eChapters

Introduction

India has one of the best agricultural research systems in the world with better amount man-power amongst the developing countries. The research system includes more than 30,000 scientists along with 1,00,000 subordinate personnel actively engaged in research system in the country involved to agricultural research which considered to be second highest next to China. The achievement and success looks very much impressive and at par with all the developed nations of the world.

National Agricultural System

India has one of the largest agricultural research systems in the world with the largest number of scientific personnel of any developing country except China. The research system includes approximately 30,000 scientists and more than 100,000 supporting staff actively engaged in research related to agriculture. Although the total number of scientists engaged in agricultural research in India looks very impressive, it compares less favorably with many developed countries.

The present agricultural research system comprises essentially two main streams, the ICAR at the national level and the Agricultural Universities at the State level. Besides, several other agencies such as General Universities, Scientific Organizations, and various Ministries/Departments at the Centre, as also Private or Voluntary Organizations participate directly or indirectly in research activities related to agriculture.

Introduction

Indian agriculture has come a long way since the inception of planning in1951. All along there was an almost obsessive concern of development policy with the attainment of self-sufficiency in food. We faced nightmare of absolute shortage of food grains supplies in the 1960s, when the average annual imports of wheat hovered around three million tones. We survived through this phase because of the munificence of the US, which supplied wheat to us under its PL 480 programme. There have been several policy statements for agriculture during the last sixty years. India attained self-sufficiency in food grains in the 1970s and what is more, has emerged as an exporter of food grains in more recent years. Attainment of food self-sufficiency, even in a technical sense, is admittedly an important landmark in the history of growth of Indian agriculture, but this has not meant the dilution of problems facing Indian agriculture. Problems of agricultural growth and rural development in general continue to remain, in the new millennium, as daunting as they were in the 1950s. One major difference is that agricultural sector today faces a host of what we might call second generation problems.

Introduction

Today, concerns regarding environmental safety and sustainability of land productivity are increasing amongst the scientists, administrators and environmentalists. It is doubted whether the strategy adopted during the so-called green revolution era could be continued any longer under the challenging conditions of this new century. Already, a section of people in the world is questioning the propriety of conventional agriculture, and a few of them are advocating alternative practices that are perceived to lay foundation for sustained production. On these lines, systems like alternative agriculture, natural farming and organic farming were proposed at various conventions. However, the scientists harping on the success of green revolution continue to doubt whether such a system can really be functional, productive and meet the growing demands for agricultural products in this e-age. These emphasize the need to develop new strategy of living with the nature and nurturing it for sustainable production

Speculation on Indian agriculture

The spectacular observations made in the Economic Survey of 2015-16 that “Indian agriculture, is in a way, a victim of its own accomplished success and in abnormality the green revolution”, shows the absoluteness of the agricultural planning at present and the calamity that has been wreaked by the green revolution. The green revolution, which is generally characterized by the addition of high-yielding varieties of seeds and fertilizers uses, assuredly added the higher quantity of crop coverage considerably. There has been acceptance of destroying ecological balance furnishings in the composition in felling down water table, discharge of greenhouse gases, and the contamination of ground water. Needless to say, the agricultural area is in an accompaniment of distress, which is acutely affecting peasants and bordering farmers, and burning action interventions are adapted to assure their interests. The government has responded to constitute basic panel, which will acclaim organization to increase the assets of farmers by 2022. This might be a frankly insistent target, if not wish to make addition of stagnated agronomical advance in open face to be made. However, there are flourishing hurdles that to be accepted if to wish accomplishment of this objective.

Introduction

International agricultural setup has appeared as it now taking all out consideration and agricultural heritage, crop voyage, crop classification and its significances. International cooperation has contended a big role in developing and strengthening the research system in Asian country. several developed countries like USA, UK, USSR, Canada, Australia, Japan, many European countries; Charitable establishments, etc.; altruist and Ford Foundations; varied International Agencies like FAO, UNDP, UNESCO, World Bank, etc.; and also the International Agricultural Research Centres below the consultatory cluster on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) System have contributed extensively to the explanation for agricultural RESEARCH in Asian country. Spectacular achievements in increasing the food production have raised the country’s image significantly, and also the bilateral arrangements have modified from the erstwhile donor-donee standing to relationship of equal partnership in research. The reciprocity and mutuality of interests with the less developed and in addition because the technologically advanced countries square measure the essence of international co-operation. The government has approved ICAR, motor-assisted by the board of directors of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), to enter into bilateral cooperative agreements with many countries and agencies. The mode of collaboration ordinarily follows the pattern of: (a) exchange of germ-plasm of plant and animal origin; (b) exchange of scientific and technical information; (c) visits of scientists and experts; (d) coaching of scientists; and (e) infrastructure development.

1.1. Agriculture

Derived from Latin word; Ager-soil and culture-Cultivation.

An art: Governs the knowledge to perform the operations of the farm in a skillful ways.

A science: Uses technologies including breeding, production technologies, crop protection, economics etc., to maximize the yield and profitability of the farmer.

A business: Way of life for a rural population.

Involves management of labour, water and capital, and employing technologies for production of food, fibre, feed and fuel through mechanization to achieve maximum returns.

As per Agricultural act 1947, agriculture includes horticulture, fruit growing, seed growing, dairy farming, livestock breeding, grazing land, meadow land, market gardens and nursery gardens.

India is an agricultural country and nearly 70% of its population is dependent directly or indirectly on agriculture and related activities. At present, about 173 million hectares of land is under agriculture of which about 143 million hectare are cultivated without fallow. Mounting pressures of teeming population and shrinking land (due to urbanization) have necessitated the production of increasingly more food per unit area. In the efforts to increase the food production and make the country self-sufficient in food grains, modern technology adopted since ‘Green Revolution’ in the middle sixties has paid a significant role. Higher yields in almost all crops were possible with exotic and high yielding genotypes and availability of seeds, heavy doses of fertilizers, frequent irrigation, labour and repeated applications of pesticides. However, several genotypes particularly hybrids proved to be susceptible to pests and disease pathogens. Insect-pests, diseases and weeds are important biotic-constraints inflicting 20-25% losses in agricultural production. Farmers were therefore compelled to use pesticides extensively and frequently.

Plant protection is an integral part of the crop production and pesticides proved to be valuable means in plant protection to ensure plenty food. However, some of the pesticides are highly hazardous and their residue remains undetected and posses risk to human safety and health. Moreover, the repeated and incorrect applications without following need-based criteria have resulted in several secondary side effects ². For instance, increased resistance of pests to insecticides, harmful to beneficial and non-target insects and animals, undesirable effects on crop plants and environmental hazards. Safety has become a major worry in factories and outside the working places. Besides these, repeated and heavy pesticide applications add to the cost of production and misery to farmer. These ill effects of synthetic pesticides have aroused interest in alternate methods of plant protection.

Introduction

In agriculture and public health sectors, a variety of pesticides are still in uses that are toxic chemicals and having broad-spectrum actions. They kill target species but also harm the ecosystem seriously by affecting desirable organisms, thus, badly impairing prey-predator relationship. Most of these pesticides are persistent or non-biodegradable and hence exhibit biological magnification by accumulating at higher concentration in the organism, which are on the top of the food chain. The other drawbacks of repeated use of pesticides are eradication of natural enemies of pests, increased level of pesticide residues in soil, water, food and fodder crops, resistance of pests to pesticides and resurgence of minor pests in addition to the environmental pollution. It is clear that once used pesticide may persist, somewhere causing serious harm to the mankind and his ecosystem.

The increasing incidence of pesticide harms is fueling the need for new pesticides, which are toxicologically safe, more selective and efficacious and environment-friendly. Now the natural compounds, thus, have increasingly become the focus of those interested in discovery of pesticides. Tens of thousands of secondary products of plants have been identified and there are estimates that hundreds of thousands of these compounds exist. There is growing evidence that most of these compounds are involved in the interaction of plants with other species-primarily the defense of the plants from plant pests. Thus, these secondary compounds represent a large reservoir of chemical structures with biological activity. This resource is largely untapped for use as pest management agents^3, 4. The extraction of such chemicals from plants and derivatives of potent compounds are being encouraged all over the world under the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approaches. The natural compounds and their synthetic derivatives are more selective in action, completely biodegradable and environment-friendly. In short, natural ways of pests control have already been established and are receiving much attention these days.

Introduction

In man’s continued effort to enhance food production, new high yielding crop varieties and new techniques for crop and field management are being constantly evolved resulting in a parallel increase in disease occurrence which calls for their efficient management. Of the various management strategies available for disease management, the chemical strategies have so far dominated our thinking. Over emphasis on chemical control of plant diseases has caused serious imbalances in the agro-ecosystem^1-2.

The shift to exploration of non-chemical strategies is likely to correct the imbalance in our approach and subsequently improve the understanding of Integrated Disease Management (IDM). IDM is defined as ‘a disease management system that utilizes all suitable techniques in a compatible manner to reduce and maintain pest pathogen population at levels below those causing economic injury.’ Fungi are the important group of pathogens.

In continuation of our work on natural pest management agents the present investigation aims at the preparation of different types of aqueous extracts of locally available four Indian medicinal plants viz., Datura stramonium Linn (Datura), Ricinus communis Linn. (Castor), Vitex trifolia Linn. (Nirgudi) and Nerium indicum Mill. (Kanher); study of stability of these extracts at room temperature; and evaluation of their anti-fungal potencies. This study will help to preserve and increase the pest management potency and efficacy of natural products.

Introduction

The biological systems on the earth are in a dynamic equilibrium. In this attempt to live comfortably man disturbs this equilibrium in many, one of which is the cultivation of crop plants to meet his requirements for food, clothing and shelter. Intensive and extensive n of crop plants provides not only better crops but also better ties for pests and diseases to attack these crops. The greater loss due to the pests and diseases, the greater the attempt to these damages. Bacteria are one of the important disease since time immemorial. Bacteria are found in every ble habitat. They are unicellular, but display a variety of ‘cal forms.

The present investigation on the botanicals  has been aimed at preparation of different types of aqueous extracts of locally available medicinal plants viz., Datura stramonium (Datura), Ricinus Castor), Vitex trifolia (Nirgudi) and Nerium indicum (Kanher); the study concentration and stability of these extracts at room temperature; and evaluation of their anti-bacterial activities. This study will be helpful to preserve and increase the pest management potency and efficiency of plant derived products.

Introduction

There are a number of estimates of post-harvest losses. The most conservative estimates for the handling losses at about 10 per cent, a quantity good enough to feed at least 60 million people. Storage loss occurs due to quantitative and qualitative damages caused by insects, mites, fungi, rodents, birds, heat, moisture, etc. Several hundred insect species have been reported to be associated with stored grains and milled and processed foods, but some 50 of these species are considered injurious. Under Indian conditions, the most important insect pests of stored grains are Sitophilus oryzae (Rice weevil), Tribolium castaneum (Red flour beetle), Rhizopertha dominica (Lesser grain borer), Callasobruchus spp. (Pulse beetle), etc.

The use of repellents to ward off insects has been a very old practice of mankind. The simple fly swatters, feather dusters, hand fans, mosquito nets etc., are some of the physical repellants still in use. In our own country, mustard oil or turmeric (haldi) water is also used as a mosquito repellent. Fire and smoke are the two oldest insect repellents known to man. To get rid of wasp nests from our dwelling or ward off honeybees during honey extraction, smoke is normally employed. Similarly sandal dhoop is often burnt to purify air (i. e. to ward off insects) in our houses.

Chemicals that prevent insect damage to plants or animals by rendering them unattractive or offensive are called repellents. A more broad-based definition would be: non-poisonous or mildly poisonous chemicals that induce avoiding (oriented movements in insects away from their source. Repellents are more important in the protection of man and his animals from insect attacks than in the protection plants.

Introduction

The food problem in the world is expected to become more serious if the world population keeps growing at the present rate. Out of various strategies to solve the problem, the post-harvest handling of the grains is of paramount importance. Tribolium species is major pest of stored grain and grain products in the tropics. Control of this insect relies heavily on the use of synthetic insecticides, which has led to many problems such as increasing costs of application, pest resurgence, pest resistance to pesticides and lethal effects on non-target organisms in addition to direct toxicity to users and disturbances of the environment. Thus, insecticides of natural origin are rational alternatives of synthetic insecticides. Several botanicals, natural products and their derivatives have been reported and exhibit better efficacy and potency against the stored grain pests.

In the present investigation, an attempt has also made to test ovicidal, larvicidal and adult emergence suppression potentials of the extracts of some of the locally available Indian medicinal plant viz., Datura stramonium, Ricinus communis, Vitex trifolia and Nerium indicum against T. castaneum against T. castaneum, commonly called as Red flour beetle.

Since the wide introduction of organochlorines and other synthetics in early 50’s farmers have heavily relied on the chemical pesticides for pest control. Over emphasis on chemical control has caused serious imbalances in the agro-ecosystem. The enormous quantities of chemicals, poisonous to microbial life, that fall on earth gets mixed up well with soil. Some problems like non-target effects of chemicals as well as latrogenic diseases are being experienced. Coupled with these, the increasing awareness of impeding pollution, health hazards and development of resistance have intensified the search for alternative strategies.

In the present investigation, the attempts have been made to test the stability and pest management efficacy of the plant extracts of some Indian medicinal plants, namely, Datura stramonium, Ricinus communis, Vitex trifolia and Nerium indicum. In the earlier chapters detailed methodologies and the results have been elaborated. This chapter embodes the comprehensive inter- and intra-comparative results and discussion on the basis of selected plants, extraction media, pest species and bioassay followed by conclusions.

The hot sterilized water extracts of R. communis were found to be more stable (i.e. 20 days to start the fermentation). In overall study the plant extracts were stable or viable means active for three to four weeks only. In most cases, the activity of cold and hot water extracts was found to be increasing with fermentation however the decrease in the activity of some extract was also observed.

The highest mean anti-fungal activity was reported for R. communis extracts followed by D. stramonium and N. indicum aqueous extracts, whereas no any anti-fungal potency was reflected by V. trifolia against test fungi species. R. communis and N. indicum extracts, the cold water method extraction showed greater positive effects in terms of mean anti-fungal potency as compared to the hot water extracts. The water extraction of D. stramonium was found to be more effective in anti-fungal activity study.

Bakery Industry

Baked goods have been around for thousands of years. The art of baking was developed early during the Roman Empire. It was a highly famous art as Roman citizens loved baked goods and demanded for them frequently for important occasions such as feasts and weddings etc. Due to the fame and desire that the art of baking received, around 300 BC, baking was introduced as an occupation and respectable profession for Romans. The bakers began to prepare bread at home in an oven, using mills to grind grain into the flour for their breads. The oncoming demand for baked goods vigorously continued and the first bakers’ guild was established in 168 BC in Rome. This drastic appeal for baked goods promoted baking all throughout Europe and expanded into the eastern parts of Asia. Bakers started baking breads and goods at home and selling them out on the streets.

This trend became common and soon, baked products were getting sold in streets of Rome, Germany, London and many more. This resulted in a system of delivering the goods to households, as the demand for baked breads and goods significantly increased. This provoked the bakers to establish a place where people could purchase baked goods for themselves. Therefore, in Paris, the first open-air bakery of baked goods was developed and since then, bakeries became a common place to purchase delicious goods and get together around the world. By the colonial era, bakeries were commonly viewed as places to gather and socialize.^[2] World War II directly affected bread industries in the UK. Baking schools closed during this time so when the war did eventually end there was an absence of skilled bakers. This resulted in new methods being developed to satisfy the world’s desire for bread. Methods like: adding chemicals to dough, premixes and specialized machinery. Unfortunately these old methods of baking were almost completely eradicated when these new methods were introduced and became industrialized. The old methods were seen as unnecessary and financially unsound, during this period there were not many traditional bakeries left.

Bakery is a traditional activity and occupies an important place in food processing industry. The bakery manufacturers in India can be differentiated into the three broad segments of bread, biscuits and cake. About 1.3 million tonnes of the bakery products industry in India is in the organized sector out of 3 millions tonnes, while the balance comprises of unorganized, small-scale local manufacturers. Though, there are sufficient automatic and semi-automatic bread as well as biscuit manufacturing units in India but there are still number of people prefer fresh bread and other products from the local bakery. After entry of Pizza and Burgers’ MNCs in the country, people are changing their tastes also. Today, they are not restricted to bread, cake and biscuits but to other bakery products also. The consumers are increasingly going for newer options with respect to bakery products. With the ventures of few Companies like Britannia, Biskfarm, and Morish etc. competition has increased. Also, the Indian market is witnessing the proliferation of bakery cafe chains in the form of Baristacafe, coffee day, Café Coffee & Monginis etc.

Armed with better technology, know-how and novel ideas, these foreign companies have made rapid inroads into the lucrative market within a very short span of time. Though the demand for bakery products in India has always been on the rise, there is clearly a lack of awareness and the will to break new ground, which has helped global players to gain brownie points while exploring the market in India. The unorganized sector accounts for about half of the total biscuit production estimated at 1.5 million tonnes. It also accounts for 85 per cent of the total bread production and around 90 per cent of the other bakery products estimated at 0.6 million tonnes. The last includes pastries, cakes, buns, rusks and others.

Types of Bakery Products

Baked goods are produced from either doughs or batters which are a mixture of flour and water made by mixing, beating, kneading or folding. The processing method depends on the ingredients being used and the product being made. Bread is either leavened or unleavened. Leavened bread is made from a mixture of flour, yeast, salt and water. Unleavened bread does not contain yeast and therefore does not rise. It is flat bread that is quicker to make than yeast-bread.

Baking is no different from any other area of cooking, and as in other sectors only the best and the freshest raw material can guarantee good results. So selection of right kind of ingredients is of utmost importance. Another basic need of a professional baker and confectioner is to purchase the equipment required. The design and size depends upon the volume of sale expected. So in this chapter we are going to learn about the ingredients required for running a bakery.

The word biscuit is derived from Danis biscoctus which is Latin for twice cooked bread and refers to bread rusks that were made for mariners (ships biscuits) since the Middle Ages. The dough pieces were baked and then dried out in another cooler oven. All biscuits are made with flour (usually wheat flour) and all have low moisture content and thereby have long shelf life if protected from moisture and oxygen. It includes items also known as crackers (that make a noise of cracking when broken), Hard sweet and semi –sweet biscuits, cookies (which is the name that originated from Dutch word koekje meaning a small cake) and wafers, which are baked between hot plates from a fluid batter. The name cookie was adopted in North America where the term ‘biscuit’ can be confused with small soda raised breads or muffins. In other countries the term cookie is used primarily for wire cut products of rather rough shape, which often contain large pieces of various ingredients such as nuts, etc. The term ‘biscuit’ is used in Britain to describe a flat, crisp, baked product; the term cookie is reserved for something softer and thicker. Cookies are made from soft wheat flour and are characterized by formula high in sugar and shortening and relatively low in water. Similar product is known as biscuit in our country. In USA the term ‘cookie’ covers any flat, crisp, baked good. Cracker is a term reserved for biscuit of low sugar and fat content, frequent bland or savoury. Crackers are usually made from developed dough whereas cookies are made from weaker flour. These foods have in common their ability to stay palatable for a long period of time. Their ease of transportation and their ready consumption without any further preparation make them high on the list of staple snacks

Cakes are sweet baked products characterized by high level of sugar in the formulation and hence are foods of high calorific value. Among the various ingredient used flour, sugar, shortening and egg are the essential ingredients for cake manufacture. The optional ingredients are baking powder, milk, fruit etc. For cake manufacture the selection of ingredients is of paramount importance.

All bread is made by baking a dough that has two basic ingredients, flour or meal and a liquid. Bakers can use a wide variety of both components. The most common type of flour used for bread and most other baked goods is made from wheat. Wheat flour has a pleasant taste and contains a large amount of an elastic protein substance called gluten. Gluten aids in baking uniformly light bread that rises (swells) properly. Other baking flours are made from barley, rye, corn, rice, oats, soybeans, and potatoes. These flours, particularly soybean flour, may equal wheat nutritionally, but none can match wheat for creating light, even-textured bread. Hard wheat flour makes lighter bread than does soft wheat flour because it is richer in gluten. Rye and whole wheat breads are made lighter by adding white flour. The liquids used in baking include water, sweet or sour milk, yogurt, wine, and beer.

Bread is either leavened or unleavened. Leavened breads contain some substance that produces bubbles of carbon-dioxide gas. These gas bubbles inflate the dough, causing it to rise and become light and porous. Most kinds of basic breads are leavened with a fungus called yeast. Biscuits, muffins, and cakes and other pastries are leavened with either baking powder or baking soda. Unleavened bread is dry and hard. Familiar kinds of unleavened breads include water crackers, the rye crisp of Sweden, and Jewish matzoth. Whether leavened or unleavened, most breads contain other ingredients in addition to flour and a liquid. An almost limitless variety of breads can be made by adding a sweetener, shortening, cheese, eggs, meat, fruit, vegetables, seeds, or nuts. A sweetener, either sugar or syrup, is used in almost all bread for its taste or as an aid to yeast growth. Bread may also have an external sweetener in the form of a decorative glaze. The high fat content of shortening and cheese increase tenderness and flakiness in bread. Perhaps the best example is the French croissant. Eggs help leaven bread dough by adding to the bread’s lightness. They can be brushed on top of the dough before baking to create a shiny crust, as in the Jewish hallah. Some breads from many nations contain fruit, a vegetable, meat, seeds, or nuts. Examples include the fruit scone of Great Britain, the spinach paratha of India, the Southern sausage bread of the United States, the Easter sesame bread of Greece, and the almond sweet bread of Finland.

Various types of equipment are needed and used to facilitate the process of baking. Depending upon the use, equipment may be as light equipment and heavy equipment.

The raw material of foremost importance in bakery product is the wheat flour. Bakery units prefer the flour obtained by milling in roller flourmill with 70– 72 percent extraction. Flour quality may be defined as the ability of the flour to produce an attractive end product at competitive cost, under conditions imposed by the end product manufacturing unit. The concept of quality differs from producer and consumer point of view. However, in general, the term quality may refer to fitness of a raw material or a product for a particular process or consumer. For a consumer, the following parameters are important criteria of a product quality.

Sugar confectionery and chocolate includes candies (sweets in British English), candied nuts, chocolates, chewing gum, bubble gum, pastillage, and other confections that are made primarily of sugar. In some cases, chocolate confections (confections made of chocolate) are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections. The words candy (US and Canada), sweets (UK and Ireland), and lollies (Australia and New Zealand) are common words for the most common varieties of sugar confectionery. Confectionery depends on numerous ingredients which have been discussed in detailed in this chapter

Chocolate is a key ingredient in many foods such as milk shakes, candy bars, cookies and cereals. It is ranked as one of the most favourite flavours in North America and Europe. Despite its popularity, most people do not know the unique or igins of this popular treat. Chocolate is a product that requires complex procedures to produce. The process involves harvesting coca, refining coca to cocoa beans, and shipping the cocoa beans to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, conching and grinding. These cocoa beans will then be imported or exported to other countries and be transformed into different type of chocolate products.

In history, 1828 marked the “modern era” of chocolate making when Dutch chocolate maker Conrad J. van Houten patented an inexpensive method for pressing the fat from roasted cacao beans along with other processes to create a fine powder known as “cocoa”. The powder was then treated with alkaline salt that helped the powder mix with water easily. The creation of powdered chocolate made it easier to mix with water, sugar and a possible combination of other ingredients to make chocolate in solid form. Many other chocolate makers began to build on Van Houten’s success to make a variety of chocolate products. In 1894, English chocolate maker Joseph Storrs Fry produced what was arguably the world’s first eating chocolate”

Types of Confectionery

Confectionery also called sweets or candy is sweet food product. Confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories, Bakers’ Confections and Sugar Confections. Confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories. They may be fat-free foods, although some confections, especially fried doughs, are high-fat foods. Many confections are considered to give empty calories.

Baker’s Confectionery

Baker’s confectionery also called flour confections includes principally sweet pastries, cakes, and similar baked goods. In the Middle East and Asia, flour-based confections are more dominant. Baker’s confectionery includes sweet baked goods, especially those that are served for the dessert course. Baker’s confections are sweet foods that feature flour as a main ingredient and are baked. Major categories include cakes, sweet pastries, doughnuts, scones, and cookie.

Chemically, sugar candies are broadly divided into two groups: crystalline candies and amorphous or non crystallized candies. Crystalline candies are not as hard as crystals of the mineral variety, but derive their name and their texture from their microscopically organized sugar structure, formed through a process of crystallization, which makes them easy to bite or cut into. Fudge, creams, and fondant are examples of crystalline candies. Amorphous candies have a disorganized crystalline structure. They usually have higher sugar concentrations, and the texture may be chewy, hard, or brittle. Hard candies, such as lollipops, caramels, nut brittles and toffees are all examples of amorphous candies, even though some of them are as hard as rocks and resemble crystals in their overall appearance. Crystalline candies are chemically described as having two phases, because the tiny, solid sugar crystals are suspended in a thick liquid solution. These are also called grained candies, because they can have a grainy texture. Amorphous candies are have only one phase, which is either solid or liquid, and do not have a grainy texture, so they may be called ungrained.

Commercially, candies are often divided into three groups, according to the amount of sugar they contain:

Chocolate is a product that requires complex procedures to produce. The process involves harvesting coca, refining coca to cocoa beans, and shipping the cocoa beans to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, roasting, grinding , ref ining , conching , moulding and enrobing operations which are accomplished using wide range of machinery. A few have been discussed in this chapter.

1. Bean Roasters

When cocoa beans were first brought to Europe, the method of roasting was quite simple, often consisting of no more than metal trays suspended by chains over a fire, an ancient Middle Eastern technique for roasting coffee. The beans would be stirred by hand with a long stick or paddle until the roast was complete. Needless to day, this was very labor intensive and inefficient. Clearly, something more efficient was needed. The next development in roasting technology was not that far distant from roasters in use today. Metal cylinders or balls that could hold up to several pounds of cocoa beans would be suspended over the embers of a fire. A rod would run through the center and act as an axis upon which the roaster would turn. A hand crank on one end would allow the cylinder or ball to be turned while the beans were roasting. The result was a much more even roast than was before possible. Aspects of this technique remain in many of today’s roasters.

India’s bakery market at 49.5 billion tonnes makes it the third largest market in Asia Pacific, only after Japan and Australia. 72 The bakery industry in India comprises of organized and unorganized sectors. The organized sector consists of large, medium and small-scale manufacturers who produce packaged biscuits and bread. The unorganized sector consists of small bakery units, cottage and household type manufacturing their goods without much packaging and distributing their goods in the surrounding areas. Bread market is estimated to be growing at around 7% p.a. in volume terms, whereas the biscuit market has witnessed a higher growth at around 8–10%. Within the biscuit category, cream and specialty biscuits are growing at a faster rate of 20% p.a. The per-capita consumption of biscuits in India is around 900 gm as compared to 15–20 kg. for developed countries. The consumption of biscuits is equally divided between the urban and rural population. Demand for biscuits in 2003–2004 is likely to exceed 1.2 million tonnes.