumers. Strinking a balance between all-season availability of high quality vegetables with minimum environment impact, and still to remain economically competitive in this time of globalization, is a major challenge for the modern technology of crop production. The crop productivity is influenced by the genetic characteristics of the cultivar and the management practices including nutrients, water and microclimate. Under open field cultivation, while the other factors could be taken care of, it is not possible to effect control on the microclimate around the plant.

Multipurpose trees and shrubs are defined as all woody perennials that are purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production and/or service functions of a land-use system that they occupy. In agroforestry systems, different species of trees and shrubs can be planted with many types of crops in a variety of patterns. Thus, it is required to know about the methods of propagation and nursery raising, planting and other silvicultural management practices along with the diverse uses of multipurpose trees and shrubs of tropical and subtropical areas before their selection for forestry and agroforestry activities. It is important to select the most suitable tree species since it is not easy to replace them once they have been planted.

Mangium (Acacia Mangium)

Acacia mangium is a single-stemmed evergreen tree that grows to 25-35 m in height and up to 60 cm in diameter. The bole is usually straight, often fluted near the base, free of branches for up to half its height. Mangium is native to Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. However, it tolerates varied site conditions and has adaptability to different planting objectives. Mangium shows most vigorous growth on well-drained, fertile soils in high rainfall areas in the humid tropics. It is valued for its rapid growth and has been planted throughout the humid tropics and is a major plantation species in the Asia Pacific. Provenances from Papua New Guinea consistently show better growth in height and diameter.

Multipurpose trees and shrubs are defined as all woody perennials that are purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production and/or service functions of a land-use system that they occupy. In agroforestry systems, different species of trees and shrubs can be planted with many types of crops in a variety of patterns. Thus, it is required to know about the methods of propagation and nursery raising, planting and other silvicultural management practices along with the diverse uses of multipurpose trees and shrubs of tropical and subtropical areas before their selection for forestry and agroforestry activities. It is important to select the most suitable tree species since it is not easy to replace them once they have been planted.

MANGIUM (Acacia mangium)

Acacia mangium is a single-stemmed evergreen tree that grows to 25-35 m in height and up to 60 cm in diameter. The bole is usually straight, often fluted near the base, free of branches for up to half its height. Mangium is native to Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. However, it tolerates varied site conditions and has adaptability to different planting objectives. Mangium shows most vigorous growth on well-drained, fertile soils in high rainfall areas in the humid tropics. It is valued for its rapid growth and has been planted throughout the humid tropics and is a major plantation species in the Asia-Pacific. Provenances from Papua New Guinea consistently show better growth in height and diameter.

Multipurpose trees and shrubs are defined as all woody perennials that are purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production and/or service functions of a land-use system that they occupy. In agroforestry systems, different species of trees and shrubs can be planted with many types of crops in a variety of patterns. Thus, it is required to know about the methods of propagation and nursery raising, planting and other silvicultural management practices along with the diverse uses of multipurpose trees and shrubs of tropical and subtropical areas before their selection for forestry and agroforestry activities. It is important to select the most suitable tree species since it is not easy to replace them once they have been planted.

Multipurpose trees and shrubs are defined as all woody perennials that are purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production and/or service functions of a land-use system that they occupy. In agroforestry systems, different species of trees and shrubs can be planted with many types of crops in a variety of patterns. Thus, it is required to know about the methods of propagation and nursery raising, planting and other silvicultural management practices along with the diverse uses of multipurpose trees and shrubs of tropical and subtropical areas before their selection for forestry and agroforestry activities. It is important to select the most suitable tree species since it is not easy to replace them once they have been planted.

MANGIUM (Acacia mangium)

Acacia mangium is a single-stemmed evergreen tree that grows to 25-35 m in height and up to 60 cm in diameter. The bole is usually straight, often fluted near the base, free of branches for up to half its height. Mangium is native to Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. However, it tolerates varied site conditions and has adaptability to different planting objectives. Mangium shows most vigorous growth on well-drained, fertile soils in high rainfall areas in the humid tropics. It is valued for its rapid growth and has been planted throughout the humid tropics and is a major plantation species in the Asia Pacific. Provenances from Papua New Guinea consistently show better growth in height and diameter.

Organic soils contain _____ % or more of organic matter.

A. 10       B. 15

C. 20      D. 30

Abstract

Maintaining grain in good condition in storage requires careful, routine inspection and good storage practices. An integrated approach of several management tools and practice factors are necessary to manage stored grain to prevent deterioration and wastage: This includes:1) harvesting, handling, and storage equipment; 2) initial condition of the grain; 3) grain moisture content; 4) grain temperature; 5) aeration system management ; 6) insect and mold control; and 7) monitoring grain condition. An effective management program greatly enhances the likelihood of maintaining top quality grain. A well- designed and properly operated storage system with adequate aeration capacity, storing only clean grain at the proper moisture content and temperature, sanitizing the bin before loading, checking the grain condition regularly and correcting problems before they get out of hand are critical management strategies that must be implemented to prevent grain damage and possible serious economic loss.

Management of Calf

Management before birth

    ·    As calf management begins before birth, a few days before the calf is born, the pregnant cow is transferred to a maternity paddock, which should be near the homestead (for closer observation), well watered and free from physical objects.
 
    ·    The signs of imminent parturition (calving) include filling of udder with milk and is turgid, vulva swollen with a string of mucus hanging from vagina.
 
    ·    Insemination records can also be used to estimate the expected calving date.

Goat husbandry has been practiced for thousands of years, since the first domestication of goats. Goat rearing for long mainly consisted of “zero input” concept, which suits well under extensive system of management. Major goat management systems in vogue are nomadic (transhumant)/extensive, semi-intensive and intensive, which have evolved on age-old experience and convenience of resource poor farmers under diverse agro-climatic and agro-ecological conditions.

Nomadic/Transhumant/Migratory/Extensive System

Extensive grazing lands cover vast areas of temperate Asia, and are important both environmentally and as a source of livelihood for goat and sheep herders.This practice is strengthened by migratory, free range, pasture cum range grazing options. The goats are compelled to often graze over long distances in search of feed and water. Under nomdic (transhumant) system, both grasslands and browse are important vegetation type. Land tenure problems, or lack of clarity in grazing rights are some of the emerging challenges for the goat herders under nomadic system. Many a times, the conflict of interests between settled farmers and herders is increasing with rising population pressure and intensification of agriculture. Poor pasture condition is one of the major constraint for the goat herders under nomadic system. Some of the measures suggested to improve the situation include better grazing management, reseeding with high-yielding species, and herder training.

Goat and sheep are two species which have been traditionally managed extensively. Mixed flocks of sheep and goats are common, although separate flocks of either species can also be seen. Extensively managed animals have considerably more behavioural freedom compared to intensively managed animals that are always more confined. Goat has an advantage over other species of livestock in that they can live and produce on land unfavourable for other forms of agriculture. Goat has the ability to forage and survive in areas, where cattle and buffaloes would perform poorly. Goat can revert to wild conditions if given the opportunity whereas sheep donot.

Management can be viewed as a group effort towards a common goal in which team behaviour plays the important role. According to this view, the material resources and external environment are common to all management; what makes for effectiveness and success of one group relative others is management - that is, the human element - behaving in group and leading the business to its determined goal.

Management may in short be called a science of decision-making or a science of choice. A farmer has to make judicious decisions on the use of scarce resources, having alternative uses to obtain the maximum profit and family satisfaction on a continuous basis from the farm as a whole. In other words, management seeks to help the producer in deciding problems like what to produce, how much to produce and when to buy and sell and organization and managerial problems relating to these decisions.

Management – Definition

According to Lawrence A. Appley, management is an art of getting things done through the efforts of other people.

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management. Management refers to the sum total of all those functions or activities, which relate to the laying down of policies, plans and purposes, securing men, money, machinery needed for the achievement of the organisational objectives, putting all of them into operation and supervising and checking their performances in order to ensure the productive use of human and material resources for the maximum benefit or profit of the organisation, its employees and society in general.

Management is the sum total of five principal functions namely planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The functional areas of management include: a) Financial management, b) Personnel management, c) material management, d) Production management, e) marketing management and f) Office management.

Managerial skills and performance appraisal system is the right instrument that plays a vital role directly or indirectly in achieving the goals of an organization. It improves the interpersonal relationship among the employees and employers in the organization. It reflects an evaluative judgment of the traits, characteristics and the work performance of the employees on jobs. Management skills are also known as leadership skills and involve planning, decision making, delegation, time management and time management to ensure optimum organization in focus and the technical of how and why of accomplishing tasks. Managers who are expected to carry out performance appraisal should have some appropriate training. This should include the reasons the organization carries out appraisals, and the skills of performance appraisal. Managers need to appreciate how the process fits into the wider strategic process of performance management, and how the data collected contributes to an analysis of the organization’s human resources, and its capability to contribute to business strategy and value.

1. Introduction

The library, often perceived as a tranquil oasis, can be a hotbed of emotions. Behind the scenes, library employees and patrons alike struggle to manage their emotions, and anger can be a particularly pervasive and destructive force. The pressure to meet deadlines, the stress of dealing with difficult patrons, and the frustration of working with outdated technology can all contribute to a simmering sense of anger and resentment. But anger is not just a personal problem, it can have far-reaching consequences for the library as a whole. Unchecked anger can lead to decreased productivity, strained relationships, and even violence. It can also create a toxic work environment, driving away talented employees and eroding the trust of the community. Despite the importance of anger management, it is often overlooked in library training and professional development. Library employees are frequently expected to manage their emotions without being given the tools or support to do so. This can lead to a culture of silence, where employees suffer in silence, afraid to speak out about their struggles with anger.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) has alerted developing countries about possible steep rises in food prices during 2011, if steps are not taken immediately to significantly increase the production of major food crops. According to FAO, ‘with the pressure on world prices of most commodities not abating, the international community must remain vigilant against further supply shocks in 2011’. World cereal production is likely to contract by 2 per cent and global cereal stocks may decline sharply. The price of sugar has reached a 30-year high, while international prices of wheat have increased by 12 per cent in the first week of December 2010 as compared to their November average.

The quantitative and qualitative dimensions of under- and malnutrition prevailing in our country are well known.  The Steering Committee of a high level panel of experts on food and nutrition set up under my chairmanship to advise the UN Committee on Food Security (CFS) has recently concluded that what we need urgently is a comprehensive, coordinated approach to tackling chronic, hidden and transitory hunger, and not piecemeal approaches.

Abstract

Service tax is an indirect tax.  It is a tax levied by the Central Government on service providers on certain service transactions, but is actually borne by the customers. Just like excise duty is payable on goods which are manufactured, similarly service tax is payable on services provided. Service tax is charged on all services except the services in the negative list of services.  Based on the manageing business in emerging economics, this article discuss about the person liable to pay service tax, negative list, rates of service tax, due date of paying tax and penalty for non-payment of tax.

Abstract

Extension education as a subject field as well as extending services to clients is found to be associated with the bio-production system and some service areas where the actual stakeholders are not a part of the specified field of knowledge and technology. Taking the example of a bio-production system like agriculture, horticulture, fishery, animal and veterinary science, sericulture, forestry, etc. - paradoxically contrasting to an industrial production system, in which actual practitioners (farmers) do not come to respective institutions where the S & T inputs in the respective fields are generated and disseminated. There lies the necessity and importance of extension in order to reach them with appropriate S & T inputs which can boost up the production and productivity of crops and lands. This is particularly necessary for meeting the food, feed, fiber requirement of the ever-increasing human and animal population as well as to maintain seed reserve. Improvement of bio-production systems in terms of their production and productivity is largely dependent on public (government) funds and efforts are being made to improve these sectors through a different extension program. Since independence through different projects and programme, like, IAAP, IADP, HYVP, IRDP, Training & Visit, IVLP, NAIP, NATP, and many others have been launched. But there was criticism that these projects were not managed efficiently to yield the expected outcome.

Fishery resources get depleted due to over fishing and one of the important management measure is to assess the fish stock, get update on the status of fishing and devise measures to mitigate fishery resource depletion. Recent examples of such management regulations in Indian fisheries are implementation of minimum legal size for fish catch, regulations brought out to control length and size of fishing fleet etc. With multi-dimensional expansion of fishing activities in India, it is necessary to analyse stock data critically bringing out suitable recommendations for fishery management. Stock assessment models play a vital role in management of fisheries.

Fish stock assessment is an evaluation of the state of the stock as relating to changes in the abundance or composition of the stock to changes in the amount of fishing. It involves the use of theories, laws, models and methods propagated by various scientists. There are two general approaches - population model (Schaefer, 1954, 1957) in which the stock is treated as a single entity subject to simple laws of population growth and the analytic approach (Ricker, 1958, 1975) which considers the abundance of the population as determined by the net effect of the growth, reproduction and mortality of individual members of the stock.

Stock assessment gives us the maximum sustainable yield (MSY), fish mortality, the input and output into the fisheries. The various environmental changes as they affect biological and physical features of a fish species, family or the group need to be assessed by using a model for its stock assessment and the basic data is got from research and commercial surveys.

Research survey is a detailed investigation of the fish based on the objectives. It involves taking the data on biological parameters of the fish (length, weight, sex etc), the food of the fish including the percentage composition. Other factors include the environmental features such as time, weather, position of catch, physicochemical parameters of the water body. Commercial survey involves taking note of basic and important information of commercial usefulness e.g length-weight frequencies, percentage composition etc which are strictly for economic purpose.

“Necessity is the mother of invention”, all of us must have heard this statement at some juncture in our lives. Most of us may even have even gone through the motion of inventing something when needed. However, more and more inventions happening today may not necessarily be necessities. These inventions definitely perform the task of improvingand making convenient our overall living environment. Past few years have seen an increasing awareness and understanding in the field of intellectual property. Among all aspects, one aspect of intellectual property that is gaining increasing attention of intellectual property owners is management of the intellectual property rights.

This brings to our minds one question, how was intellectual property management practised by early mankind? We all do know that early mankind has left no stone unturned to make theabove statement”Necessity is the mother of invention”, a reality. Mankind prospered by leaps and bounds on account of sharing their various discoveries and inventions. Way back then knowledge was meant to be shared, as aptly captured in the Sanskrit Sloka:

Abstract

Plants are an integral component of life in many ethnic communities. Plant-based medicaments have been used since time immemorial as curative and protective agents for prolonging life of humans and animals by combating a plethora of ailments. One such ailment affecting women of reproductive age-group is leucorrhea. The study aimed at systematically documenting the precious traditional knowledge regarding the plants traditionally used for curing leucorrhea in Jammu and Kashmir. A total of 55 infomants (39 females and 16 males) between the age group 25-94 years were selected and interviewed for extracting ethnomedicinal information and 29 plant species belonging to 28 genera and 23 families were observed to be of ethnomedicinal significance in the treatment of leucorrhea in Jammu and Kashmir. Fabaceae was observed to be the frequently encountered family. Bulk of the taxa were observed to grow in wild habitat and majority of them were herbs. Seeds were observed to be of highest therapeutic significance and ethnomedicinal formulations were prepared in the form of powder, decoction, paste, etc and all of these were administered orally. The present study may serve as a base line data for further research and will go a long way in the treatment of leucorrhea thereby promoting well being of women folk. Advanced investigations are required to validate the time-tested information associated with medicinal flora to determine the identity of phytochemicals linked with leucorrhea, so that compounds of pharmacological application having prospective relevance in the alleviation of human maladies may be discovered.

Introduction

Biological-based crop protection against plant viruses aims to develop sustainable, non-chemical, crop management technologies that utilize natural-occurrants and phytotoxins to control economically important diseases. In this area the efforts were made since the realization that viruses can not be controlled directly unlike other pathogen.

At present in the absence of any direct control of the viruses, strategies so far have been adopted to control them indirectly; like controlling the vectors of viruses (insects, nematodes, fungi etc.), using barrier crops, and use of resistant cultivars. However, success had been very limited. As the biological sciences advanced, many biological systems were utilized to control the diseases in plants caused by viruses, promising among them is using apical-meristem culture techniques to produce virus free plantlets as starting material.

Managing soil organic matter is of paramount importance in sustainable crop production. Human interventions always lead to a decrease in soil organic matter content and biological activity. Therefore, even for maintaining moderate levels of organic matter in soils, sustained efforts should be in place. Such sustained efforts should include adopting high-residue crops in rotation and ensuring regular return of residues to soils.

It is all the more difficult to maintain the organic matter content in well aerated soils and soils of hot and arid regions, because in these soils added materials decompose rapidly. However, in comparison, it may not be so difficult to maintain the organic matter levels in fine-textured soils with restricted aeration and in soils of cold temperate regions.

19.1. Measures that Decrease Soil Organic Matter Content

Introduction

Increasing fresh water demands for ever growing population and it has increased by 600% over the past 100 year (Wada, et. Al, 2016) the annual increment rate 1.8 % whereas the present growth rate is less, only 1 % but this figure may be optimistic. The global water demands will grow significantly over the next two decades in all three components as: Industry, domestic and agriculture (U.N, 2018) industry and domestic demand will grow faster than agriculture, but agriculture demands will remain largest (U.N, 2018). The global water demands for all purpose will increase 20% to 30% by 2050, up to 5,500 to 6,000 km3 per year (Burek et.al, 2016), whereas, agricultural demands will increase by 60% by 2025 (Alexandrators and Bruinsma, 2012).

Mango (Mangifera indica L.), the choicest fruit of India, is said to be the king of fruits. Mango belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and genus Mangifera. The fruits are lusciously juicy, with pleasant aroma and sweet taste. In nutritive valve and popularity, no other fruit can match it. It is an outstanding source of vitamin A, a good source of vitamin C, apart from normal minerals and other vitamins. In, India, it occupies the same position as apple does in temperate countries and grapes in certain other regions.

According to de Candolle, mango has been under cultivation in India for over 4000 years. References indicate that Alexander the Great noticed a beautiful mango plantation in the Indus Valley in 327 BC. Early foreign traveller like Huen-tsang (632-645), Ibn-Haukul, (902-968 AD) Ibn- batuta (1325-1349 AD) and Ludovici de Varthema (1503-1508) also praised the mangoes grown in India and mentioned it in their travel notes.

Mango is native to southern Asia, especially eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands. Besides India, mango is cultivated as a commercial crop in many countries, such as, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Fiji Island, Tropical Australia, Egypt, Israel, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, the USA (Florida, Hawaii and Puerto Rico), Mexico, Brazil, Haiti and West Indies.

Varietie/Hybrids: Dashehari, Langra, Chausa, Fazli, Malda and Bombay Green are the popular varieties in Northern and Central India. Alphonso, Kesar, Pairi, Rajapuri, Jamadar, and Totapuri are widely grown in Western India. Bangenapalli, Suvarnarekha, Neelum, Totapuri, Malgoa and Alphonso are popularly grown in Southern India and Gulabkhas, Kishen Bhog, Himsagar, Zardal, Fazli and Langra are grown mainly in Eastern part of the country. Mallika, Amrapali, Manjeera, Ratna, Niranjan, Neeleshan, Neelishwari, Neelphonso, Arka Aruna, Arka puneet, Arka Anmol, Sidhu and CISH-M1 are some of the hybird varieties available.

Mango, like some of the other perennial crops viz. Citrus has varied reproductive mechanisms i.e. both sexual and asexual. Understanding of the physiology of flowering in mango has remained largely inconclusive and tangible explanation for the irregular pattern of flowering during the recent years is not forthcoming. Mango is a highly heterozygous crop and this high heterozygosity in the cultivars which are used in hybridization and the inherent difficulties in obtaining large hybrid population have made accurate genetic analysis in mango very difficult (Iyer and Schnell, 2009). Despite the drawbacks ailing mango breeding like high heterozygosity, occurrence of only a single seed per fruit, breeding can be successful because of a number of positive attributes of the species like the wide range of available genetic variation and the ease with which a selected hybrid can be vegetatively propagated (Iyer and Schnell, 2009). However, in spite of the large variability, sufficient headway has not been made in the improvement. Naik et al., (1958), opined that it is the large variability in India, too many cultivars and heavy regional preferences which have hindered the production of new commercial varieties on a large scale. The various botanical features of mango along with features of cytology and breeding are discussed below:

Mango (Mangifera indica L), the king of fruits, is cultivated throughout a wide range of frost-free climates (Litz 1998). It is commercially the most important fruit crop of India, accounting for more than 54% of the total mango production worldwide. The fruit of mango (Mangifera indica L.) is exceptional for its juicy, succulent, thick fruit pulp and nutrient abundance in terms of wide range of amino acids, sugars, organic acids, minerals including Ca, P, Fe, and K and vitamins. Out of several diseases which attack mango crop, mango malformation disease is a serious threat to its cultivation since it causes gross deformation of the vegetative and floral tissues (Ploetz et al., 2002; Kumar et al., 2011). Floral malformation is a major problem in mango, rendering mango cultivation unproductive in northern India and other regions of the world (Pandey et al., 1977; Ram, 1991).

1. Introduction

Fermented milk products such as yoghurt are produced through out world (Kurmann et al., 1992). Yoghurt can be characterized as a gel like coagulated milk product, having a smooth consistency and a pleasing flavour and is now widely consumed both by infant and adult populations. It is common that yogurt preparation involves the use of equal amounts of two lactic acid bacteria (LAB): Streptococcus thermophillus (St) and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus (Lb); samples prepared with these starter bacteria are labeled Lb-St (Ng et al., 2011). In the early stage of the incubation process, Lb stimulates the growth of St releasing amino acids from casein (where the most important is valine) and producing a moderate reduction in pH due essentially to St. Yoghurt has better digestibility than milk and this is related to its comparatively high content of free amino acids. Besides nutritional value, it possesses hypocholesterolaemic (Mann, 1977) and antitumour effects (Odd et al., 1983; Reddy et al., 1983).Yoghurt may be set or stirred and has a potential for being used as dietary supplement for infants. So they cross the line between dietary supplements, health foods and conventional foods with great facility. Now a days, emphasis is given on sweeteners and more natural sweeteners will be used (Hollingsworth, 2001). Natural sweeteners can be easily incorporated in yoghurt by blending cattle milk with fruit pulps like mango. The enhancement of other nutrients e. g. vitamins and minerals will be added advantage. Mango pulp which contains a high proportion of sugar, mostly monosaccharide, is easily adsorbed by the digestive systems (Celik and Bakirci, 2003).

Soybean is a comparatively inexpensive source of high quality protein. The protein and fat contents in soybean are above 40 % and 20 %, respectively. Nutritionally, soy protein is a more balanced plant protein for human consumption. Studies have indicated that consumption of soy protein decreases total serum cholesterol and minimizes risks for several cancers (Anderson et al., 1995; Messina, 1997; Zind, 1998). The positive health benefits associated with soybeans have greatly increased its consumer awareness which has created a large market for soy foods (Ohr, 2000; Liu, 2000). The problem of beany flavour in soy products can be overcome by lactic acid fermentation (Buono et al., 1990; Granata and Morr, 1996). Soy solids are not only abandoned source of protein but also have therapeutic properties against breast, prostate, colon and lung cancers due to its isoflavones like genistein and daidzein content. Fortification with soy made yoghurt beneficial in lowering cholesterol level and blood pressure and in relieving symptoms of menopause and osteoporosis.

Important Commercial Mango Varieties

Northern Region: Langra, Dashehari, Chausa, Bombay Green, Amrapali, Sukul, Sipia

Eastern Region: Himsagar, Langra, (syn. Malda), Krishna-Bhog, Zardalu, Gulabkhas, Fazli.

Southern Region: Banganapalli, Bangalora, Mulgoa, Neelum, Swarnarekha,

Western Region: Alphonso, Kesar, Pairi.

Mango is the national fruit of India which has been cultivated in India from time immemorial. It is indigenous to India and dates back to around 4000 BC. The wild mango is said to have been originated in the foothills of Himalayas in India and Burma. The mango was cultivated as early as 2000 BC. Gradually, the wild mango developed into an exotic, richly flavoured succulent fruit that is enjoyed even today. In the early stages of domestication, fruits were probably very small and fibrous without much flesh. The Mughals and Portuguese selected and grew mango plants for generations. Centuries of development have produced varieties of mangoes free from both fibre and unpleasant flavour. This eventually led to larger fruits with thick flesh that we are familiar with today. The Chinese traveler Huien T’sang, who visited Hindustan between 632 and 645 A.D., was the first person, so far as known, to bring the mango to the notice of the outside world.

Mango Fruit fly : Bactrocera dorsalis : Tephritidae

This is probably the most economically important pest of mango. It can attack many crops like mango, guava, peach, apricot, cherry, pear, ber, citrus, banana, papaya, avocado, passion fruit, coffee, melons, jack fruit and strawberry. There are also related species that may cross infect. The adults are light brown small flies with a single pair of membranous transparent wings. The other pair is modified into halteres. Eggs are thrust into the skin of the mangoes when they are semi ripe. A drop of resin comes out of the ovipunctures and can be seen as a black mark. While purchasing mango, this can be used as an indication of the presence of the fruit fly eggs.

Genus : Mangifera 
Species : indica L.
Family : Anacardiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 40

In the early Sanskrit literature  Amra, mango was known to Indian at very early times. Mango occupies an important place in the Hindu mythology as well as in various religious observances. Various archaeological discoveries also mention the presence of Mango in India. Alexander the Great in 327 BC during his invasion found mango cultivation in the Indus Valley. The Buddhist and Chinese pilgrims in their travel notes have also indicated mango cultivation. Amir Khusru a famous Turkoman poet has quoted ‘Mango as the pride of garden, the choicest fruit of Hindustan’. During the Mogul Emperors, mango occupied an important place in fruit culture. The Ain-e-Akbari an encyclopaedia work written during the rule of Akbar, gives detail account of mango, varietal characteristics, quality etc. In praise of mango, British authors lavished huge praise and designated it as King of Fruits and that the Goa mango is perhaps the largest and most delicious, wholesome and best tasted of any fruit

Origin and history: Mango is the king of fruits which is grown in India for over 400 years. More than 1000 varieties exist today. It grown in almost all state, India’s share is about 56% of total mango production in the world. Its production has been increasing since independent contributing 39.5% of total fruit production in India. Andhra Pradesh top in the production and Uttar Pradesh is top in area. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, West Bengal and Gujarat together contribute for about 82% of total production. 

Climate and Soil: Mango thrives well in tropical and subtropical climate. High humidity, rainfall and frost during the flowering period is harmful. The favourable temperature for its cultivation is about 24-27^ºC however, it can tolerant to the temperature up to 48^ºC.

Mangoes (Mangifera indica L.) belong to the family Anacardiaceae, has become naturalized and adapted throughout the tropics and subtropics. There are over 1,000 varieties throughout the world, which is a testament to their value to mankind. Popularly known as ‘King of Fruits’, mango is eaten throughout the world. Commercial mango cultivation is based on locally adapted and recommended cultivars. There is a great diversity in mango fruit which permits considerable manipulation of various purposes and markets such as juice, candy, chutney, amchur, pickles, jam, jelly, fresh fruit, canned and/or dried fruit etc. Given the multiple products, it is therefore a potential source of foreign exchange for a developing country as well as a potential source of employment for a considerable seasonal labour force.

PRESENT STATUS

India is the leading country sharing 42.1 % of the world mango production. Currently, it is cultivated in 22,97,000 ha with a total production of 1,51,88,000 tonnes. In India, all fruits share 29.25 % of total land and 31.13 % of total fruit production of which, 36 % of land and 20.3 % of production is under mango. Mango prefers a warm, frost-free climate with a well defined winter dry season. Rain and high humidity during flowering and fruit development reduces fruit yield. The tree generally flowers in mid- to late winter, while fruits mature during early to mid-summer. Mango trees are usually between 3-10 m (10–33 ft) tall but can reach up to 30 m (100 ft) in some forests. The canopy is evergreen with a generally spreading habit. The heavy canopy of the mango is a source of shelter and shade for both animals and human beings. It occupies a pre-eminent place among sub-tropical fruits grown in some states.

Mango is most important of all fruit crops in terms of are coverage and production, besides its socioeconomics providing livelihood to million of people in India and it is acknowledged as the king of fruit of this country. The greatest tribute of this esteemed plant was paid by Emperor Akabar (1556–1605) who established the Lal Bag (a mango orchards having one lakh plants) in Darbhanga (Bihar) when large orchards of fruit trees were unknown. In Ain-I-Akbari, a master piece of Persian literature, written by the great chronicler Abul Fazal (1590 AD) during the region of Akbar. Popularity of mango among the consumers is increasing due to its delicious flavour and much higher nutritional and therapeutic values. Thus, mango is now appreciated and spreading across the globe. It is grown in more than 90 countries. Washing of mouth and hand are necessary after eating the fruit so, it is also known as bathroom fruit.

Area and Production

India is the single largest producer of fruit, accounting for 49.6 per cent of area and 49.1 per cent of the total world production. Mango occupies 23.13 million hectares area in India. Amongst the major mango-exporting countries India, Mexico, Brazil and Pakistan accounted for 3.5, 1.4 and 3.3 per cent of total area under mangoes in the world respectively. The productivity of mango is highest with 13.6 tonnes/ha in Brazil and 7.0 tonnes/ha in India which is much lower. India contributed about 45.7 per cent of total mango production (35.71 million tonnes) in the world, making it the most important mango producing country. Andhra Pradesh ranks first as it produces about 27 per cent of total mango production and Uttar Pradesh is ranked second in production (23.9%) with productivity of13 tonnes/ha. At present the varieties like ‘Alphonso’ grown in Maharashtra and Gujarat and ‘Dashehari’ in U.P. are exported to countries viz. Afghanistan, Bahrain, France, Kuwait, Malaysia, Nepal, Qatar, Singapore and U.K. Mango nectar and pulp has great scope to European and American market.

It is a very common disease of mango. It is otherwise known as blossom blight, leaf spot, twig blight or wither tip.

Annual rainfall requirement- 75-190 cm

Common names of Malda - Fazli in Calcutta Bombay green in UP Sehroli in Delhi

• The ‘Portuguese Jesuits in Goa started Inarching about 300 years ago. (90% success)
• The seedlings can be inarched when they are three months old as is done in the “Philippines”.
• The Indian nurserymen usually practice inarching in one-year-old seedlings.
• Grafts onto older seedlings result in poor root system.
• There should be no rain; otherwise, water gets inside the union and causes rotting of tissues.
• The name Mangifera was given for the first time by “Bontus” in 1658 when he referred to this as arbor Mangifera (the tree producing mango). Linnaeus also referred it as Mangifera arbor in 1747 before changing the name to its present form “Mangifera indica” in 1753.

Mango was firstly grown within glasshouse in 1960 at England.