eChapters

Abstract

Buffalo is the second major source of milk supply in the world. India, Pakistan, China, Egypt, Nepal, Myanmar, Italy, Sri Lanka, Iran, and Turkey are the top ten countries of highest buffalo milk production. In Asian countries, Riverine buffalo is mostly used milk purpose breed. Buffalo milk is a plentiful source of nutrients including fat, protein, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, lactose and beneficial oligosaccharides, indispensable fat and water soluble vitamins, vital minerals. It contains more total solids, fat, protein, lactose and calcium as compared to cow milk. Buffalo milk possesses wide potential to be used in the production of a range of dairy products. On account of the differences in physico-chemical and biochemical properties between buffalo and cow milk, conventional processing technology and equipment for cow milk may not be suitable for buffalo milk processing. Changes and modifications must be considered for making certain products. This chapter aims to highlight the nutritional profile including amino acid profile, lipid profile and mineral composition; physico-chemical properties and potential of buffalo milk in the dairy sector.

Abstract

Camel milk has been known in Asia and Africa for 5000years for its benefits for human health. It is the closest to human mother’s milk and safe for children. Research studies around the world have confirmed that camel milk has better nutritional value as it exhibits many unique and amazing health-promoting properties as compared to cow milk. This milk is considered as a complete food and can be consumed exclusively while meeting all nutritional requirements. Many studies have reported that camel milk contains very high concentrations of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, low fats, cholesterol, and lactose. It also contains higher amounts of minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium, copper, zinc, and potassium), vitamins B2 and C as compared to cow milk. It does not contains beta lactoglobulin and beta casein that are present in cow milk and that are the main cause of allergy in certain human population. Furthermore, camel milk contains various protective proteins that exert antibacterial, antiviral, and immunological properties. It possesses unique, powerful immune system–boosting components that would exert potential health benefits. It is an alternative for people suffering from cow milk allergy. So camel milk can be considered as next generation super food.

Abstract

Goat farming was the important part from the economy point of the view; especially in the Mediterranean and Middle East region where goat is also called as “Cow of poor man”. Goat milk have unique compositional characteristics like, lower ethanol stability, higher content of short- and medium-chain fatty acids. It is a rich source of calcium, phosphorous, chlorine, and vitamins. It is highly digestible and has a mild laxative effect. Along with these, who are suffering from anemia, osteoporosis and malabsorption, they should consume Goat milk. Goat milk is a functional and nutraceutical property as it both nutritional and additional health benefit such as easily digestible, boost immunity and metabolism, anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic to consumer this lead to increasing demand for goat milk and derived dairy products. Goat milk can be used to manufacture a wide variety of products, including fluid, fermented, frozen, acid coagulated, and dehydrated milk products.

The aim of this chapter is to highlight the physical and chemical properties, nutritional and health benefit of Goat milk. Goat milk based some popular products are also discussed in order to provide some basic information regarding the value addition of Goat milk.

Abstract

From the vedic time itself goat is popularly known as a poor man’s cow in India. It has the proven potential to make significant contribution to the poor man’s economy thus livelihood with minimal requirement of care. It can be easily managed by women and children in spare time as it is small-sized animal. Other maintenance requirement like feeding, milking and care of goats do not require much equipment and hard work. Capital investment and feeding costs are also quite low. It not only supplies nutritious and easily digestible milk but goat meat has high demand and price in the market thus can act as regular source of additional income for poor and landless or marginal farmers. Also the role of women in goat keeping is very significant in the poor rural families and goat is the most important means through which rural women are able to contribute meaningfully to the cash needs for their family members. Thus, goat rearing can play very important role in balanced socio-economic development of the country as there is a close relationship between the status of women and the socioeconomic development of any country (Alam, 2001 and Ahmed, 2017).

Abstract

Sheep milk is one of the superior quality of dairy foods and it is also considered as nutritional powerhouse. The beneficial role of sheep milk results from its fatty acid, immunoglobulin and non-immune protein contents. Apart from different dairy products and functional foods; this milk is used in anti-ageing and cosmetic soap preparations. In India Sheep make a valuable contribution to the livelihood of the economically weaker sections of the society. In our country the major portion of sheep milk is consumed as fluid milk and in certain areas converted into ghee and dahi.

Abstract

The milk from non-bovine species is gaining considerable attention mainly due to the fact that it is consumed by sensitive consumers (infants and elderly). Donkey milk possesses various health benefits, namely, anti-microbial activity, immunomodulation, hypoallergenicity, prevention of cardiovascular diseases which are elaborated in details here. Similarity in nutrition profile among donkey and human milk is discussed in detail. The donkey milk’s yield, its milking technique, effect of lactation on chemical composition and the microbial aspect is also described. As, availability of donkey milk is limited, therefore its processing becomes essential for its usage over a long period of time. Preparation of various donkey milk products like yoghurt, ice cream and cheese are also described here.

Abstract

The unique characteristics of mare’s milk help to prevent many chronic diseases. The health beneficial properties of this milk is even acknowledged since ancient time and this milk is being successfully used as medicated food against a wide range of chronic diseases. The merits of mare’s milk has also been noted by the cosmetic and pharmacy industries. Lastly, considering many health beneficial effects of this milk, attempt should be made to augment the production and popularization of mare’s milk. In this chapter different aspects of mare’s milk has been pointed out in different sections and subsections.

Introduction

Globally, 16.9% of milk consumed by humans comes from species other than cattle. Non-cattle milk is linked more to territories than cows’ milk: sheep in the Mediterranean basin, horse in Central Asia, yak in Himalayas, camel in desert regions. The domestic equid species (horse and donkey) belong to the taxonomic order Perissodactyla, family Equidae and genus Equus. The nutritional and therapeutic properties of horse (Equus caballus) milk have been known since ancient times according to the historian Erodoto (V century BC). Although horses are of minor importance for milk production in comparison with cows, buffalo, sheep and goats, they have been traditionally important dairy animals in Mongolia and in the southern states of the former Soviet Union, e.g., Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Aristotle (322 BC) reported the existence of a dairy product in Mongolia that processed mare’s milk to transform it into a fermented product with an alcohol content of 3% and Herodotus also reported something very similar performed by the Scythians;

Abstract

Yak milk is unique as it is rich source of nutrients and is the main source of milk derived nutrition in hilly areas, where the availability of bovine milk is very limited. It is considered as a concentrated source of nutrients with a total solids (TS) content of approximately 16.9-17.7%. The nutritional profile and physico-chemical properties of yak milk is very different from that of conventional source of milk. Though, the production of yak milk and milk products is not organized and is limited to the custom of high altitude regions only. However, yak milk and milk products like churpi, kurut, orom, paneer, churkam, serkam, butter etc. are gaining attention of consumers due to their significant nutritional and therapeutic value. Owing to this, it has further increased the interest of researchers for the development of new array of yak milk based organic dairy products. Therefore, with growing demand of natural functional foods, yak milk could be valuable product to meet the demand of functional foods.

The aim of this chapter is to highlight the nutritional profile of yak milk including, amino acid profile, lipid profile and mineral composition. Yak milk based regional products are also discussed in order to provide some basic information regarding the value addition of yak milk.

Abstract

Now-a-days non bovine milk become an area of interest for their potential to provide nutrients along with beneficial health effects. Deer belongs to cervidae family, is one of the source of non bovine milk. Two thousand years ago, the people of Soviet Union along the borders of Russia, Mongolia, and China used to consume deer milk and milk product. Deer milk is a plentiful source of milk solids. The proteins of deer milk is more digestible than bovine milk owing to their unique profile and characteristics. Deer milk being rich in highly digestible protein offers beneficial health effect through bioactive peptide production. The distinctive physico-chemical properties being quite similar to sheep milk shows the milk product manufacturers a scope to use deer milk for production of various dairy products. Although there is immense opportunity to use deer milk for development of diversified functional products, further research work is needed to be carry out to find out the type of biopeptides produced during protein hydrolysis, role of fatty acids, effect of different unit processing on its constituents etc. This chapter delineates the nutritional profile and physico-chemical properties of deer milk along with the significance of it in terms of its therapeutic roles and potential to be used for product development.

Abstract

Human milk is the dynamic fluid provides initial and essential nutrients to the neonates and play key role in development and growth of infant gut microflora, nerve system, immunity system and other organs. Composition of human milk varies with number of factors from geographical location, individual habits, stage and period of lactation to mature or pre mature born of infant. Each component and its bioavailability in human milk plays specific function in infant nourishment. Protein and non-protein nitrogenous compounds of milk provides essential bioactive component required for preventing infants form many diseases and develop immunity. Nucleotides involve in many enzymatic and metabolic activities. Milk contains 3.0 to 5.0% fat act as a major source of energy consisting of larger portion of triglycerides. Essential fatty acid of milk important for nerve system development in infant. Additionally, fat soluble vitamins plays in sight and immune development for new-born. A Human Milk Oligosaccharide is natural prebiotic present in human milk which helps in growth of bifidus bacteria and prevent respiratory tract infection in infants. Furthermore, micro components like vitamins, mineral, enzymes involved in various essential activity lead to healthy infant.

Abstract

Milk is the almost complete and highly nutritious food for mammals, as it supplies all the energy and nutrients needed for the proper growth and development of the neonate. Milk proteins are considered the most key source of bioactive peptides and an increasing number of bioactive peptides have been identified in fermented dairy products and milk protein hydrolysates,. These bioactive peptides are sequences between 2 and 20 amino acids that improve the physiological functions and inhibit chronic diseases. The bioactive peptides are inactive within the sequence of the origin protein and can be released by addition of various types of proteolytic enzymes, coagulation enzymes and starter culture during milk processing. Once bioactive peptides are release in the body, these peptides may act as regulatory compounds with hormone-like activity. Furthermore, bioactive peptides from milk proteins have many biological activities such as antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antithrombotic, antioxidant, mineral binding, and anti-diabetic. Due to their physiological and physico-chemical variability, milk bioactive peptides are considered as greatly important components for health stimulating foods or pharmaceutical applications. Over the past few decades, major advances and developments have been achieved on the novel bioactive peptide and commercial applications of bioactive components which are present naturally in the milk. The aim of this chapter is to focus on the bioactive peptide present in milk, extraction of bioactive peptide, functional capability of bioactive peptides in milk and their importance in human health including bio active peptide based commercial dairy products.

Abstract

Cow and buffalo milk is the major source milk worldwide contributing 81 and 15% of total milk production respectively. However, milk from animals like goat, sheep, camel, donkey, yak etc also contribute to human nutrition and health in different parts of world. These milks are source of staple traditional product and considered as delicacy in parts of Europe, UK, USA etc. The microbiota of raw milk and fermented milks, cheeses, made from raw milk is complex. These microorganisms have immense role in determining quality and safety of the subsequent product made from these milks as they may be responsible in spoilage and reducing shelf life, causing human health issues, also contribute to development of flavor and aroma formation, texture development, ripening cheese. Different factors like host, stage of lactation etc. affect the composition of microbiota present in the milks and methods like cultural and culture independent methods metagenomic analysis have been done to determine the microbial community present in the milk.

Introduction

Non- cow and non-buffalo milks such as milks from goat, sheep, camel, donkey, yaks etc. are one of the important sources of nutrition in different parts of the world. In Mongolia, the highlands of the Afghanistan and Pakistan, Himalayas in India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Tibetan Plateau and in the Mountains China yak milk is the only source of milk. Cheese made from sheep and goat milk are categorized as gourmet food and many times regarded as protected designation of origin (PDO) status. Camel milk is used for medicinal food and donkey milk is suitable for children, aged people due to its hypo allergenic properties. These milks and milk products like cheese, naturally fermented milks and yoghurt are staple traditional foods in different parts of the world.

Abstract

Colostrum is the lacteal secretion after the birth of the new-born. It has a very different composition from milk, naturally designed to build immunity, promotes growth, and protects new-born mammals from external factors. It has a higher amount of protein and fat which provides the building blocks for growth. The higher macro and micro nutrients present in it help in various inter and intracellular activity and metabolism. Colostrum is fully loaded with various immune-boosting factors and growth factors, among them immunoglobulin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, insulin-like growth factor, vitamins have the most importance. Colostrum can fight against various diseases, bacteria, viruses, toxins, and can build a healthy immune system and gastric digestion system in the human body. Bovine, non-bovine, and human colostrum have almost all components in common but at different compositions. Non-bovine colostrum is comparatively less explored than bovine colostrum. Deep research and marketing can bring this nature’s gift for the goodness of human beings.

Abstract

Milk is unique in its nutritional composition and it is the secretion of mammary gland with all the nutrients to nourish the young ones. Milk is a widely consumed drink because it provides essential macro and micronutrients and so called as complete food. Humans, not only the infants but also the adults, are the only species that drink the milk of another species, particularly cow’s milk. But cows’ milk has a different in composition and contains in excess of nutrients than human milk. This unnecessary excess nutrients leads to adverse and allergic effects on human health. One of these is milk protein allergy and it is an increasing health care concern. In medicine, the term cow’s milk allergy (CMPA) is only used to describe reactions involving the immune system, while other reactions are normally called cow’s milk intolerance. The feeding of cow’s milk has adverse effects on infants and young children. There are various methods and tests to identify the CMPA and its diagnosis can be achieved by skin or blood tests. Several efforts have been done to reduce the allergic reaction of cow milk proteins and various technological processes have been applied. The treatment of food allergy should be nutritional and is based on the elimination of diet or, in the case of infants, on the use of hypoallergenic or “HA” formulas, diets and best alternatives to cow milk like some Extensively Hydrolyzed Formulas (EHFs) based on whey, casein or another protein source, and by amino acid-based formulae (AAF), Soy protein-based formulas, donkey milk, camel milk etc.

Introduction

The specific agricultural systems and landscapes have been created, shaped and maintained from generation to generations of farmers and herders based on diverse natural resources, using locally adapted management practices. Indian heritage is unique and prestigious than any other civilization in this world. We must feel proud being a citizen of India for its rich cultural heritage. Agriculture in India has a long history from Neolithic age of 7500-4000 B.C. People changed their life style from nomadic hunter of wild berries to cultivator of land. Agriculture is gifted from the wisdom and teachings of great saints. The knowledge achieved and techniques adopted have been passed down through generations. The traditional farmers have developed the eco-friendly farming systems and mixed farming, mixed cropping, crop rotation etc type of systems were practiced by them. The older generations of the farmers of India passed the depth of knowledge and experience of great epics of ancient India.

Indian agriculture heritage is known as unique and prestigious than any other civilization in this world. Its rich cultural heritage in India has a long history from Neolithic age of 7500-4000 B.C. People changed their life style from nomadic hunter of wild berries to cultivator of land. Agriculture is gifted from the wisdom and teachings of great saints. The knowledge achieved and techniques adopted in generation to generations. The traditional farmers have developed the eco-friendly farming systems and mixed farming, mixed cropping, crop rotation etc type of systems were practiced but the older generations of the farmers of India passed the depth of knowledge and experience of great epics of ancient India and its consequence has come up in present day agriculture.

The preservation of wild animals was maintained and hunting as a sport by the ruler was considered as detrimental to proper development of the character and personality according to Manusmriti, 2^nd Century BCE. In the Puranas (300-750 AD), the names of the experts in animal husbandry were found like Shalihotra on horses and Palakapya on elephants. More than 75 plant species was mentioned in the four Vedas. Satapatha Bhrahamna mentioned over 25 species, and more than 320 plants were found in Charkaa Samhita (300 BC) an Aayurvedic treatise. Over 750 medicinal plant species were recorded in Susruta (400 BC). Rigveda (4000 BC), the oldest book, referred a large number of poisonous and non poisonous aquatic and terrestrial, and domestic and wild creatures and animals. About 500 species of plants were written in Puranas. In the Rigveda, it has been mentioned about the hundreds and thousands of cows, horse drawn chariots and race courses where chariot races were held; camels yoked to the chariots; sheep and goats offered as victims for worship, and the use of cloths made from wool. The famous Cow Sukta indicated that the cow also became the basis of rural economy. Sukta is also worshiped as the mother of the Vasus, the Rudras and the Adityas, and also the pivot of Immortality. Rigveda, which is the most ancient literary work of India, believed that Gods were the foremost amongst agriculturists. According to the thesaurus, “Amarakosha” which was written by the Jain or Buddhist scholar Amarasimha in Sanskrit, Aryans were agriculturists. Agriculture, cattle rearing and commerce were the essential subjects of the king that must be learnt. This was prescribed by Manu and Kautilya. The most ancient literature available in India was “Vedas” which includes the four Vedas (rig, yajur, sama, atharvana), nineteen Brahmanas.

Introduction

In India, the history of agriculture dates embarrassed to Indus natural depression Civilization Era and even before that in some locations of Southern India. Today, India ranks more familiarized in surface area output. Agriculture and related sectors like biology and fisheries accounted for 137% of the value concerning 500^th of the manpower in 2013. The livelihood buildup of agriculture to India’s value is steady breakdown with the country’s broad-based livelihood growth. Still, agriculture is demographically the broadest and highest livelihood across and plays a strong role within the all-inclusive socioeconomic attachment of India. India exported $38 billion service of scientific discipline on-line symbols, authentic it the seventh larger scientific discipline business person used to and therefore the sixth larger web businessperson, plenty of its agriculture exports serve developing and developed nations as in 2013. Indian agricultural/horticultural foods squarely determined and exported to further more than 120 countries, primarily within the geographical area, environmental region, SAARC countries, the EU and United States. As per FAO (2010), agriculture statistics India is that the world’s larger agent of in great quantity of fruits and vegetables, milk, spices, base crops that as jute, staples as millets and vegetable oil seed. India is that the further larger agent of wheat and rice in the world.

India stratified within the world’s five larger producers of over 80^th of scientific order ending things, as well as in large numbers banker’s invoice crops feels affection for unusual crops including cotton, in 2010. India is one in every of the world’s five larger producers of farm animal including dairy products and plenty of meat, with one in every of the quickest advanced rates, as of 2011.

Introduction

The ancient agriculture as an each class of advice has been well connected into several subcategories. As such, the advice under centennial sub-category has been divided to a few references, in adjustment with proper specification not to access only the aggregate of the publication. However, the information on past day agriculture to attending for data has been collected from the adapted references. There are several pictures assuming seeds of cereals and legumes and those of a collection of agricultural tools and implements begin in archaeological excavation and office texts. These are mentioned to advance how accurate to accept in aggregate of every fragment of advice and verify it from added sources more than one. The painstaking and thorough going work have revealed the state of agriculture during the period under study and its gradual development through the ages. The recorded findings are no doubt those have not been comparable with present-day agriculture. The awareness of the people engaged in agriculture regarding the types of food-crops to be grown, the animals to be domesticated and reared for agricultural operations as well as sources of food and nutrition, the design and preparation of tools and implements for agricultural operations and machineries for food processing unfolds gradually with experience gathered in course of time. The agriculture in past period wherein the population was predominantly pastoral and agricultural such great strides were noticeable in the pursuit of agricultural sciences with a sound traditional and scientific practice. Therefore, the recognizable endeavor throughout the period gives sufficient reasons to be proud of cultural continuity towards agricultural heritage.

Introduction

The agriculture remains largest public sector wherein 60% of labor forces are engaged. The farmer-based website aims at providing a hassle-free platform to the farmers who don’t have any organized to sell their agricultural products at the most effective prices are hosted. The crop production and agricultural production system has wide diversity to converge the merchandise or byproduct to the top users in novel manner in terms of profit generated by the farmers. The hassle has given to the agricultural system from Government side from growers to the consumers for fresh with standard price. The agricultural produce is accessible online for customer easiness to obtain the produce. All the agricultural produce i.e. fruits, vegetable, cereals and pulses and plenty of more is obtainable online in preset day agriculture. The farming produces including harvested moreover as dairy based products directory developed by different company’s direct purchases from farmers. The positioning propounds e-commerce in agriculture and has tremendous value to farmers, wholesalers or retailers. “This could be a cutting-edge technologies using social computer far superior to anything within the marketplace,” the web site is under continuous process of improvement and development to form it the most effective and user-friendly, and therefore the makers are hospitable any reasonably suggestions. Indian Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew at 7.3 percent at the moment (2016-17), the agriculture sector remained stagnant at 0.2 percent, with the farm production trailing at 1.7 percent only. This clearly observed the underlying rural distress and farmers facing difficult times. In such a scenario, such a large amount of attempts like ‘doubling the farmers income’, Kisan Bazar so on are the initiative within the right direction, providing farmers with a platform of agri-marketing sector to achieve the buyer directly, without a requirement of an intermediary. They will now sell their products at the simplest prices and this may bolster the agricultural economy without intervention of middle-man.

Many farmers/ wholesalers / retail chains of agri-based industries are trying to find this type of solutions within the country and abroad.

Introduction

The basic resources for agriculture are sunlight, soil and water, besides the seeds and animal breeds, and human Endeavour. Another important input is the agro technique. Agricultural production is adversely affected if any of these factors is limited, or disturbed. Obviously, scientific study enables technological innovations to manipulate these factors to maximize production. Increasingly nowadays, application of science and technology also involves preventing or at least minimizing wasteful use of precious resources. The basic and natural resources in agriculture has been discussed below.

1. Soil

Optimum land utilization is important if agriculture is to be productive. India has a wide variety of soils. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) classifies them into eight major types. Each has its own characteristics as well as deficiencies, and each is suitable for certain crops. Soils should be tested to check their physical characteristics and nutrients before a suitable crop is grown in it: only then can yield be maximized and soil not wasted.

Introduction

Evolution of agriculture in India has an ancient tradition of farming since beginning of human civilization. It has been referred in several ancient scripts including Vedic literature and many other ancient scriptures. Therefore, the study consists methods of cultivation, cropping pattern and status of agriculture sector in economy and in human life is essential for strengthen the agriculture sector during recent period. The agricultural sector in pre-independence India was very prone to breakdown and highly unstable. In other words, there was not stable production rate for various crops. The main reason for this was improper infrastructure for perennial irrigation, non-judicious water use, imbalance use fertilizers and manures, uncertainty and uneven distribution of rainfall throughout the year.

Importance of the farmers

Farmers, who put their labour in crop cultivation, grow crops in the land, supply food to the people generation to generation, most unprivileged and unorganized sector of their communities who used to sale labour. In ancient period, workforces were the actual owner of the land and their produce. Gradually, the farmers became paid workforce in the production system.

In the Sanskrit literature described “agriculture is a divine skill taught by sages to farmers for sustenance of life” and shows the high regard for farmers in society. The farmer was the Annadata that stands for the food provider. Farmers raised fodder for animals. Farmer planted and maintained the orchard of blessed trees after that to the village, maintained pasture land, grew herbs and medicinal plants for supply to the village physician, and fragrant flowers for worship at the temple. Farmers nurtured cattle, which gave milk and carried burdens for the community. Farmers, no doubt were the source of raw materials for all artisans and ever increasing population of the country. But farmers are often neglected, exploited, cheated and deprived from their own legitimate cash out. Farmers’ rights were slowly whittled down at first by foreign invasions, later by changes in the land ownership.

Introduction

Apart from the general way of flood-flushing practiced at different sites of Indus Civilization, mention may be made of the following practices particularly undertaken in Sind. This is evident in the writings of inscriptions on seals from Mohenjo-Daro which state: ‘Two canals were constructed in the month of Kudam (Aquarius) and Mina (pisces). Another seal records that it took ‘thirteen months to construct a canal’. These canals were cut at low gradient and waters were allowed to merge ultimately into low ground in a direction oblique to the river so as to secure a great fall as possible. This fall varied from a foot to a few inches in a mile. They were up to hundred feet wide and about a dozen feet deep, not enough to draw off from the river except in flood. These were natural streams and probably seasonal. The perennial canals of the Indus system were cut to an extra depth and could receive water even when the main river was low, but their real purpose seems to increase the discharge during inundation.

Irrigation system

Irrigation system was consisting of lifting of water by water-wheel and by means of Shaduf from adjoining water sources. There was also provision of tank irrigation. Rice cultivation shows necessary moisture of soil probably retained by now using contour bunding for locking up monsoon rain-waters by tank-irrigation. Rainfall under vernal equinox or winter solstice has not been given much importance in the context of agriculture. Artificial rain making agents was the twin stars, Asvinis and Dadhici, described as horse headed sign. The exact time of their appearance cannot be ascertained definitely. Their association with cool season can be surmised from their name Dasra implying the same as referred to in the text of Panini. Moreover, their attributes as sender of hima (cold or snowfall) after the scorching heat of summer associates them as belonging to vernal equinox. That they appeared at the time of sun’s movement to another house, is explicitly mentioned in the Rigveda. It is a fact which shows the rising of these stars at the junction of two solstices, summer and winter. The Rigveda in one place described them as associated with winter solstice. They were found to have been associated with three kinds of watery discharges, viz. rain (vristi), dew (madhu) and snow (hima).

Introduction

Indian agriculture began by 9000 BCE as an after effect of earlier agriculture of plants, and conduct of crops and animals. Settled activity once again followed with accessories and techniques accepting developed for agricultural heritage system. Previously, double monsoons led to two harvests accepting reaped in one year alike various countries. Indian online inscription once again able the prime via complete trading networks and adopted crops were at variance in India. Plants and animals are advised basal to their adjustment by the Indian that came to be admired and venerated. The boilerplate ages are of saying irrigation channels adeptness a new affiliated of accord in India and Indian crops affecting the economies of added regions of the world. Land and water management systems were developed with an aim of accouterment accordant growth and crop productivity. Despite some stagnation during the afterwards strike era the Republic of India was able to beforehand a complete agricultural programme. In India, there are about 110 crore of farmers engage i.e. two-third of complete workforce, contributes to 26 per cent of the GDP and about one-sixth of the complete address earnings. India associated a repulsive agricultural system at the time of expertise growing at a ritual quantity in advance of 0.3 per cent in the earlier bisected of the stand for the century. Perplexing building up of lateral population pressure provided by agricultural scientists and harder plan put in by the farmers due to the planned Government agricultural policies. Indian agriculture has able to provide a service in advance an amount of 2.7 per cent in the procession expertise in the following era. The beforehand in food particle accession was a lot of arresting at about 3.7 per cent compared to population before of 2.2 per cent during the decade of 1980’s. Unfortunately, it slowed down in 1990s to 1.8 per cent, lower than the population earlier by 2 per cent. Further, rural agriculture across too, the development has been admit in accession and prosperity of crops in several regions. All said and done, overriding the three-fold in advance at population by a four time admission in food stuff succession from the earlier 5 year plan to the change about of the period by all agencies an admirable achievement. The key macro indicator of borough expertise in agriculture comprised in advance jump in food succession from budgetary provision of rupees 50.8 crore in 1950-51 to 212 crore in 2000-2001. It is annual budget up to date that 92 per cent of the entrance in achievement has been technology-led. Thanks to the agricultural scientists for developing location based technologies and animate off to the Indian farmers for their activity to ideas, activity to acclimatize and as able to accepting of new and bigger authentic knowledge.

Introduction

Research accomplishments on mentioned findings showed that the quality of community voice like access is familiarized for agricultural revamp index that adapted the charge to findings at the lower like as the antecedence to analyze a number of deficiencies of complete analysis works in a specific area. Firstly, the accomplishments arise to be alloyed and diverse. Secondly, with the agricultural achievement of a span afflict decidedly by its natural, institutional and technological characteristics (which alter broadly an allocation of states), absolute analysis absorption abundantly at the accompaniment like and the change of basal up and micro-level planning emphasizing the issue. Thirdly, there is an absence of studies on agricultural achievement at the disaggregate like in the accompaniment excepting a few that does put up with are bedfast to the community set up and are based on an actual leap amount of variables accouterment periods up to the original since the year 2000. Besides a lot of changes in agriculture pattern, irrigation coverage, agriculture intensity, fertilizer consumption, boilerplate measurement of operational backing and allotment of agricultural workers accept taken abode in agriculture during the contemporary years. These changes knowledge accept afflict the agricultural achievement of districts abnormally and causeless to say they could not accept been grasped in the absolute studies. There is appropriately a charge for advantageous these analysis gaps and adorning the absolute literature. The present findings are an apprehensive advance in the management and administration to apperceive of the ITKs attainable and its role in alteration over agricultural production. In adjustment to access the acknowledgment of the farmers apropos the ITKs uses in agriculture, the analysis agenda developed with a proforma that accomplished in advised and basic villages in altered agro-ecological regions through the activity centers. Farmers’ social contact and acceptance of ITKs practices were attempted in the findings and recorded for an all-important symbol the abstracts to quantify the ITKs role in present-day agriculture.

Introduction

Indigenous Technological Knowledge (ITKs) refers to the knowledge that acceptable to all as absolute hearing and developed about the meticulous altitude by the people irrespective of gender that is women and men ancient to an a specific geographical area. This ancient technological knowledge that humans in an accustomed association accept developed over time and abide to advance it, is predicated on animal kingdom adventures on accumulation scale, activating and changing, activated throughout a lot of cases over centuries of use. Highest accessible knowledge to bounded knowledge and ambiance and put greater weightage on abbreviate risks instead of maximizing profit. The traditional technological knowledge (ITKs) covers a complicated sphere of subjects, viz. crop production, livestock rearing, accustomed knowledge management, ailment preparation, healthcare, insect administration, and others. The utilization of non-chemical methods for protecting lives and crop aegis is already accepting in several countries including India. The administration strategies developed and answer by the Governments is now supported the utilization of plant extracts. If an accomplishment is fabricated arise the cultivation of Indigenous Technological Knowledge (ITK) based articles on the small scale, it is often an economically applicable advantage for the appropriate development of eco-friendly chemicals.

Indian agriculture has been started over 10,000 years old, over millennia, farmers developed innumerable practices to auspiciously abound crops and accession animals within the awful adapted agro ecological regions of the Indian subcontinent. About 170 years of acceptance brought in new techniques, some advantageous in addition to a few harmful event of ancient Technological knowledge (ITK) systems, including administration of accustomed environment, has been a bulk of adaptation to the humans who generated these systems continued aback. Million of ITKs were supported to avail knowledge of actual and living assets to construct sure basal livelihoods for bounded people.

Introduction

The literary meaning of voyage is a long journey by water or air to a distance place. The crop voyage means the introduction of different crops from outside and movement of the crops originated in India to abroad. India is one of the mega agro-biodiversity countries of the world. Many plant species have been domesticated here. The agro-biodiversity of the indigenously domesticated higher plant species was further enriched with introduction of exotic crops since ancient times, as reflected by the presence of American cereals such as maize and amaranths, African cereals such as pear millet and sorghum, West Asian legumes such as field pea, grass pea and chickpea, and Chinese proso millet and buckwheat in the archeological remains and/or in ancient Indian agriculture writings. Most of these crops have acclimatized and adapted to diverse ecological conditions offered by the Indian Sub-continent to such an extent that many appear natural to the land, and have thrown enormous genetic diversity, making India either a secondary center of diversity for crops such as pearl millet, sorghum, maize, amaranths, cowpea, niger, safflower, muskmelon, pumpkin, chilies and others or regional center of diversity for crops such as barley, grain amaranth, buckwheat, pearl millet, foxtail millet, chickpea, bottle gourd and others. All details of crop voyage has already been discussed in the relevant topic of discussion (Chapter 8) on “Journey of agriculture and its development from past to modern era.”

Introduction

Medicinal plants are considered as rich ingredients resources which may be utilized in medicines development pharmacopoeia, non-pharmacopoeia or synthetic industry. Apart from any region, these plants play a critical role within the development of human cultures around the whole world. Plant is a crucial source of drugs and plays a key role in world health. Medicinal herbs or plants are known to be a critical potential source of therapeutics or curative aids. The utilization of medicinal plants has attained a commanding role in health system all over the place the planet. This involves the utilization of medicinal plants not just for the treatment of diseases but also as potential material for maintaining healthiness and conditions. Many countries within the world, that is, two-third of the world’s population depends on herbal medicines for primary health care. The explanations for this are often due to their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility and adaptableness with the physical body poses lesser side effects. Evidently, records showed that most of the used drugs contain plant extracts. Some are containing active ingredients (bioactive components or substances) obtained from plants. Through recent researches, it revealed that plant-derived drugs were mostly discovered from the study of curative, therapeutic, traditional cures and above all the folks knowledge of indigenous people and a few of those claims and believe of individuals are irreplaceable despite the recent advancement in science and technology. A number of the drugs believed to be obtained from plants are aspirin, atropine, artimesinin, colchicine, digoxin, ephedrine, morphine, physostigmine, pilocarpine, quinine, guanidine, reserving, taxol, tubocurarine, vincristine and vinblastine. The importance of medicinal plants can’t be taken lightly; therefore, it’ll be of significance to look at the characteristics and roles of photochemical in a number of the medicinal plants commonly utilized throughout the world.

Introduction

Agriculture is that the back-bone of the economics of eveloping country likes India. It’s additionally the most “culture” for rural families even nowadays agriculture and allied activities build the one largest contribution to gross domestic product. Female are mother of the race and liaison between generations. Female’s role in agriculture and agricultural heritage described and recognized by the United Nations Organization (UNO) that has sustained the expansion of society wrought the long run of states. Within the rising advanced social state of affairs female have a role to play. Rural females are the foremost vital productive hands within the economy of majority of the developing nations together with India. Female are concerned all told the aspects of agriculture. India incorporates a preponderantly rural economy. Seventieth of her population is rural; of these households, have interaction in agriculture as their main supply of financial gain. It’s forever been India’s most vital economic sector. Female plays a significant role during this vital agricultural sector, as a result of it’s for the most part a ménage enterprise. Female in India are major producers of food in terms important, volume and variety of hours worked. Nearly 63% of all economically active men are engaged in agriculture as compared to seventy eight per cent of female. Nearly 50% of rural female employees are classified as agricultural labourers and thirty seventh as cultivators. Concerning 70% of farm work was performed by women. In several countries, women play a major and crucial role in agricultural development and agricultural allied fields together with, main crop production, live-stock production, gardening, post-harvesting operations, agro/social biology, fishing etc. as it is evident; it’s a reality long taken without any consideration however unheeded since ages. Hence, here a try has been created (i) to review the role of female in agriculture and changes in their position at small level, that’s village level (ii) to review the gender discrimination in land, labour and wage market.

Introduction

The crops, its significance along with its classification has got paramount importance in agricultural heritage. A crop is a plant or animal product that can be grown and harvested in an area with a target to earn profit or achieve subsistence. Crop may refer either to the harvested parts or to the harvest in a more refined state (husked, shelled, etc.). Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or aquaculture.

A crop is usually expanded to include macroscopic fungus (e.g. mushrooms), or alga (alga-culture) at the point of origination. Most crops are harvested as food for humans or livestock (fodder crops) or to get raw materials for agro-based industry. Some crops are gathered from the wild collection (including intensive gathering). The important non-food crops include horticulture, floriculture and industrial crops. Horticulture crops include plants used for other crops (e.g. fruit trees, grown single or in orchard). Floriculture crops include blanket plants, houseplants, flowering garden and pot plants, cut cultivated greens, and cut flowers. Industrial crops are produced for clothing (fiber crops), bio-fuel (energy crops, algae fuel), or medicine (medicinal plants).

Microbes (fungi, bacteria or viruses) are rarely referred to as crops. Animals raised for human or animal consumption are referred to as livestock and microbes as microbiological cultures. Microbes are not typically grown for food itself, but are rather used to alter food (e.g., for production of citric acid, fermenting yogurt, soya sauce and so on). The importance of a crop varies greatly by region. Crop production depends on the availability of arable land and is affected in particular by yields, macroeconomic uncertainty, as well as consumption patterns; it also has a great incidence on agricultural commodities’ prices. The importance of crop production is related to harvested areas, returns per hectare (yields) and quantities produced. Crop yields stands for harvested production per unit of harvested area for the particular crop i.e. products. In most of the cases yield data are not recorded, but are obtained by dividing the production data by the data on area harvested. The actual yield that is captured on farm depends on several factors such as the crop’s genetic potential, the amount of sunlight, water and nutrients absorbed by the crop, the presence of weeds and pests infestation. These indicators are presented for wheat, maize, rice and soybean. Crop production is measured in tons per hectare, in thousand hectares and thousand tons.

Introduction

India has one of the best agricultural research systems in the world with better amount man-power amongst the developing countries. The research system includes more than 30,000 scientists along with 1,00,000 subordinate personnel actively engaged in research system in the country involved to agricultural research which considered to be second highest next to China. The achievement and success looks very much impressive and at par with all the developed nations of the world.

National Agricultural System

India has one of the largest agricultural research systems in the world with the largest number of scientific personnel of any developing country except China. The research system includes approximately 30,000 scientists and more than 100,000 supporting staff actively engaged in research related to agriculture. Although the total number of scientists engaged in agricultural research in India looks very impressive, it compares less favorably with many developed countries.

The present agricultural research system comprises essentially two main streams, the ICAR at the national level and the Agricultural Universities at the State level. Besides, several other agencies such as General Universities, Scientific Organizations, and various Ministries/Departments at the Centre, as also Private or Voluntary Organizations participate directly or indirectly in research activities related to agriculture.

Introduction

Indian agriculture has come a long way since the inception of planning in1951. All along there was an almost obsessive concern of development policy with the attainment of self-sufficiency in food. We faced nightmare of absolute shortage of food grains supplies in the 1960s, when the average annual imports of wheat hovered around three million tones. We survived through this phase because of the munificence of the US, which supplied wheat to us under its PL 480 programme. There have been several policy statements for agriculture during the last sixty years. India attained self-sufficiency in food grains in the 1970s and what is more, has emerged as an exporter of food grains in more recent years. Attainment of food self-sufficiency, even in a technical sense, is admittedly an important landmark in the history of growth of Indian agriculture, but this has not meant the dilution of problems facing Indian agriculture. Problems of agricultural growth and rural development in general continue to remain, in the new millennium, as daunting as they were in the 1950s. One major difference is that agricultural sector today faces a host of what we might call second generation problems.

Introduction

Today, concerns regarding environmental safety and sustainability of land productivity are increasing amongst the scientists, administrators and environmentalists. It is doubted whether the strategy adopted during the so-called green revolution era could be continued any longer under the challenging conditions of this new century. Already, a section of people in the world is questioning the propriety of conventional agriculture, and a few of them are advocating alternative practices that are perceived to lay foundation for sustained production. On these lines, systems like alternative agriculture, natural farming and organic farming were proposed at various conventions. However, the scientists harping on the success of green revolution continue to doubt whether such a system can really be functional, productive and meet the growing demands for agricultural products in this e-age. These emphasize the need to develop new strategy of living with the nature and nurturing it for sustainable production

Speculation on Indian agriculture

The spectacular observations made in the Economic Survey of 2015-16 that “Indian agriculture, is in a way, a victim of its own accomplished success and in abnormality the green revolution”, shows the absoluteness of the agricultural planning at present and the calamity that has been wreaked by the green revolution. The green revolution, which is generally characterized by the addition of high-yielding varieties of seeds and fertilizers uses, assuredly added the higher quantity of crop coverage considerably. There has been acceptance of destroying ecological balance furnishings in the composition in felling down water table, discharge of greenhouse gases, and the contamination of ground water. Needless to say, the agricultural area is in an accompaniment of distress, which is acutely affecting peasants and bordering farmers, and burning action interventions are adapted to assure their interests. The government has responded to constitute basic panel, which will acclaim organization to increase the assets of farmers by 2022. This might be a frankly insistent target, if not wish to make addition of stagnated agronomical advance in open face to be made. However, there are flourishing hurdles that to be accepted if to wish accomplishment of this objective.

Introduction

International agricultural setup has appeared as it now taking all out consideration and agricultural heritage, crop voyage, crop classification and its significances. International cooperation has contended a big role in developing and strengthening the research system in Asian country. several developed countries like USA, UK, USSR, Canada, Australia, Japan, many European countries; Charitable establishments, etc.; altruist and Ford Foundations; varied International Agencies like FAO, UNDP, UNESCO, World Bank, etc.; and also the International Agricultural Research Centres below the consultatory cluster on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) System have contributed extensively to the explanation for agricultural RESEARCH in Asian country. Spectacular achievements in increasing the food production have raised the country’s image significantly, and also the bilateral arrangements have modified from the erstwhile donor-donee standing to relationship of equal partnership in research. The reciprocity and mutuality of interests with the less developed and in addition because the technologically advanced countries square measure the essence of international co-operation. The government has approved ICAR, motor-assisted by the board of directors of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), to enter into bilateral cooperative agreements with many countries and agencies. The mode of collaboration ordinarily follows the pattern of: (a) exchange of germ-plasm of plant and animal origin; (b) exchange of scientific and technical information; (c) visits of scientists and experts; (d) coaching of scientists; and (e) infrastructure development.

The basic principles of biological control of pests and diseases remain the same, whether applied to insect pests, nematodes or plant pathogens. In the recent years, there is a paradigm shift towards studying antibiosis and its application in biological suppression of pathogens, yet the classical bio-control will remain as relevant as ever. The following discussion is based on recapitulating the basic principles of classical biological control as applicable to plant parasitic nematodes.

Biological control agents (BCAs) have been exploited for pest control in different ways. One way is to manipulate the naturally occurring BCAs by augmenting their populations to pest suppressive levels. In this approach no BCAs are introduced, but various means such as agronomic practices, introduction of organic matter etc. are adopted to favour the build-up of BCAs. The second way is the introduction of BCAs, either as inoculative or inundative release. In the former case, the BCAs are introduced in small quantities and allowed to build-up gradually in due course of time. However, in the latter approach, BCAs are introduced in large quantities so that quick pest suppression can be achieved. Each method has its own merits and demerits (Table 1).

Introduction

The soil around plant roots that forms the rhizosphere is a dynamic, complex zone. All plant parasitic nematodes are obligate parasities and must enter this zone to reach their host and cause damage (Kerry, 2000). Nematodes in soil are subject to infections by bacteria and fungi. This creates the possibility of using soil microorganisms to control plant-parasitic nematodes. Bacteria are numerically the most abundant organisms in soil, and some of them, for example members of the genera Pasteuria, Pseudomonas and Bacillus have shown great potential for the biological control of nematodes. Nematophagous bacteria are distributed broadly, possess diverse modes of action, and have broad host ranges. A variety of nematophagous bacterial groups have been isolated from soil, host-plant tissues, and nematodes and their eggs and cysts (Siddiqui and Mahmood, 1999; Kerry, 2000; Meyer, 2003).

They affect nematodes by a variety of modes: for example parasitizing; producing toxins, antibiotics, or enzymes; interfering with nematode–plant-host recognition; competing for nutrients; inducing systemic resistance of plants; and promoting plant health (Siddiqui and Mahmood, 1999). They form a network with complex interactions among bacteria, nematodes, plants and the environment to control populations of plant-parasitic nematodes in natural conditions (Kerry, 2000).

Introduction

Plant parasitic nematodes are important pests, causing major damage to the world’s food and fibre crops. The management of nematodes is more difficult than that of other pests because nematodes mostly inhabit the soil and usually attack the underground parts of the plants. Nematodes in soil are subject to infections by bacteria and fungi. This creates the possibility of using soil microorganisms to control plant-parasitic nematodes. Biocontrol of nematodes was first studied by Duddington (1951). The development of biological control agents is also considered an effective alternative for nematode control on vegetables (Van Gundy, 1985; Kerry, 1987). There are more than 200 species of nematophagous fungi described. Based on the infection mechanism, they are commonly subdivided into three main groups: the nematode-trapping fungi that captures free living nematodes using specialized morphological structures (i.e., traps), the endoparasitic fungi that infects nematodes using adhesive spores, and the egg- and cyst-parasitic fungi that infect these stages with their hyphal tips (Barron, 1977). The nematophagous fungi that have received most attention for biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes include various species of the nematode-trapping fungi Arthrobotrys spp. (Stirling and Smith, 1998), and the egg-parasitic fungi Pochonia chlamydosporium (Kerry, 2001) and Paecilomyces lilacinus (Gaspard et al., 1990).

Introduction

The need of the agricultural community was the force of motivation for the development of broad-spectrum pesticides towards the management of pests and diseases of cultivated crops. Advances in pesticide were measured exclusively by the assessment of its efficacy in management alone. But today food production has ceased to be a major concern, due to stable population levels and success of innovative agricultural technologies. At this juncture, the agrochemical industry that primarily recognized the farmers as their customers has failed to acknowledge the public as an important client. Perception of the public reflects that, the negative aspects of pesticides seem to outnumber their benefits. The increased reflection on environmental concern over pesticide use has been instrumental in a large upsurge of biological disease control. Development of fungicide resistance among the pathogens, ground water and foodstuff pollution and the development of oncogenic risks has further encouraged for the exploitation of antagonistic microflora in disease management

Introduction

Advances in pesticide were measured exclusively by the assessment of its efficacy in management alone. But today food production has ceased to be a major concern, due to stable increase in population levels and success of innovative agricultural technologies. At this juncture, the agrochemical industry that primarily recognized the farmers as their customers has failed to acknowledge the public as an important client. Perception of the public reflects that, the negative aspects of pesticides seem to outnumber their benefits. The increased reflection on environmental concern over pesticide use has been instrumental in a large upsurge of biological disease control. Development of fungicide resistance among the pathogens, ground water and foodstuff pollution and the development of oncogenic risks has further encouraged for the exploitation of antagonistic microflora in disease management.

Biological control of plant pathogens can be broadly defined as the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant state by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of environment, host or antagonist or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists. The decades of laboratory experiments have led to the explosion in the field of bio-control and introduced more than 50 commercial formulations comprising of fungi and bacteria. To have a successful management of plant diseases and to have a pollution free environment, the biocontrol agents has to be ensured for its availability for commercial use by the end users. To harness the potential of biopesticides by the stakeholders and end users the product has to be registered under Central Insecticide Board authorities concerned of the respective countries.

Introduction

A sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. The objective for IPM practitioners is to minimize risks to human health and the environment from the pest management actions implemented. IPM is a holistic approach that seeks to manage pests by using methods that are effective, economically sound, and ecologically compatible. IPM practitioners base decisions on information that is collected systematically as they integrate economic, environmental, and social goals. IPM promotes the use and integration of biological control agent as one of the strategies for pest and disease management. Because, biological control of plant pathogen is a potential alternative to the use of environment harming chemical pesticides in agriculture.

To study the characteristics of microorganisms, it is essential to culture and growth them. Growth is the increase in cell number which can be obtained by providing proper physical and chemical conditions. Medium is a substance that provides nutrients for growth and multiplication of microorganisms. Any medium for the cultivation of bacteria and fungi must provide certain basic nutritional requirements which include a carbon, nitrogen, phosphate and various mineral nutrients. The following is the medium composition for the isolation and culturing of different biocontrol agents

The isolation of microbes is commonly done using serial dilution technique.

1. Trichoderma

Trichoderma is one of the important biocontrol agents. The colonies first produce mycelial growth and then turn yellow and finally produce a dark green color mat.

The discovery and use of synthetic chemicals has contributed greatly to the increase of food production industry by controlling pest and diseases. However, the use of synthetic chemicals has raised number of ecological problems apart from increasing the cost of cultivation. In recent years, scientists have directed their attention in exploring the potential of beneficial microbes for plant protection measures. Biocontrol agents exhibit antagonistic activity against plant pathogens and activate resistance mechanisms in the host despite improving plant growth. In agricultural soils the nutritional condition is depleted hence beneficial microbes decrease and increase the pathogenic microbes. To ensure the sustained availability of biocontrol agents mass production technique and formulation development protocols has to be standardized which also increases the shelf life of the formulation. Though these agents have a very good potential in the management of Pest and Diseases it can not be used as cell suspension under field conditions. The cell suspensions of these biocontrol agents should be immobilized in certain carriers and should be prepared as formulations. The organic carriers used for formulation development include peat, turf, talc, lignite, kaolinite, pyrophylite, zeolite, alginate, pressmud, sawdust, vermiculate, etc.

Bacteria are by far the common type of soil microorganisms, possibly because they can grow rapidly and have the ability to utilize a wide range of substances as either carbon or nitrogen sources. The bacteria that provide some benefit to plants are found near, on (or) even within the roots of plants (Kloepper et al., 1980) to protect the plants from pathogen attack called as antagonistic organism. Among the many potential bacterial antagonists associated with the plant roots the fluorescent pseudomonads have received prominent attention due to their abundance in plant rhizosphere and their ability to colonize roots of a wide range of crop plants. Pseudomonas fluorescens is a Gram negative, non spore forming, rod shaped bacteria producing pigments which are greenish, fluorescent and water soluble. It is found to be effective against the following fungal pathogens viz., Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomina phaseolina, Fusarium udum, Pyricularia grisea, Fusarium oxysporum fsp. cubense. It is capable of surviving in the spermosphere, rhizosphere and phyllosphere of plants. The mechanisms of biological action exhibited inovles antibiosis, competition, lysis and induced resistance. Pseudomonas have an exceptional capacity to produce a wide variety of metabolites, including antibiotics, that are toxic to plant pathogens.

1. Raw Materials

Culture of Bacillus subtilis

Talc powder - 300 mesh

Shelf life for Pseudomonas fluorescens (TNAU Pf-1)

Aim: To find out the shelf life of P. fluorescens (TNAU Pf-1) using different carrier materials

Product: The talc based P. fluorescens (TNAU Pf-1) product is used for the study on shelf life.

Selective medium (King’B medium) for Pseudomonads

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carries the genetic instruction for the biological development and functioning of all cellular forms of life. It is the blue print which contains the instructions to construct other cell components. Molecular biology experiments often require isolation of DNA for a variety of purposes like construction of DNA libraries, gene cloning, PCR and other marker technology, etc. The extraction of DNA from actively growing tissue is relatively easier yielding higher quantities of DNA.

Principle

The cell wall is ruptured and the proteins associated with DNA are removed by detergent like SDS or by interaction with phenol. Lipids are extracted with alcohol and DNA is precipitated by isopropanol.

Materials Required

Maize seed samples, Liquid nitrogen, CTAB (Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide), Chloroform, isoamyl alcohol, Sodium chloride, Glacial acetic acid, Isopropyl alcohol and 70% ice cold ethanol, TE buffer (5X) (24.2 g of Tris base, 5.71 ml of galcial acetic acid, 10 ml of 0.5M EDTA (pH 8.0) , dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water). Prepare 1X TE as per the requirement.

Many Bacillus species are capable of producing a wide variety of secondary metabolites that are diverse in structure and function. The production of metabolites with antimicrobial activity is one determinant of their ability to control plant diseases. The activity is determined using PCR. PCR consists of an exponential amplification of a DNA fragment, and its principle is based on the mechanism of DNA replication in vivo. dsDNA is denatured to ssDNA, duplicated, and this process is repeated along the reaction according to the following formula

Agarose gel electrophoresis is used for the fractionation and characterization of nucleic acids. It is a simple and highly effective method for separating, identifying and purifying DNA fragments of various sizes. DNA can be checked for size, intactness, homogeneity and purity by this technique. Agarose is a purified form of agar and forms a gel by hydrogen bonding of the agarose monomers. Increasing the Agarose concentration of a gel reduces the migration speed and enables separation of smaller DNA molecules. Shorter molecules move faster and migrate further than longer ones.

Aim: To study the size of the DNA extracted from the fungal culture.

Principle: Ethidium Bromide added to the gel interacts with the bases of DNA and fluorescence orange when irradiated with UV light.

Introduction

Studies on biocontrol agents have revealed the presence of a diverse range of antifungal metabolites derived from amino acid, polyketones and isoprenoid biosynthetic pathways, each of which has distinctive regulatory points and is subjected to different stimuli within organisms. In this experiment, the extraction of secondary metabolites from the culture of T. viride and Chaetomium globosum will be demonstrated.

Entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) viz., Heterorhabditis, Neosteinernema and Steinernema have been recovered from many regions of the world. They selectively infect many insects and a few other arthropods but do not adversely affect mammals or plants. They are actually vectors of pathogenic bacteria, cause relatively rapid death of the host (24 – 48 h) and show considerable potential in biological control of insect pests in the integrated pest management systems.

EPNs are similar to insect parasitoids in that the immature form develops at the expense of one host individual; they are ecologically similar to both parasitoids and arthropod predators because the host individually killed. However, these nematodes differ from predators and parasitoids in two ways: (1) the nematode is mutualistically associated with a bacterial pathogen which actually kills the host, and (2) the pathogenicity of the bacterium has a great influence on the efficacy of the system (Ehler, 1990). The purpose of this chapter is to introduce EPN as biocontrol agents in this refresher course and to provide an overview of some current issues in biological control of insects with particular emphasis on their relevance to the use of EPNs.

Biological control is defined as the action of natural enemies which maintains a host population at levels lower than would occur in the absence of the enemies. Natural enemies will include parasitoids, predators, nematodes, microbial pathogens and their gene products. Entomologists generally divide biological control into two categories: (1) natural biological control which is effected by native or coevolved natural enemies in the native home (origin) of a given insect and (2) applied biological control which due to human intervention. Applied biological control is further divided into classical biological control (introduction of exotic natural enemies) and augmentative biological control (enhancement of natural enemies already in place).

Introduction

Corcyra cephalonica commonly called as rice meal moth or rice moth is a pest of stored foods, viz., cereals, cereal products, oilseeds, pulses, dried fruits, nuts and spices. Many of the natural enemies mass-bred in the laboratory for use in field against crop pests are dependent on either egg or larval stages of Corcyra due to the simple reason that it is easier and cheaper to produce natural enemies on different stages of Corcyra than on their original hosts.

Morphology and Biology of Corcyra

The eggs are oval and measure 0.5 x 0.3 mm. The white surface is sculptured and has a short nipple-like structure at one end. The larvae are generally creamish – white except for the head capsule and the prothoracic tergite, which are brown. There are well-developed prolegs on abdominal segments 3-6 and 10. A fully matured larva measures 15 mm. The last-instar larva spins a closely woven, very tough, double-layered cocoon in which it develops into a dark-brown pupa. The anterior portion of the cocoon has a line of weakness through which the adult emerges. The adults are small. The hind-wings are pale-buff, and the fore-wings are mid-brown or greyish-brown with thin vague lines of darker brown colour along the wing veins. The males are smaller than the females.

Sexual activity usually begins shortly after adult emergence. There is a preoviposition period of about 2 days. Egg-laying mainly occurs during the night. The greatest numbers are laid on the second and third days after emergence, although oviposition may continue throughout life. Eggs take about 2-3 days to hatch. Optimum conditions for larval development of C. cephalonica are 30 – 32.5 °C and 70 per cent RH, at which, the period from egg hatch to adult emergence is only 26-27 days. There is considerable variation in the number of larval instars; however, males generally have 7 and females have 8. The last-instar larvae pupate within the food. The adults emerge through the anterior end of the cocoon, where there is a line of weakness. The sex ratio is 1:1. The adult moth is nocturnal and is most active at nightfall.