eBook Chapters

Marketing of perishable and non perishable products

Agriculture and livestock products like food grains, vegetables, meat, eggs etc. are highly perishable over time. Under ambient conditions they get spoiled with in a few hours, days or months as the case may be. Livestock products particularly milk is perishable within a few hours if not preserved under refrigeration. Same is the case of meat. Eggs also get spoiled within a few days if not preserved under cold storage. Because of these reasons perishable products pose special marketing problems. Unfortunately in a country like India most of the agriculture and livestock products are produced by large number of small producers and the process of marketing is to a large extent is in the unorganised sector. Fortunately in our country a number of states like Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Maharastra, Gujarath and others, milk is marketed through cooperatives. For example in Karnataka, milk is procured by primary milk producers’ cooperative societies, transported, processed and marketed through milk unions located at district level and coordinated at state level by state milk federation that is Karnataka Milk Federation(KMF). Some states also have slightly different marketing organisation for egg marketing also. In the unorganised sector these products go through wholesalers, semi wholesalers, private vendors, retailers and ultimately reach the consumers.

The main purpose of establishing a nursery is to supply plants whether to one’s own garden or to out station indentors to fetch good income. To obtain adequate returns on the investment made by a nurseryman, one should have fair idea about lifting, packing and storage of the nursery plants.

Lifting of nursery plants

The plants grown in the nursery are to be lifted for establishment at their permanent place or for sale purpose. The careless lifting may affect adversely the establishment of nursery plants. For getting higher rate of success of evergreen plants in the field, it is always advisable to lift the saplings with a ball of earth intact particularly for mango, guava, citrus and litchi etc. However, the deciduous plants like peach, grape, apple, kiwi fruit, hazelnut, pecan nut, cherry, almond, walnut etc. can be lifted bare rooted during dormant conditions. If possible, it is advisable to irrigate the nursery 3-4 days before the actual date of removing the plants in order to prevent root damage. 

Poultry meat and eggs have high nutritive value. Egg is used as a standard for measuring the quality of other food proteins. It is a well balanced source of nutrients. Similarly poultry meat is easily digestible, high in protein and low in fat content. It contains all the essential amino acids. Though the poultry meat and egg production have tremendously increased in India during last few decades however due to lack of organized marketing channels poultry producers are not getting reasonable returns. Indian broiler and egg markets are in a disorganized state. In last few decades various efforts have been made so as to organize and co-ordinate marketing channel of poultry meat and eggs. Through these efforts producers are also benefited but only in some particular areas. Therefore, there is need to expand it further covering the country.

What is Marketing?

Marketing may be defined as exchange of a produce for an agreed sum of money. It is a commercial process involved in promoting, selling and distributing a product. In simple words marketing is finding out what customers want and supplying it at a profit. Marketing is a business in terms of customer needs and their satisfaction. As per P. Taylor, marketing is not simply providing products or services; it is essentially about providing changing benefits to the changing needs and demands of the customer.

Raw cashew nuts are a seasonal commodity and the trading season is from March to May. Growers usually supply the primary or village markets where small traders collect and supply the urban markets. The cashew trade is seldom handled by exclusive traders. Usually, those traders who collect other plantation products also trade in cashew. Due to the highly competitive nature of the cashew trade, growers have few marketing problems. When large quantities are collected by middlemen, the processors enter the marketing chain and make wholesale purchases. Grades and standards for cashew are yet to be introduced in India. Quality is generally determined by appearance and cutting tests that traders employ prior to purchase. The raw cashew nut market involves a large amount of capital where nearly 80 per cent of the produce is transacted within a period of 35 days. The current value of Indian production is estimated at around Rs. 10,000 million. This capital is made available by industry for procurement and processing operations.

There are no growers’ cooperatives or organizations for cashew marketing. In Kerala, however, the government has been involved in the procurement process and supply to large-scale processors. This adversely affected the cashew trade and has now been replaced by a free market policy.

In addition to the local production of nearly 7 lakh tonnes, India also imports a considerable quantity of raw nuts from several African and South-east Asian countries to satisfy the national processing capacity of about 12-14 lakh tonnes established in the country.

2.1 Introduction

Government provides various subsidies for agricultural produce. And seeds are also subsidized products. Anyone would like to buy for cheap. Can you imagine what role the government can play in making a product subsidized and making it available for consumption? Let's look at seeds in particular. To understand how the government reaches the rural corners, we need to understand the government model for distribution and control. Every District has a District Development Administrator (DDA) / District Agriculture Officer (DAO). Every district comprises of approximately five Block Offices. Now every Block office has a Subject Matter Specialists (SMS), an Agriculture Development Officer (ADO) and some Agriculture Extension Officer (AEO). Each AEO is assigned a circle to work in (i.e. a designated area). The AEO collects the demand of his circle and reports to the ADO. The ADO confirms the same from every AEO and sends the final report to the SMS. The SMS forwards the demand to the DDA. Every block office is in charge of at least 50 panchayats and every panchayat has 5 villages. So this is how the government reaches the rural population.

3.1 Introduction

The green revolution has no doubt provided great increase in the production of food crops, but has led to a sizeable increase in energy use. With the cost of energy raising constantly and shortage faced in developing countries, the energy conservation given a special importance. It has been estimated that potential for conservation of commercial energy is around 20% in transport, 25% in industrial and 30 percent in agriculture. In a country like India where about 70% of people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Agriculture being the primary sector has got its importance. Mechanisation of agriculture is inevitable for farm productivity. Mechanization of agriculture has two forms job requiring traction work, mobile mechanization need the use of machines for such jobs as pulling and drawing efforts e.g. plowing and tillage operations like harrowing, leveling, rolling, seeding, harvesting and hauling .

5.1 Descriptive Analysis for Marketing Decisions

Measures of Location

In the previous chapters it was discussed how to understand and reach customer. Now lets explore the numerical data through their properties to understand customers and markets. Descriptive statistics is analysis of data that helps describe, summarize data in a meaningful so that the business people get new and deeper insights into the problems and situations. For example a buying pattern for your products might emerge and there could be difference based on gender. This will help the business people to come out various strategies separately for each gender. Data can be easily handled with spreadsheets. One of the very widely used spreadsheets by many business organisations is Microsoft - Excel. MS-Excel is used for various purposes from just maintaining records to finding out relationships between databases. Some organisation use this spreadsheet software for generating memos, track sales trends and other business data. Lets in this chapter explore how excel sheet can be used to perform basic data analysis that can help us to get greater insights.

5.1. Meaning and importance of risk

Hardy defined as uncertainty about cost, loss or damage.

Inherent in all marketing transactions.

Destruction of produce by fire, rodents or other elements, quality deterioration, price fall, change in tastes, habits or fashion, and risk of placing commodity in wrong hands or area.

Longer the time lag, greater will be the risk.

Cannot be dispensed with and be ar the risk in marketing process.

One who holds commodity in process is risk bearer, because of which he may be better off or worse off

Introduction

Traditionally, Indian economy was characterised as an agrarian economy for the reasons that majority of the population were dependant on agriculture and allied activities and more than fifty per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was derived from agricultural sector. However, paradoxically, despite a drastic decline in the share of agricultural sector to GDP wherein it declined from 56.5 per cent in 1950-51 to 15.11 per cent in 2016-17 (Statisticstimes.com) Indian economy is still characterised as an agrarian economy. But, it would not be inappropriate to state that Indian agricultural sector is at crossroads, or it would be rather safe to comment that for any further advancement of the agricultural sector, value addition is imperative. During the post independence period, the sector had witnessed commendable progress attributing to a shift from an undesirable situation of ‘ship to mouth’ to ‘farm to mouth’. It is obvious that as a result of various programmes, projects and schemes tailored for development of agricultural sector, India had attained self sufficiency in food crops and other agricultural/horticultural products. However, the darker side is that the Indian peasants are still deprived of a remunerative price for their products as well as a respected status in the society which in turn is arresting further advancement and progress of the sector. Thus, it could be concluded that future of agricultural sector in India vests on the adoption of appropriate marketing strategies, supply chain management and value addition initiatives for the prosperity of our farming community in specific and agricultural sector in general. It is in this backdrop, the NITI Aayog has proposed various reforms in India’s agriculture sector, including liberal contract farming, direct purchase from farmers by private players, direct sale by farmers to consumers, and single trader license, among other measures, in order to double rural income in the next five years. Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, has been conducting various consultations and seeking suggestions from numerous stakeholders in agriculture sector, in order to devise a strategy to double the income of farmers by 2022.

Introduction

In India Agriculture was practiced formerly on a subsistence basis; the villages were self sufficient, people exchanged their goods, and services within the village on a barter basis. With the improvement in rural infrastructure all these goods and services has become commercial in character, resulting in development of Micro-enterprises and requirement of their business promotion.
Businesses with five or fewer employees, called micro-enterprises, support many rural and urban households in developing nations. The term marketing connotes a series of activities involved in moving the goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. 
Marketing is an integral part of micro-enterprise products to encourage them to make more investment and to increase production. Thus there is an increasing awareness that it is not enough just to produce however it must be marketed as well.

1. INTRODUCTION

Marketing is a general term used to describe the activities that lead to the sale of your product. It is the process of planning and executing pricing, promotion and distribution programs to satisfy customer needs. It involves collecting information, analyzing alternative market outlets, developing different product forms, pricing products to compete in the marketplace, defining the scope of the proposed market area and meeting consumers’ needs. So marketing is more than just selling a product or service. It is an essential part of any business. Without a good marketing program, even the best businesses fails.

Value-added agricultural groups typically don’t pay enough attention to marketing. Selling agricultural commodities usually only involves hauling the commodities to a market where there is usually a willing buyer. So farmers often spend their time analyzing brick and mortar issues associated with processing and manufacturing (making the product rather than marketing the product). Often the attitude is that, if we make the product, someone will come along and buy it. So value-added agricultural businesses consistently fail because they do not understand the importance of designing and implementing a good marketing program.

As a first step, ‘A Marketing Primer and Marketing Basics’ will help you with a basic understanding of marketing. Successful marketing involves designing and implementing a marketing strategy for your product. Marketing Strategies provide generic strategies for various types of products and product buyers. In a simple term, marketing activities and strategies result in making products available that satisfy customers while making profits for the companies that offer those products.

Marketing Strategy

Marketing strategy is an integral part of marketing planning. In modern day business terms, strategy refers to the matching of the activities of an organization to the environment in which it operates and to its own resource capabilities.

Definition: Marketing strategy is the complete and unbeatable plan, designed especially for attaining the marketing objectives of the firm/business unit. The marketing objectives indicate what the firm wants to achieve, the marketing strategy provides the design for achieving them. e.g. marketing objective of a business unit in the next year (2016) to achieve sales revenue of Rs. 2,000 crore and net profit will be 15 per cent on sales revenue. Then it is the job of marketing strategy to indicate how and where from this sale and profit will come, which product lines/products/brands will accomplish this task and how?

Meaning of Marketing

Marketing is an important function of management. Marketing makes the economy strong. Production is meaningless unless the goods and services are exchanged for money. Marketing is related with movement of good from producer to consumer.

Various people have defined marketing differently. A majority of people consider it as selling while some people prefer to call it shopping. Similarly, some people call it merchandising. All these meanings of marketing are partially correct.

Marketing is the sum total of all those activities which move goods and services from the producers to the consumers.

Goods and services are created through process of production. After production they have to be transferred or moved from the original producers to the final consumers. This involves the creation of market and the undertaking of number of activities such as buying, assembling, transportation warehousing, risk bearing, financing, selling etc. This constitutes the subject matter of marketing. Hence there is the need for the study of market.

What is market?

Market is derived from the Latin word “Marcatus” meaning trade, merchandise, ware, traffic or place of business. In the ordinary language, market is a place where buyers and sellers meet personally and make their purchases or sales. But in the language of economics, market need not be a place but it may be an area or region meant for potential exchange between a group of buyers and sellers interested in negotiating the terms of purchase and sale of goods and services and such negotiations may be done face to face at a certain place or may be done through other means of communication such as mail, phone, cable, television or through business middle men. What ever may be the means of communication there will be free exchange or perfect communication between buyers and sellers so that a fairly uniform price prevails for a particular commodity over the whole area at any given time.

Marmalade: Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which peels of the fruits is in suspended forms. This product is generally prepared from citrus fruit like orange and lemon. The citrus marmalade can be classified into jelly marmalade and jam marmalade. 1 kg pectin extract required 750g sugar and 62g shredded peel.

Marula nut (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) is a highly valued tree in most parts of Southern Africa because of its medicinal and nutritional properties. The marula tree is adapted to the semi-arid conditions that characterize most parts of sub-Saharan Africa and renders them unsuitable for conventional crop agriculture (Moyo Mack, 2009). The unique nutritional properties of marula and its high tolerance to dry conditions provide opportunities for its development into a plantation crop. On the other hand, the demand for marula plant parts, mainly the bark and roots as medicinal remedies, poses a great threat to wild populations. In the long term, the growing demand of marula products in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries will not be sustainable from wild populations alone. A rich genetic diversity in Sclerocarya birrea has  reported by Muco et al.

Health benefits of fish consumption

Fisheries and aquaculture play an important role in providing food and nutritional security. Fish is a rich source of quality animal proteins, omega- 3: poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), minerals, and vitamins. Fish is a superfood that is rich in all nutrients except carbohydrates, and its combination with rice or wheat makes it a complete food, forming a balanced diet with the right combination of macronutrients (quality proteins, fats, and carbohydrates) and micronutrients (minerals and vitamins), which are essential for good health.

Aquaculture is one of the fastest-growing food production sectors. India is bestowed with all types of aquatic habitats; freshwater, including the cold waters in the highlands, brackish waters, and the marine system. Being a tropical country, India is a biodiversity hotspot. It is rich in a wide variety of fish fauna, and wherever there is water, there are fish. Thus, fish is widely available in India, Thus, India is the third largest fish producing country and ranks second in aquaculture production. In comparison to other sources of animal proteins, fish is more chicken, mutton, beef, pork, etc., as affordable is available in wide varieties in the markets. Therefore, the common man can afford to consume fish regularly and provide his family with a balanced and healthy diet.

As a diet, fish is important for all age groups of humans. Fish oil, especially the omega-3 PUFAs, EPA, and DHA, keeps away several preventable human ailments (Table 1).

1. Farm Publication

Is a class of publications prepared by the extension agency in printed form, containing information relating to the improvement of farm and home. Farm publications are of various types such as leaflet, folder, bulletin, newsletter, journal and magazine. Farm publications may be used singly or in combination with other extension methods.

Objectives

1. To reach a large number of people quickly and simultaneously at a low cost.
2. To provide accurate, motivating, credible and distortion free information.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Mass flow and diffusion are processes which cause the redistribution of many components within the soil profile. They are usually investigated because they cause a redistribution of materials such as fertilizers and pesticides which are added to the soil, or because of the need to reduce salt concentrations to levels safe for crop growth. This has given an economic incentive to the investigations, but the processes are also basic to our understanding of the development of soil properties. For example, diffusion is the main process for the movement of gases into and out of the soil, which in turn affects many soil properties (Chapter 7), and mass flow of water is an important cause of the formation of horizons in soil profiles (Chapter 8). Hence there are both academic and economic reasons for attempting to understand the way the processes operate in soils.

Over the last few years our understanding has increased considerably. It is the purpose here to give the principles which have been evolved in this recent work, and to discuss their application. It will also be shown that many problems remain to be solved.

Diffusion means a spreading out, and is caused by random thermal motion, as is the Brownian movement of colloidal particles observable under the microscope. In unstirred liquids, which are our main concern in this chapter, all the molecules and ions of the solvent and solute have this random movement (molecules and ions in gases and some solids behave similarly). As a result of this motion, which occurs randomly in all directions, any irregularities in the concentration of a solution or mixture of gases eventually disappear.

1. Raw Materials

Culture of Bacillus subtilis

Talc powder - 300 mesh

I. In vivo culturing technique

In vivo culturing means culturing of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) in the host. Generally rice meal moth, Corcyra cephalonica and greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella are used as insect hosts for rearing EPNs.Insect hosts such as Spodoptera, Helicoverpa and Bombyx mori are also used for culturing Steinernema and Heterorhabditis but these insects need plant host especially leaves for culturing. Corcyra can be grown in broken cumbu grains and Galleria in honey comb or artificial diet.

Bacteria are by far the common type of soil microorganisms, possibly because they can grow rapidly and have the ability to utilize a wide range of substances as either carbon or nitrogen sources. The bacteria that provide some benefit to plants are found near, on (or) even within the roots of plants (Kloepper et al., 1980) to protect the plants from pathogen attack called as antagonistic organism. Among the many potential bacterial antagonists associated with the plant roots the fluorescent pseudomonads have received prominent attention due to their abundance in plant rhizosphere and their ability to colonize roots of a wide range of crop plants. Pseudomonas fluorescens is a Gram negative, non spore forming, rod shaped bacteria producing pigments which are greenish, fluorescent and water soluble. It is found to be effective against the following fungal pathogens viz., Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomina phaseolina, Fusarium udum, Pyricularia grisea, Fusarium oxysporum fsp. cubense. It is capable of surviving in the spermosphere, rhizosphere and phyllosphere of plants. The mechanisms of biological action exhibited inovles antibiosis, competition, lysis and induced resistance. Pseudomonas have an exceptional capacity to produce a wide variety of metabolites, including antibiotics, that are toxic to plant pathogens.

Introduction

Multiplication and perpetuation of plants through sexual and asexual means at desired quantum and quality is one of the important aspects of successful horticultural development. For successful propagation, stock production and growth of plants some facilities in the nursery, field or greenhouses are required for mass multiplication of the saplings. Horticultural crops included annuals, biennial and perennial crops so careful planning is require for the quality and genuinely. We known the various methods of propagation i.e., seed, cuttings or grafting and budding can be used for faster and true to type sapling production (Aldriance and Brison, 2000). Plantlets propagation mainly depends on season in open conditions, but for round the year material multiplication require hi-tech propagation structures like greenhouses, cold frames low polyethylene tunnels, sun tunnels, shade houses (lath houses), tissue culture facilities, hot frames and net house (Singh et al., 2003; Ratha Krishna et al., 2014). Field management for mass multiplication of saplings require partial modification and refined in nursery beds preparation (raised bed in high rainfall area and sunken bed in arid region), mother bed preparation (bed with mixture of media, where generally seeds are sowing in enclosed area and all viable and vigours seedlings at early stage may be shifted in poly bags for further growth) and poly bag nursery (saplings of horticultural crops are produced in poly bags of 150-200 gauge and different sizes i.e., 25 x10 cm (ber, khejri), 15 x10 cm (phalsa and pomegranate, karonda) and 30 x17 cm (kinnow, mosambi, aonla, sapota, mango) etc. Propagated plants should be healthy, vigorous and free from disease, weed, insect-pests as well as grafted plants should be equal in size of scion – rootstock, proper in shoot: root ratio and appropriate in morphological standard of scion according to varieties and species.

The discovery and use of synthetic chemicals has contributed greatly to the increase of food production industry by controlling pest and diseases. However, the use of synthetic chemicals has raised number of ecological problems apart from increasing the cost of cultivation. In recent years, scientists have directed their attention in exploring the potential of beneficial microbes for plant protection measures. Biocontrol agents exhibit antagonistic activity against plant pathogens and activate resistance mechanisms in the host despite improving plant growth. In agricultural soils the nutritional condition is depleted hence beneficial microbes decrease and increase the pathogenic microbes. To ensure the sustained availability of biocontrol agents mass production technique and formulation development protocols has to be standardized which also increases the shelf life of the formulation. Though these agents have a very good potential in the management of Pest and Diseases it can not be used as cell suspension under field conditions. The cell suspensions of these biocontrol agents should be immobilized in certain carriers and should be prepared as formulations. The organic carriers used for formulation development include peat, turf, talc, lignite, kaolinite, pyrophylite, zeolite, alginate, pressmud, sawdust, vermiculate, etc.

Introduction

India being a developing nation is trying to reach a balance in ever increasing population with marginal increase in crop production. There occurred a bigbang in crop production during the green revolution era however this also resulted in creation of infertile, barren lands with low chemical nutrient input responsive soils. Soil fertility is the major constraint among resource poor Indian farmers as lesser benefits are harnessed by use of newer agricultural protocols/tools/products viz improved varieties, productive technology from less fertile soils. There is dire need for looking for the alternative technologies of food or crop production to satiate the hunger of burgeoning Indian population. Today there is enormous emphasis on the conservation facets of soil fertility and crop productivity which are the instrumental philosophies in sustainable agriculture. Biofertilizers are the cost effective, ecofriendly and renewable resource of plant nutrients that could well supplement the use of already functional and popular chemical fertilizers for obtaining increase in crop yield without over hazardous impacts on various facets of soil chemistry, fertility and microbial diversity to attain sustainable agricultural system.

Microbial inoculants in agriculture, horticulture and forestry can be defined as preparations containing strains of microorganisms which can augment the microbiological process such as nitrogen fixation, phosphate mobilization, excretion of growth promoting substances, decomposition of organic wastes, biocontrol of insect pests and diseases etc. Thus they become an important component of sustainable agriculture. Microbial inoculants are based on renewable sources available in soil and nature and are low cost input and eco-friendly. These inoculants carrying the microorganisms when applied to soil/plant promote plant growth and productivity.

Mass Production of Bacterial Inoculants

Strain Selection and Improvement

In biofertilizer technology, strain selection occupies the foremost criteria, so as to explore its biological potentialities for the beneficiary crop. The selected strain used in biofertilizer production must be efficient to grow fast besides retain desirable potentialities of biological activities, which should be present in desired high numbers and must be stable. The strain must be improved periodically so as to sustain the productivity.

Introduction

Corcyra cephalonica commonly called as rice meal moth or rice moth is a pest of stored foods, viz., cereals, cereal products, oilseeds, pulses, dried fruits, nuts and spices. Many of the natural enemies mass-bred in the laboratory for use in field against crop pests are dependent on either egg or larval stages of Corcyra due to the simple reason that it is easier and cheaper to produce natural enemies on different stages of Corcyra than on their original hosts.

Morphology and Biology of Corcyra

The eggs are oval and measure 0.5 x 0.3 mm. The white surface is sculptured and has a short nipple-like structure at one end. The larvae are generally creamish – white except for the head capsule and the prothoracic tergite, which are brown. There are well-developed prolegs on abdominal segments 3-6 and 10. A fully matured larva measures 15 mm. The last-instar larva spins a closely woven, very tough, double-layered cocoon in which it develops into a dark-brown pupa. The anterior portion of the cocoon has a line of weakness through which the adult emerges. The adults are small. The hind-wings are pale-buff, and the fore-wings are mid-brown or greyish-brown with thin vague lines of darker brown colour along the wing veins. The males are smaller than the females.

Sexual activity usually begins shortly after adult emergence. There is a preoviposition period of about 2 days. Egg-laying mainly occurs during the night. The greatest numbers are laid on the second and third days after emergence, although oviposition may continue throughout life. Eggs take about 2-3 days to hatch. Optimum conditions for larval development of C. cephalonica are 30 – 32.5 °C and 70 per cent RH, at which, the period from egg hatch to adult emergence is only 26-27 days. There is considerable variation in the number of larval instars; however, males generally have 7 and females have 8. The last-instar larvae pupate within the food. The adults emerge through the anterior end of the cocoon, where there is a line of weakness. The sex ratio is 1:1. The adult moth is nocturnal and is most active at nightfall.

Introduction

The need of the agricultural community was the force of motivation for the development of broad-spectrum pesticides towards the management of pests and diseases of cultivated crops. Advances in pesticide were measured exclusively by the assessment of its efficacy in management alone. But today food production has ceased to be a major concern, due to stable population levels and success of innovative agricultural technologies. At this juncture, the agrochemical industry that primarily recognized the farmers as their customers has failed to acknowledge the public as an important client. Perception of the public reflects that, the negative aspects of pesticides seem to outnumber their benefits. The increased reflection on environmental concern over pesticide use has been instrumental in a large upsurge of biological disease control. Development of fungicide resistance among the pathogens, ground water and foodstuff pollution and the development of oncogenic risks has further encouraged for the exploitation of antagonistic microflora in disease management

Introduction

Insect pests cause a loss of 18-26% of global yearly agricultural yields. A wide range of the losses 13-16% occur in the field prior to harvest. Furthermore, post-harvest pests are responsible for a significant portion of agricultural product storage losses. Poor management practises might result in the loss of 50-60% of stored grains over the storage period of time.Farmers have used chemical pesticides to control insect pests for many years but the effects on non-target organisms, groundwater contamination, residues on food crops and the emergence of insect pests resistant to chemical pesticides have forced scientists to concentrate on the development of alternative eco-friendly measures.

Introduction

Trichoderma spp. are free living, filamentous fungi that multiply rapidly on many substrates such as soil, decaying wood materials and as root colonizers. Trichoderma spp. have a high potential for reproduction and sporulation, as well as competitive ability and saprophytic survival. The escalating need for eco-friendly and sustainable agriculture has driven extensive research on biological control agents like Trichoderma. These beneficial fungi exhibit potent antagonistic activity against plant pathogens, offering a promising alternative to conventional chemical pesticides.

Mass selection is the simplest, oldest and least expensive method of plant breeding as applicable to cross-pollinated crops. The method involves planting balanced bulk seed of the population to be improved, in isolation, inferior plants rogued out before pollination wherever possible and selecting and bulking superior genotypes that already exist in the population. A balanced bulk of selected ears, for example, in corn is made for planting the next cycle. Selection units are individual plants. Selection is surely on phenotypic performance. This method exploits additive gene effects plus additive x additive interactions. The efficiency of this method depends largely on the heritability of the trait under selection. Selection results using mass selection have been quite effective for less complex traits. Mass selection could be very effective for those traits that can be identified or selected prior to flowering, for example, curd/head shape, size, colour in cauliflower and cabbage, root shape, size, colour and quality traits in radish and carrot and bulb shape, size, colour and weight in onion. A few examples of such traits in maize could be flowering, leaf angle, prolificacy, resistance to thrips, fall armyworm, reduced plant and ear height, reduced anthesis-silking interval and barrenness and tolerance to pre-flowering diseases.

Lack of pollination control is major limitation of this method as both desirable and undesirable pollen will be involved in pollination of the selected plants. Further, if selection intensity is very high (small plant population size advanced), the possibility of inbreeding depression is increased. This selection is not very effective if the heritability of the trait under selection is low (less than 10% on individual plant basis). Mass selection is likely to be more effective for individual or a combination of few traits rather than a whole series of characters. Despite some limitations, mass selection can be very useful and relevant procedure in breeding of cross-pollinated crops in many situations characterized by resource limitations, non-availability of trained scientific manpower and additional test sites, lack of seed storage facilities even for short term and lack of continuity of technical personnel. Lack of control on soil variability also makes this method less effective.

Mass selection is a form of selection in which individual plants are selected phenotypically and the next generation propagated from the aggregate of their seed. It is applicable to both self and cross-pollinated crops. The obvious first step in the improvement of self-pollinated variety is the elimination of undesirable types. This may be achieved by simply roguing them as the variety grows in the field. Sometimes, this is called as negative selection. Another approach is to tag desirable types and to harvest only those at maturity. This is called as positive selection. Either way, results are similar. The best plants in the variety are identified and bulked. A refinement of mass selection is to harvest the best plants separately and to grow them as pure lines for comparison. Only those pure lines that are similar and superior are bulked as an improvement of an established variety. 

Mass spectrometry (MS) is a  useful  technique which produces spectra of the masses of the atoms or molecules in a sample.  The spectra are used to determine the elemental or isotopic   details  of a sample. The masses of particles and of molecules, are used to elucidate the chemical structures of molecules, such as peptides and other chemical compounds. Mass spectrometry works by ionizing chemical compounds to generate charged molecules and measuring their mass-to-charge ratios.

A sample, which may be solid, liquid, or gas, is ionized, by bombarding with electrons. This may cause some of the sample’s molecules to break into charged fragments. These ions are then separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio, typically by accelerating them and subjecting them to an electric or magnetic field. Ions of the same mass-to-charge ratio will undergo the same amount of deflection. The ions are detected by a mechanism capable of detecting charged particles, such as an electron multiplier. Results are displayed as spectra of the relative abundance of detected ions as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. The atoms or molecules in the sample can be identified by correlating known masses to the identified masses or through a characteristic fragmentation pattern.

Mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful and versatile analytical technique through which mass of an atom, or a molecule is assessed. It helps for identification and structure elucidation of various complex compounds. The instrument used is known as Mass Spectrometer. It serves the purpose of qualitative identification, confirmation as well as the quantification of an atom or a molecule. MS identification is conclusive because the mass spectrum of each substance is unique. In general, MS instruments are composed of a sample inlet, an ionization source, a molecule accelerator, a detector, an amplifier, and a recorder (Figure 7.1)

1.    Diffusivity of gases at atmospheric pressure is

(a) < 1 cm²/s

(b) >1 cm²/s

(c) > 10 cm²/s

(d) > 100 cm²/s

2.    Diffusivity of liquids is of the order of

(a) 0.1 cm²/s

(b) 10 cm²/s

(c) 100 cm²/s (d) 1 x 10^-5 cm²/s

Introduction

In the 1997 WHO guidance document: “WHO/VSQ/97.01: (A WHO guide to good manufacturing practice (GMP) requirements. Part 1: Standard operating procedures and master formulae)” some basic explanations and instructions were given for preparing various documents required by Good Manufacturing Practice guidelines from WHO and from several regulatory authorities.

GMP guidelines include the requirements for documents (individual), documentation (the systems and formats for documents), and documenting (recording) of production and control activities. Most GMP guidelines provide the same or very similar information as the principles of Good Manufacturing Practice are now international in scope.

In this guidance document, the requirement for master manufacturing instructions and the requirements as given in different GMP documents, different names for these documents and various forms that they can take will be described. This is to guide vaccine manufacturers who are applying for pre-qualification or re-qualification of their product(s) in the preparation or improvement of current documents for manufacturing operations.

The concept of leadership revolves around the figure of a person who wields influence over a group of individuals. Such an individual often emerges through their ability to initiate and guide social behavior, directing the efforts of others, organizing tasks, or exerting control, often leveraging their prestige, power, or positional authority. In various social contexts, a leader is recognized as someone whose ideas and actions significantly impact the thoughts and behaviors of those around them. This recognition can occur spontaneously or through deliberate selection, where certain individuals within a society operate within groups to guide and influence members towards specific actions.

Leadership, therefore, is construed as a dynamic process wherein individuals endeavor to shape the behavior of others within a tangible scenario. One commonly accepted definition, posited by Rogers and Olmsted, characterizes leadership as the endeavor to persuade individuals to collaborate towards a goal perceived as beneficial by the collective. Another perspective, articulated by Hepple, frames leadership as the role and status held by one or more individuals within the organizational structure of a group. This status enables these individuals to facilitate the functioning of the group and fulfill its objectives, which often necessitate the cooperative efforts of its members. Thus, leadership emerges as a multifaceted phenomenon, encompassing both the actions of influential individuals and the structural dynamics within group organizations.

Mastitis

Mastitis is an economically important disease of dairy animals (cows and buffaloes) caused by a wide variety of pathogens (bacteria, some viruses, fungi).Major pathogens are Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Streptococcus uberis, Str. Dysagalactiae, Campylobactor, Corynebacterium pyogenes, Klebsiella spp. Pasteurella, Pseudomonas, Mycoplasma, Enterobactor, Trichosporon spp., Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida spp., Leptospira spp. and many more. Mastitis is also seen in lactating goats and sheep. As compared to ruminants mastitis is less common in bitches. Mastitis is an inflammatory disease of the udder parenchyma irrespective of its etiology. The disease occurs in clinical and subclinical forms. Clinical mastitis is of two types viz. acute mastitis and chronic mastitis. Subclinical mastitis is characterized by an increased number of somatic cells (>100,000 cells/ml) and/or pathogens in the milk with no apparent clinical change in the udder and milk. While clinical mastitis is associated with local (hot, pain full swelling of the udder) and general symptoms along with change in milk (increased cell count, increased pathogens, physical and chemical changes in the milk).

    Q.1.    How mastitis occurs in dogs? 
    Ans.    Mastitis in dogs initiates with the infection in the milk ducts of the dogs, where in the dog’s breast is enlarged as well as milk duct is blocked. The skin around the nipple might get cracked which might give a way to bacteria. In neglected cases it leads to cause gangrenous mastitis which is a severe form of mastitis in dogs.

    Q.2.    What are common pathogens responsible for mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. and Escherichia coli.
 
    Q.3.    What are the characteristic features of milk cytology during mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    Milk cytology will show the presence of erythrocytes, degenerated neutrophils and bacterial agents.

    Q.4.    What characteristic physical changes of milk are seen during mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    The viscosity of milk is increased and the colour of milk will be yellow to brown depending on the amount of blood and purulent exudates present.

Fill in the blanks
    Q.1.    ………… organisms are the common isolates from clinically affected quarters.
    Ans.    Coagulase-negative staphylococci
    Q.2.    ………….is the most common cause of mastitis in goats.
    Ans.    Staphylococcus aureus
    Q.3.    Streptococcal zooepidermicus causes …………. in does.
    Ans.    Chronic suppurative mastitis.
 
Write True/ False about the statements
    Q.1.    Pseudomonas organism causes an acute mastitis characterized by extensive necrosis and fatal septicemia.
    Ans.    True.
    Q.2.    In summer mastitis, non-lactating goats develop severe mastitis whereas lactating goats suffer from moderate degree.
    Ans.    False

    Q.1.    What is the cause of mastitis in non-lactating mare?
    Ans.    Mastitis may develop in a non-lactating mare due to abnormally high estrogen levels in her system. This excess female hormone can result from a pituitary gland tumor or consumption of high estrogen containing hay. High estrogen concentrations can cause mammary gland enlargement and trigger the production and secretion of milk, even though the mare is not pregnant and has not foaled. If the non-lactating mare begins to secrete milk due to excess estrogen, she may become a candidate for mastitis.

    Q.2.    Why equine mammary glands are less prone to mastitis than bovines?
    Ans.    The possible reasons are as follows:
    a)    Mammary glands are relatively smaller in size
    b)    Concealed position of the glands
    c)    Small milk capacity of the glands
    d)    Greater resistance to infection in equine mammary glands because of differences in endocrine environment and local immunity

Fill in the blanks

    Q.1.    ---------- and -------------- are the synonyms of mastitis of sheep.
    Ans.    Bluebag, garget
    Q.2.    In gangrenous mastitis, besides Staphylococcus aureus, ----------- organism may also be involved.
    Ans.    Clostridium perfringens A
Answer the followings

    Q.1.    What are the characteristic symptoms of mastitis in sheep?
    Ans.    The important symptoms include severe necrotizing inflammation of mammary gland, severe systemic reaction and reduced milk production
    Q.2.    Classify the sheep mastitis based on etiology and clinical symptoms.
    Ans.    a) Gangrenous mastitis by Staphylococcus aurcus mastitis b) Herd mastitis by Pasteurella hemolytica
    Q.3.    When the risk of mastitis in sheep is high?
    Ans.    During summer month between parturition and weaning

    Q.1.    The mastitis-metritis-agalactia (MMA) is a disease syndrome of which animal species? 
    Ans.    Swine

    Q.2.    What is MMA syndrome?
    Ans.    MMA syndrome is post parturient disease of sows and manifested as fever, anorexia, lethargy, agalactia, mastitis, swollen udder and appearance of vulvar discharge due to development of metritis.
 
    Q.3.    What is the critical time of occurrence of MMA in sows?
    Ans.    The mastitis-metritis-agalactia (MMA) syndrome occurs between 12-48 hrs of farrowing in sows.

    Q.4.    What is the probable causes for the development of MMA syndrome?
    Ans.    The probable causes of MMA syndrome are infectious mastitis, metritis, more feeding at pregnant period, nutritional deficiency, endocrine disorders and constipation.

According to International Dairy Federation(IDF),1980, Mastitis also called as ‘mammitis’ is defined as an inflammation of the udder, almost always of microbial origin and is the outcome of a local or a general infection. The common symptoms are related to inflammation, viz., swollen, hot, red, and painful udders. Mastitis can be classified based on symptoms or on the causative organism.

A) Forms of mastitis based on symptoms

    1.    Acute or clinical
    2.    Sub-acute or subclinical
    3.    Chronic.