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• Botanical name: Papavera somnifera
• Family: Papaveraceae
• Origin: Europe
• Useful part: Fruit/Capsule
• Chemical content: Morphine, Narcotine, Codine
• Flowering time: 95–115 days after sowing
• Capsule maturity: 15–20 days after flowering
• Uses: It is also called “God of sleep”. It is used in Painkillar, hypotonic effect and cure to leukaemia
• It is a licence crop and grow in Aari
• One aari equals to 100 m²
• Seed rate: For broadcasting: 7–8 Kg/ha

  For line sowing: 4–5 Kg/ha

• Thinning is important cultural practices.

The relationship between man and plant resources of his surroundings is intimate. Of the 350 tribes inhabiting different parts of India, about 171 dwell in Himalayan region. The inhabitants of the mountain areas use native flora for food, fodder, fiber, fuel, timber and for health care of both human beings and their livestock. These plant resources, particularly medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), not only meet their health care needs but also support their livelihood. Recently the demand of MAPs has transformed from local and traditional needs to global needs. This has adversely affected availability and quality of raw material as also livelihood and health options of the local people. Most of the raw materials are gathered from the forests, and only a few plants are under cultivation. To avoid rampant exploitation of MAPs from nature, there is an urgent need to establish procedures for their cultivation and organized marketing. The present article deals with strategies and actions to protect livelihood options of the indigenous communities inhabiting mountain areas in western Himalaya as well as promote sustainable utilization of MAPs through scientific and technological interventions.

Introduction

India and China are two major Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) producing countries, providing 40% of the global diversity and availability of rare species. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has identified and documented over 9,000 species of medicinal plants that are significant for the pharmaceutical industry (AICRPE 1996). Of these, 2,000 to 2,300 species are used in traditional medicines while at least 150 species are used commercially on a large scale (EXIM Bank 1997).

Horticultural medicinal plants

Throughout recorded history, people have held medicinal plants in high regard due to the many health benefits they provide. Natural cures abound among these botanical marvels, and they may alleviate a wide range of health problems. The wide variety of bioactive substances found in them has been used to create pharmaceutical medications and alternative treatments, suggesting that they may have curative properties. Medicinal plants, such as aloe vera and turmeric, offer a wide range of uses, including pain relief, the treatment of chronic diseases, and general health improvement. A newfound respect for traditional herbal medicine’s knowledge and the need of preserving these priceless resources has emerged in recent years, as contemporary medicine investigates the plants’ unrealized potential.

Introduction

Medicinal and aromatic plants constitute a major segment of the flora, which provides raw materials for use in the pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and drug industries. The indigenous systems of medicines, developed in India for centuries, make use of many medicinal herbs. These systems include Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and many other indigenous practices. More than 9,000 native plants have established and recorded curative properties and about 1500 species are known for their aroma and flavour. In one of the studies by the World Health Organisation, it is estimated that 80 per cent of the population of developing countries relies on traditional plant based medicines for their health requirements (WHO 1991). Even in many of the modern medicines, the basic composition is derived from medicinal plants and these have become acceptable medicines for many reasons that include easy availability, least side effects, low prices, environmental friendliness and lasting curative property. India and China are the two major producing countries, having 40 per cent of the global biodiversity and availability of rare species. These are well known as the home of medicinal and aromatic crops that constitute a segment of the flora, and provide raw materials to the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, fragrance, flavour etc. industries.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION!

Major constraint of medicinal plants: Lack of genuine planting material.

Maximum number of medicinal plants belong to family Asteraceae.

Maximum demand in world market: 1. Senna leaves 2. Isabgol seeds 3. Cassia tora seeds.

India is largest producer of 1. Kewada oil 2. Senna 3. Davana oil 4. Isabgol.

India is 2^nd largest producer of 1. Opium latex 2. Jasmine concrete 3. Tuberose concrete

India is 3^rd largest exporter of periwinkle.

Thailand is largest exporter of sarpagandha leaves.

China is largest producer of 1. Geranium oil 2. Citronella oil.

A large number of people in developing countries have traditionally depends on products derived from plants, especially from forests, for curing human and livestock ailments. Additionally, several aromatic plants are popular for domestic and commercial uses. Collectively they are called medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). About 12.5% of the 4,22,000 plant species documented worldwide are reported to have medicinal values. With dwindling supplies from natural sources and increasing global demand, the medicinal and aromatic plants, will need to be cultivated to ensure their regular supply for processing and value added products.

The term “Medicinal and Aromatic plants” generally denotes those non-aromatic and aromatic plants, which are used for medicinal, perfumery, dye and cosmetic purposes. They are rich in secondary metabolites and are potential sources of drugs. Generally the whole plant roots, stem, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, gums and oleoresins, etc. are used.

India has been considered as treasure house of valuable medicinal and aromatic plant species. Ministry of Environment and Forests have identified and documented over 9500 plant species considering their importance in the pharmaceutical industry. In the present context of ‘back to nature’ in health care, it is relevant that these valuable plant species are not only preserved but also their cultivation developed in order to meet the entire demand of the domestic industries as also to exploit the bright prospect for export. Shift from collection to cultivation of medicinal & aromatic plants will also ensure purity, authenticity and sustainable supply of raw materials required for herbal drugs, including polyherbals.

Medicinal plants are non-food non-plantation crops.

These are rich in secondary metabolites viz. alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavonoides and steroids, etc.

Union government of India has started a project on 'Traditional Knowledge Digital Library' under which it is documenting all Ayurvedic formulations in a digital form to avert patent threats from companies in the developed world

1. Introduction

There are a large number of indigenous rice varieties in India, which are still grown by the tribal people and small farmers of the remote areas where the modern agricultural practices, sufficient foods as well as healthcare systems are a dream. Nature has provided them some alternative ways. They have different indigenous rice varieties with its nutritional and medicinal values. Until recently, rice was considered only a starchy food and a source of carbohydrates and some amount of protein. Rice protein, though small in amount, is of high nutritional value (Chaudhary and Tran, 2001). It has extensive curative properties known from the ancient days. In fact, specific rice varieties with medicinal properties were cultivated and used in the treatment of some ailments in different counties of South East Asia.

During recent times, both at national level and international levels, the land races are being preserved in the gene banks. The scientists said that they were also checking these land races for some such characteristics which were not available in the existing varieties so as to incorporate the same in the present varieties (Sultan and Subba Rao, 2013). Traditional varieties are experiencing an increasing trend among consumers, due to their incredible health benefits for example the traditional varieties possess higher amount of glutamic acid, fiber and vitamins. Some people also credit traditional varieties with other health benefits, such as giving sensations of cooling in the body, improves vocal clarity, eyesight, fertility and mitigating rashes (Caius, 1999).

Gladiolus saundersii

ABSTRACT

Artemisia annua L. is known for the content of anti-malarial drug, artemisinin. It is widely distributed in subtropical, temperate and subtropical zones worldwide and traditionally used for the treatment of various ailments. Artemisinin has been the frontline treatment since the late 1990s and saved countless lives, especially among the world’s poorest children. The major chemical constituents of Artemisia annua L. are sesquiterpenoids and some phenolics. The essential oil of Artemisia contains artemisia ketone, camphor, caryophyllene oxide, 1,8- cineole and -pinene, and these essential oils constituents are known for their medicinal properties.Artemisinin was discovered in 1971 bya Chinese Medicinal Chemist Youyou Tu (Nobel Prize in 2015). As the demand for artemisinin remains high worldwide, exploring the chemical and the genetic variation especially knowledge, about its mechanisms for high-yielding would be more important. The plant extract is also known for other biological activities such as anti- hypertensive, anti-microbial, immuniosuppresive, and antiparasitic activities. To increase the production of artemisinin and to investigate the effect of climate change on artemisinin content will be the major research area in future from Artemisia genus. Exploring the alternative resources such as microbial production and semisynthetic approaches from other easily available natural molecules would be of high demand. Some other molecules from Artemisia should also be focused for the future development of man kind and in drug discovery science. An overview of present status of medicinal applications, phytochemistry, and future perspectives for the research possibilities on the active ingredient Artemisinin from A. annua is discussed in this chapter.

1. Introduction

During the last decade, considerable attention has been focused on the involvement of oxygen free radical (OFR) in various diseases. Molecular oxygen, while providing an efficient energy from ingested food, results in free radical and peroxide by-products, which have high intrinsic toxicity. Numerous physiological processes in living organisms occasionally produce free radicals, reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) as by-products. Their broad ranges of effects in biological systems have drawn the attention of many experimental works. ROS have been implicated in the pathophysiology of several clinical disorders, including ischemia, reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, rheumatoid arthritis, neurodegenerative, atherosclerosis, acute hypertension, hemorrhagic shock and diabetes mellitus (Hemnani and Parihar, 1998).

Oxidative stress occurs in a cell or tissue when the concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated exceeds the antioxidant capability of the cell (Simic and Jovanovic, 1986). Although humans and other organisms possess antioxidant defense and repair systems to protect against oxidative damage, these systems are insufficient under certain conditions to prevent the damage totally (Chang and Miles, 1982). Hence, the oxygen free radicals mediated damage to protein, DNA and other biomolecules accumulates during the lifetime of organisms. Many synthetic antioxidant components exhibited toxic or mutagenic effects that have directed the attention to the naturally occurring antioxidants in recent years. A multitude of natural antioxidants have already been isolated from different plant materials such as oilseeds, cereal crops, vegetables, fruits, leaves, roots, spices and herbs (Ramarathnam et al., 1995).

ABSTRACT

Our country is well known for developing into rich and ancient traditional system of medicines based on plants. For centuries, these ancient cultures and professional practicing on traditional system viz. Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha could remain in house hold and pass through generations to generation. India is being a developing country, of late uses bioactive natural products (secondary metabolites) using in vitro culture technology of the medicinal plant species. Recently, commercial utilization of these compounds using modern techniques is in good progress. The developed western affluent world has to now depend on these compounds mostly in drug and pharmaceutical industry in recent years. Orchids as medicinal herbs, details on plant medicinal potentialities, traditional medicinal systems viz. Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha have been described.

Abstract

Since the beginning of the civilization, medicinal plants have been used to prevent and treat various ailments. At present, most of the pharmaceutical/ nutraceutical industries highly depend on wild medicinal plants for the supply of raw materials for extraction of bioactive compounds. As medicinal plants receive increased scientific and commercial attention, there is increasing pressure on the wild medicinal plant populations.

Introduction

Medicinal plants are considered as rich ingredients resources which may be utilized in medicines development pharmacopoeia, non-pharmacopoeia or synthetic industry. Apart from any region, these plants play a critical role within the development of human cultures around the whole world. Plant is a crucial source of drugs and plays a key role in world health. Medicinal herbs or plants are known to be a critical potential source of therapeutics or curative aids. The utilization of medicinal plants has attained a commanding role in health system all over the place the planet. This involves the utilization of medicinal plants not just for the treatment of diseases but also as potential material for maintaining healthiness and conditions. Many countries within the world, that is, two-third of the world’s population depends on herbal medicines for primary health care. The explanations for this are often due to their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility and adaptableness with the physical body poses lesser side effects. Evidently, records showed that most of the used drugs contain plant extracts. Some are containing active ingredients (bioactive components or substances) obtained from plants. Through recent researches, it revealed that plant-derived drugs were mostly discovered from the study of curative, therapeutic, traditional cures and above all the folks knowledge of indigenous people and a few of those claims and believe of individuals are irreplaceable despite the recent advancement in science and technology. A number of the drugs believed to be obtained from plants are aspirin, atropine, artimesinin, colchicine, digoxin, ephedrine, morphine, physostigmine, pilocarpine, quinine, guanidine, reserving, taxol, tubocurarine, vincristine and vinblastine. The importance of medicinal plants can’t be taken lightly; therefore, it’ll be of significance to look at the characteristics and roles of photochemical in a number of the medicinal plants commonly utilized throughout the world.

Introduction

The incidence of diabetes mellitus is increasing all over the world and is becoming a problem of significant importance. Diabetes mellitus is a disease of CHO metabolism and WHO has declared India as the diabetic capital of the world. Globally diabetes affects 246 million people, which is about 6% of the total adult population. It is the fourth leading cause of death by disease and every 10 seconds, a person dies from diabetes related causes in the world.

The growing number of diabetic patients and the current and probable future need for health care constraints will mean that high quality diabetic care will become increasingly difficult to be delivered in the future. This requires identification & implementation of cost effective treatment measures that will improve diabetes care in the long term, decrease the associated morbidity and reduce the high direct and indirect costs of its management. This can be possible by incorporation of cost effective and efficient medicinal plants in the management of diabetes. Toxicity and side effects of modern system of medicine have highlighted the importance and relevance of traditional medicinal plants. India has about 45,000 plant species and several thousands have been claimed to possess medicinal properties. Among Indian traditional medicinal plants several potential anti-diabetic plants and herbs are being used as part of our diet since prehistoric time.

In India, medicinal plants have been used as natural medicine since the days of Vedic glory. Historically, in ‘Atharva-Veda’ (about 200 B.C.) description of medicinal plants was made under a separate chapter ‘Ayurveda’. The medicinal values of plants have been tested by trial and error method for a long time by different workers and opened great opportunities for scientific investigations of herbal medicines for cure of diabetes and its complications.

Medicinal plants used to treat hyperglycemic conditions are of considerable interest for ethno-botanical community as they are recognized to contain valuable medicinal properties in different parts of the plant and a number of plants have shown varying degree of hypoglycemic and anti-hyperglycemic activity. The active principles of many plant species are isolated for direct use as drugs, lead compounds or pharmacological agents. Traditional plant medicines or herbal formulations might offer a natural key to unlock diabetic complications if utilized with care.

ABSTRACT

Traditionally, the rural communities of Trivandrum have been preserving small tracts of virgin forests or small groves since time immemorial due to strong religious beliefs anointed with the groves. These forest patches are biodiversity rich communities and a large number of medicinal plants of the region are confined to these groves only. The indigenous people use the plants for medicinal as well as religious purposes. Over the years, such forests have been attributed as a treasure trove of threatened species and dispensary of medicinal plants. During the investigation, 132 medicinal plants belonging to 63 families and 119 genera were recorded from 25 miniature sacred forests of Trivandrum district. This study was based on medicinal plants used in traditional health care by local and indigenous people. About 80% local people use different parts of plants for various ailments. The present finding revealed that most of the plants are used for skin diseases, cold, cough and fever, etc. Leaves are predominantly used than the other plant parts. Important families within the groves were Apocynaceae, Papilionaceae, Urticaceae, Combretaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Presence of a large number of monospecific families indicates immediate need of a conservation measure to secure sustainable utilization of medicinal plants of sacred groves of Trivandrum district.

1. Introduction

Plants are reliable sources for the treatment of diseases in different parts of the world (Eisenberb et al., 1993; Cowan, 1999; Hostettmann et al., 2000) and they have been unique sources of medicines and constituted the most common use of biodiversity (Hamilton, 2004; Hiremath and Taranath, 2010). Their use contributes significantly to primary healthcare delivery (Holetz et al., 2002) as they are regarded as invaluable sources of pharmaceutical products (Olalde, 2005).

Traditional medicine, with medicinal plants as their most important component, are sold in market places or prescribed by traditional healers in their homes (Von Maydell, 1996). As a result of this strong dependence on plants as medicines, many ethnopharmacological studies have been conducted to determine their safety, efficiency and discovery of new active principles from them. Only, 1,100 plants have so far been thoroughly examined for their medicinal practices in the world (Dobson, 1995).

Herbal medicine have been in use since time immemorial and are still the mainstay mainly in the developing countries because of their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects (Kamraj, 2000).

Description of important medicinal plants

India is known to be rich source of medicinal plants since ancient time. Medicinal plants like Aloe vera, Aswagandha, basil, mint, cinnamon, etc. are widely used to cure various ailments and for several health benefits. Some of the common diseases like common cold, headache, stomach problem, skin disease, etc. are treated in home by use of various herbs. Medicinal plants can be grown in the backyard or on the rooftop to meet the household demand. Cultivation practices of some of the medicinal plants are described in this chapter.

Tulsi

Tulsi or basil is considered to be a sacred plant with religious importance. It is grown in homes as an aromatic perennial shrub and used for medicinal purpose. Tulsi possess antimicrobial and antiviral properties with capacity to purify the air. It can be grown up to an altitude of 2000 m above mean sea level. This plant can be grown in pots and in home gardens. The leaves and twigs of the plant are used for medicinal purpose. The fragrant leaves and flowers are used in the form of tincture, tea or decoction for curing cold & cough, stomach disorders, skin diseases, etc. The plant is also rich in antioxidant, vitamin and calcium. There are two types of tulsi viz. green type and purple. It can be planted in the pots or in the beds.

1. Introduction

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is one of the most significant trees in tropical and subtropical homegardens and perhaps the most widespread and useful tree in the important genus Artocarpus. Jackfruit belongs to the family Moraceae. The word “jackfruit” comes from Portuguese jaca, which is derived from the Malayalam language term, Chakka. Jack fruit native to India and seen abundant in Western Ghats (Wangchu et al.,2013). Besides India, jackfruit is commonly grown in home gardens of tropical and sub-tropical countries especially Sri Lanka; Bangladesh, Burma, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Brazil. In India, it widely distributed in the states of Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and considered to be the “Poor mans food” (Prakash et al., 2009). In Malayalam, jack fruit is called as “Chakka” while the ancient Indian language Sanskrit refers as Atibruhatphala (Baliga et al., 2011). The morphology of the tree varies with 10-30 m tall; with long tap root and dense crown producing the largest tree born fruit in the world. The fruit weight up to 50 kg, but average weigh is considered to be 10 kg, while only 30-35% of the bulb is edible. Jack fruit is considered as national fruit in Bangladesh and highly appreciated in India due to cheap and availability in summer seasons were food is scarce (Muralidharan et al., 1997). It is a monoecious tree and both male and female inflorescences are found on the same tree. The fertilization is by cross-pollination and the propagation is mostly through seeds. The complete fruit development process takes about three to seven months from the pollination, varying in different countries. Jackfruit consists of lower fleshy edible region (bulb), middle fused region (syncarp) and out spiney region (spike). When ripe the fruit get fleshy, outer spines widened and flesh get soft and yellow. Except the thorny outer bark and axis are not edible (Baliga et al., 2011). The jackfruits were classified based on their phonotypical and organoleptic characteristics with variation in bulb colour as well as shape, size, odour, flake size, flake colour and period of maturity. Two types of ecotypes are recognized, one with soft and spongy flakes or bulbs while other with firm carpels.

1. Introduction

Pummelo is considered as largest fruit among all the Citrus species from the Rutaceae family. It is also known as shaddock, papanus or chakotra. Although C. grandis (L.) Osbeck is more frequently used, however C. maxima (Burm.) Merr. is considered as correct under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Singh and Navneet, 2017). It is considered as one of the four true species (natural, non-hybrid) of Citrus. The ltypical large size, thick rind is one of the causes for slow acceptance of pummelo in international market. However, it is presently considered as important fruit due to presence of various bio-active compounds related with human health and nutrition. The word ‘pummelo’ was originally derived from the Dutch word ‘pompelmoes’. The fruit is also named as ‘Shaddock’ after a Captain Shaddock who was believed to have introduced the fruit in Barbados on an East India Company ship on its way to England in the 17^th century. It is known by different names by different communities residing in India such as chakotra (Hindi), batabi lebu or jambura (Bengali), robab tenga (Assamese), nobab (Manipuri), ser trawk (Mizo), soh myngor or soh bah (Khasi), rabab tasing (Adi), papanas (Gujarati), chakota (Kannada), kambili naranga (Malayalam), pamparapanasa (Telugu), metukki or pampalimaku (Tamil) and bampara (Marathi) [Anon, 2019]. Pummelo can be distinguished from grapefruit by its larger size fruit, thicker albedo and the bunch bearing habit of grapefruit can also be considered for distinguishing it from pummelo (Scora et al., 1982). The crop is believed to have originated from South and Southeast Asia and it is now cultivated in many tropical and semi tropical countries. The top ten world producers of pummelo and grapefruit are USA, China, Mexio, South Africa, India, Argentina, Turkey, Cuba, Brazil and Tunisia (FAOSTAT, 2010). It is also cultivated in in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Chile, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Nepal. There is no report of its commercial cultivation in India till date; rather it is mainly grown in homestate gardens across the country including UP, Punjab, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. However, maximum genetic diversity in pummelo germplasm is found in North Eastern Region, West Bengal and Bihar (Singh et al., 2015).

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in India

• Sikkim, West Bengal, Odisha, Upper Gangetic Plains and in Nilgiris, ascending to altitude of 1600 m.

• North-east, North-west, Southern as well as Central India, and extends into Myanmar and China.

11.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Raw materials for production of steroidal drugs, steroid bearing solanum

• Yields a glyco alkaloid, solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenine.

8.1 Medicinal use of Bamboo in Cattle: The important parts of bans (Bambusa arundinacea) used are the leaf and stem, which contain choline, betain, nuclease, urease, cyanogenetic and glucoside. The leaf acts as an emmenagogue, stimulant, astringent, febrifuge, echbolic, and diuretic. It also acts against leprosy, tympany/bloat, diarrhea, retained placenta, threadworm, cough, and cold in horses. Flowering occurs once in ten to twelve years. The plant dries after flowering. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.2 Medicinal uses of Dendrocalamus Strictus: The leaf and other parts of kaban (Dendrocalamus strictus), which contain siliceous matter, are used as astringent and ecbolics in animals. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.3 Medicinal uses of Datura metel, D. alba, D. fastuosa: The leaf, root, fruit, and ripe seed of sadah datura (Datura metel) contain alkaloids such as hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine, scopalamine, allantoin, and vitamin C. They are used for treating insanity, fever with catarrh and cerebral complications, and the fruit is used to induce heat in animals and treat prolapse of uterus/ vagina. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.4 Medicinal uses of Dalbergia Sissoo: The stem bark, root, leaf, and mucilage of sisam (Dalbergia sissoo) contain tannin, dalberginone, dalbergin, allylphenol of latitontype, 5,7,4-trihydroxy-s-methoxyisoflorone, and are used for leprosy, boils, eruptions, to allay vomiting, and the oil is used for cutaneous afflictions. Mucilage of leaves mixed with sweet oil is applied in excoriations. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.5 Medicinal uses of Cyperus Rotundus: The tubers of motha mutha (Cyperus rotundus) have essential oils, myristic and stearic acid, unstable alkaloid, b-seilinne, cyperenone, and are used as diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, stimulant, tranquilizer, and antipyretic. (Parabia et al., 2000).

16.1. Overview of Medium and Small Enterprises (MSE) Growth

In most developing countries, MSEs constitute the vast majority of firms, generating a substantial share of both overall employment and output. Given their significant economic role, one might expect MSE growth to drive overall increases in output and income levels. In many cases, however, their largest economic contribution appears to be one of maintaining, rather than generating new, employment and income for the poor. At an aggregate level, MSEs demonstrate impressive growth, 3 especially when compared with larger firms. However, many individual MSEs grow slowly or not at all, in some cases, due to a conscious decision on the part of the business owner. Overall growth rates are often fueled by the rapid expansion of a narrow group of highly performing MSEs. In dev e loping as well as in developed countries, there appears to be a small group of “gazelles”, firms that outperform their peers and drive aggregate employment and productivity growth for the small business sector. Why do some MSEs expand rapidly, while others stagnate? What factors account for the wide variation observed in MSE growth trajectories? This paper explores a wide array of specific factors, but it is first useful to consider a broader conceptual frame work of opportunities and capabilities. Clearly, opportunities for profitable business activities shape the ability of an entrepreneur to expand his or her firm.

2.1. Place of SME in Remeding The Nigerian Economic Paradox

This can best be explained by the two-gap economic model. The Two-Gap Models of development are contained in the Post-Keynesian growth models designed by Harrod and Domar. They tried to identify the pre-conditions for the economic growth of market economies. These two preconditions are es- sentially rooted in the Nigerian economy and these are (1) Internally: inad- equate savings would definitely translate to investment. The GAP between these two is called saving constraints (SAVING GAP). Closing this gap re- quires SME-financing. (2) Externally: inadequate foreign exchange arising from inability to export vis-à-vis high importation will lead to short fall in foreign exchange. The GAP between these two is called foreign exchange constraints (TRADE GAP) which can be corrected by facilitating the establishment of indigenous enterprises through a national embrace of the SME-initiatives. Ni- gerian leaders resorted to foreign aid assistance from developed countries, multilateral and bilateral international organizations to salvage the economy from total collapse; but, we can’t continue to carry the begging bow as our benefac- tors only give us fish and don’t teach us how to catch fish.

SEX IS VERY COSTLY

Large amounts of energy required to find a mate and do the mating: specialized structures and behavior required

Intimate contact provides route for infection by parasites (AIDS, syphillis, etc.)

Genetic costs: in sex you pass on only half your genes to your children

Males are an expensive luxury- in most species they contribute little to rearing offspring

But There are Some Advantages

More genetic diversity: more potential for survival of species when environmental conditions change

Shuffling of genes in meiosis (random separation of homologous chromosomes)

Crossing-over in meiosis (see below)

Fertilization (genes from 2 individuals brought together)

It is more common in dogs and frequently seen in the skin and oral cavity. It usually occurs in 5 to 11 years old dogs. Benign melanomas are solitary, circumscribed, alopecic firm and freely movable blue black coloured nodules in the skin. Malignant melanoma is sessile, polypoid to plaque like grey or brown black coloured granules in the skin with ulceration.

Clasping stemmed Solena or diversely leaved Melothria or creeping cucumber (Solena amplexicaulis Lam. Syn. Bryonia amplexicaulis (Lam), Melothria heterophylla (Lour), Melothria angulata Chakrav) is an indigenous cucurbit vegetable occuring in nature nearby cultivated areas on hedges or in open fields In Greek Solen means’ a tube,pipe’ refering to the nature of its flowers. The vernacular names are Bon-kundari, kudari, makal, mahakal (bengali), gometti (marati), kanduri, kuduri (bundelkhand), bankakra (champa), gometi (gujarati, anatmul, mahakal, taarali, kaduri (hindi),makirla (chattirgarh), kaage mari balli (kanarese) etc. This is a perennial vine, dioecious in nature. Tender fruits are used as salad, curry and  fried vegetable. It has significant medicinal value also.  In tribal regions of Orissa, fruits of Melothria are considered as delicacy. Visualizing the delicate nature of its fruits, it has great potential as a salad crop in  future.

Membrane technology is a proven separation method used on the molecular and ionic levels. Since the beginning of the 1970s, this technique has been adopted by the dairy industry. Membrane separation is widely used in dairy processing plants to perform an ever-increasing range of duties, e.g. pre-concentration, partial demineralization, protein separation, bacteria removal, brine clarification and waste water recycling. Representing one of the great technological developments occurring within the dairy industry during the second half of the twentieth century, progress was driven initially by the transfer of know-how gleaned from the application of cellulose acetate-based reverse osmosis (RO) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes in other industrial sectors to whey processing. Later, new membrane materials and engineering designs were built on this initial achievement and opened up further opportunities for the application of the full spectrum of membrane separation systems that also includes Nan filtration (NF) and cross-flow microfiltration The integration of these unit operations into traditional dairy processes has led to the development of innovative ingredients as well as improvements in yield, efficiency and product quality. R & D work indicates potential RO application for concentration of milk for products like khoa, condensed and dried milk products and of UF application for the manufacture of shrikhand, paneer, chana and cheese. Application of these processes permits higher energy saving, higher yields and superior product quality compared to traditional processes of thermal evaporation.

1. Introduction

Pulpy and juicy fruits like orange, guava, banana, grape, mango, papaya, pears, apples and jackfruit can be converted into fruit products like squashes, juices, cordials and ready-to-serve (RTS) fruit beverages. These RTS fruit beverages are both refreshing and thirst quenching and have become very popular. Liquid fruits are the clarified juices prepared from these pulpy and juicy fruits. There is a demand for liquid fruits in the international market for various applications. The liquid fruits can be used as a natural alternative to synthetic beverages. They can be suitably concentrated or diluted, blended with other juices and also can be carbonated as fruit based soft drinks. Removals of pulpy material from the juices make them easier to preserve by pasteurization and are amenable to carbonation. Pulpy fruits can be successfully processed into liquid fruits (clarified juices) by using pectic enzymes. The emphasis of the fruit juice processing industry has, so far, been mainly on conventional clarification processes like enzymatic and chemical treatments followed by filtration using filter aids; and concentration by vacuum evaporation.

1. Introduction

Membranes separation processes have gained widespread applications in food industry. High selectivity of membrane has been exploited for separating a particular component from complex liquid food mixture and for controlled release of active ingredients like preservatives or flavor compounds. Today, a number of chemical processes utilizing the unique properties of membrane have been developed for commercial application in food industry with specific advantage of low energy requirement. Membrane separation/molecular sieving is one among those food engineering principals which has found broad range of applications including concentration of heat labile compounds, recovery of solvent, downstream processing, flavor volatile recovery, deacidification, desalination, waste water treatment etc

Introduction

Since 1990, there has been a lot of interest in functional foods and nutraceuticals, particularly because of their impact effects on human health and the prevention of certain diseases. Apart from growing good quality natural products, there are challenges in extracting, refining, analyzing active ingredients, and evaluating safety before an effective, reliable product is made [1,2]. Special attention needs to be focused on separation and purification mainly because 40-80% of the cost of production is assigned to separation and purification unit operations in making functional foods and nutraceuticals. There are also several carotenoids and polyphenol products that have been identified from various plants and a single plant could contain highly complex profiles of these compounds. These are labile to heat, air, and light, and they may exist at low concentrations in the plants. This makes the separation and detection of nutraceuticals a challenging task. The membrane techniques used for the separation of nutraceuticals from the natural products, as well as their applications and influencing factors are discussed in this chapter [3, 4].

ALL MOLECULES MOVE CONTINUOUSLY BY SIMPLE DIFFUSION

Heat energy causes molecules to move randomly (sometimes called Brownian motion)

If the concentration of molecules is different in 2 regions (this produces a concentration gradient), diffusion will cause molecules to move from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration

The higher the concentration gradient the more rapid the net diffusion

Diffusion evens out the concentrations so they are equal everywhere (maximum entropy)

If 2 different substances have the same concentration gradient, usually one will move faster than the other

Differences in speed between molecules with the same concentration gradient are given in terms of diffusion constants

A substance with a high diffusion constant moves faster than one with a low diffusion constant

In general, large molecules move slower than small molecules

Diffusion across a membrane is called permeability, and membrane diffusion constants are called permeability constants

1. The first Director of IARI was ?????.
   1. M. S. Randhawa
   2. B. P. Pal
   3. M. S. Swaminathan
   4. G. Kalloo
2. In vegetable blanching is done for?????.
   1. Removal of microorganism
   2. To activate the enzymes
   3. To retention colour
   4. All of the above
3. Viviparous refers to?????.
   1. Germination of seed on mother plant
   2. Germination of seed in the field
   3. Germination of the seed on monoecious plant
   4. Germination of seed on any place
4. Sourness in radish is due to ?????.
   1. Isosinate
   2. Isothiocinate
   3. Anthocyanin
   4. All of the above

About Mendel

Born in what is now the Czeck Republic.

Grew up in an agricultural environment.

Became a priest-teacher at a local monastery.

Took courses in botany, physics, and mathematics at the University of Vienna.

Gregor Mendel was the first person to comprehend some of the most basic principles of genetics. He reached these understandings in the mid-nineteenth century; working in what is now the Czech Republic and using as his experimental subjects a species of garden pea, Pisum sativum..

Carried out “hybridization” experiments with the common garden pea.

Mendel’s hypotheses became the laws of inheritance in modern genetics.

Mendel’s work re-discovered by Correns, DeVries, and Tschermak in 1900. Period of modern “Mendelian” genetics begin.

Historically the first and still the most conclusive evidence for the existence of genes comes from the phenomenon of segregation of traits observed in the offspring of hybrids between individuals or strains that differ in some recognizable respect. The principle of segregation was formulated by Gregor Johann Mendel in 1866 under such peculiar circumstances that the scientific world failed to recognize it until after a lapse of 34 years. In the first place Gregor Mendel was not primarily a biologist but a Monk in the Augustinian monastery at Bruenn, Austria (now Brno, Moravia in Czech Republic). During his childhood, Mendel worked as a gardener and studied beekeeping. He became part time monk because it enabled him to obtain an education without having to pay for it himself. From 1840 to 1843 he studied Practical and Theoretical Philosophy and Physics at the Philosophical Institute of the University of Olomouc. Upon recommendation of his teacher, Mendel entered the Augustinian St. Thomas Abbey in Brno and began his training as a Priest. Born Johann Mendel, he took the name Gregor upon entering religious life. Mendel worked also as a substitute High School teacher. In 1850, he failed the oral part of his examination and could not become a certified High School Teacher. In 1851, he was sent to the University of Vienna to study further so that he could get formal education. Mendel returned to his Abbey in 1853 as a Physics teacher. In 1856, he took the examination to become a certified teacher but again failed the oral part.

A fair number of practical breeding experiments were done in ancient times

People knew there was a connection between sex and reproduction

The idea had developed that “like begets like”

By selecting certain plants and animals and breeding them many domestic varieties of plants and animals had been developed

Example: corn was developed from a wild grass in Mexico and Central America, probably about 5000 years ago

149 of the top 150 plant crops were domesticated by primitive man

Cabbage semilooper: Thysanoplusia orichalcea :Noctuidae

Eggs are laid singly on lower surface of leaves.  The emerging larvae feed as a scraper initially and then feed voraciously on the leaves. The larva is greenish and hence not easily noticed initially. But when patches of damage occur in the crop, examine for the larvae and remove and destroy all the larvae. Chemical control is not advisable, and spraying extracts of other aromatic plants can deter egg laying very well.

Abstract

Mentoring is a personal enhancement strategy through which one person facilitates the development of another by sharing known resources, expertise, values, skills, perspectives, attitudes and proficiencies. The concept of mentoring is not new. Guru – Shishya traditions in every old civilization are the examples of mentoring by which culture, technology and knowledge have been successfully disseminated from older generation to newer generation. Being an important career building factor, now more emphasis is given to develop mentoring relationship in organization level. In office culture mentoring facilitates an environment in which an individual grows both as a person and as a professional.

Abstract

Oolichan (Thaleichthys pacificus), a small anadromous smelt also known as “savior fish”, were a necessity of life for Pacific Northwest Coastal and adjacent interior indigenous peoples, as they were the first fish to return to the rivers after winter and produced not only tasty flesh but also a nutritious oil, or “grease.” A focus of the traditional oolichan culture is the Nass River of northwestern British Columbia, Canada. The valleys and mountains surrounding the Nass River are the traditional homelands of the Nisga’a people, whose technological innovations including implements, buildings, and landscape structures facilitated fishing, production, and preservation of oolichan, as well as salmon. Over thousands of years, the Nisga’a developed plant-based technologies for use in the oolichan fishery and for preparation trade of rendered oolichan “grease”. In turn, structures and implements associated with the oolichan fishery facilitated knowledge exchange across generations, since the oolichan processing areas and fishing camps were the places where elders conveyed their cultural and ecological knowledge to younger people. Structures fashioned from plants helped people to recall the stories, traditions,

Every organ and tissue of the body is more or less affected by this powerful drug; it transforms healthy cells into inflamed and necrotic cells; decomposes the blood producing a profound anaemia. This is converted into useful life saving and life preserving service if employed homoeopathically, guided by its clear-cut symptoms. The lymphatic system is especially affected with all the membranes and glands, and internal organs, bones, etc. lesions produced by Mercury are very similar to those of syphilis. Very often indicated in the secondary stage of syphilis where there is a febrile chloroanaemia, rheumatoid pains around joints, etc. all mercury symptoms are worse at night, from warmth of bed, from damp, cold, rainy weather, worse during perspiration. It is also known as human 'thermometre'. Sensitive to heat and cold. Breath, excretions and body smell foul. Tendency to pus formation, which is thin, greenish, putrid, streaked with thin blood.

In R there is facility of reshaping the data. Reshaping of data includes joining of two or more vectors to create a data frame. Also two or more data frames can be merged. Appropriate functions are available for these jobs. While merging the data frames, we can join columns or rows.

Illustration of joining two vectors by using cbind() function.

The process of fracture healing is unique, in which damaged bone restores its original architecture but it does not form a poorly organized replacement matrix, otherwise known as scar tissue, rather it regenerates the original matrix and retains its mechanical properties. In order to repair bone defects, a combination of cells with osteogenic activity and appropriate scaffolding material can stimulate bone regeneration and its repair. A potential substitute for autologous transplantation should possess 3 elements: osteoprogenitor cells, osteoinductive factors, and an osteoconductive scaffold. Stem cells from adult tissues are attractive materials for cell therapy and tissue engineering. These cells generally have restricted lineage potential when compared to embryonic stem cells, and this may be advantageous in certain therapeutic applications. Bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) have proven to be beneficial in bone regeneration. Bone marrow stem cells are pluripotent cells with the capability of differentiating osteoblasts so that they have been used to facilitate bone repair. Several studies have shown that seeding of cultured BMSCs on bioabsorbable implants can induce bone formation in vivo and lead to improved healing of critical-size bone defects.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) because of their self replication and osteogenic differentiation capabilities are regarded as an excellent source of cells for bone tissue engineering. Autologous stem cells are not always preferable since the quality and quantity of such cells will be affected by metabolic diseases, old age, and osteoporosis. Allogenic BMSCs might be preferable to xenogenic, but they are always not readily available. In addition, allogenic MSCs have the potential for carrying some diseases. The use of non-autologous stem cells isolated from healthy donors offers a major advantage since these stem cells can be thoroughly tested and formulated into off-the-shelf medicine in advance. Major attractive advantage of BMSCs as a source of cell transplantation is their low immunogenecity. It is now well established that BMSCs are immune-privileged cells that do not elicit immune responses due to an absence of their immunologically relevant cell surface markers.

Despite the benefits that minimally invasive surgery and osteosynthesis have brought to fracture management and bone healing, there are still many circumstances where bone healing remains challenging. Large bone defects are serious complications that are most commonly caused by extensive trauma, tumour, infection, or congenital musculoskeletal disorders. In nonunion cases repairing of bone defects with composite biomaterials as defect filler can promote bone regeneration. Currently, the gold standard for bone regeneration is use of autogenous bone graft. In order to avoid morbidity at the donor site or if large amount of autogenous bone is needed, bone substitution materials can be used.

Bone substitution materials can be combined with cells such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to increase bone formation. Bone-marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) represent an attractive cell population for tissue regeneration. Bone marrow stem cells are pluripotent cells that have been used to facilitate bone repair because of their capability of differentiating into osteoblasts. Several studies on the regeneration of bone have shown that cultured BMSCs, seeded on different bioabsorbable implants are able to induce bone formation in vivo and lead to improved healing of critical-size defects.

Despite the benefits that minimally invasive surgery and osteosynthesis have brought to fracture management and bone healing, there are still many circumstances where bone healing remains challenging. Large bone defects are serious complications that are most commonly caused by extensive trauma, tumour, infection, or congenital musculoskeletal disorders. In nonunion cases repairing of bone defects with composite biomaterials as defect filler can promote bone regeneration. Currently, the gold standard for bone regeneration is use of autogenous bone graft. In order to avoid morbidity at the donor site or if large amount of autogenous bone is needed, bone substitution materials can be used. Bone substitution materials can be combined with cells such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to increase bone formation. Bone-marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) represent an attractive cell population for tissue regeneration. Bone marrow stem cells are pluripotent cells that have been used to facilitate bone repair because of their capability of differentiating into osteoblasts. Several studies on the regeneration of bone have shown that cultured BMSCs, seeded on different bioabsorbable implants are able to induce bone formation in vivo and lead to improved healing of critical-size defects.

Calcium phosphate bone substitutes such as hydroxyapatite (HA) and tricalcium phosphate (TCP) are currently used for bone substitution in many different clinical applications such as repair of bone defects after trauma or tumour and bone augmentation in spinal arthrodesis. Although these bone substitutes are osteoconductive, they often lack the osteogenecity needed to support bone healing in large defects and are slowly degraded in the body. Studies have shown that coating of hydroxyapatite with a calcium silicate layer could encourage cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow-derived stromal cells. Silica-calcium phosphate composite in comparison to calcium phosphate-rich biomaterials has a faster resorption rate owing to greater dissolution of Si ions. The use of several growth factors have been studied in bone repair and these factors are known to play a role in differentiation of mesenchymal progenitor cells specific lineages like endothelial cells or osteoblast. Bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) has been shown to accelerate bone healing in humans and animal models. BMP-2 acts by osteoinduction and is involved in the differentiation of mesenchymal progenitor cells into osteoblasts. The addition of recombinant human BMP (rhBMP-2) to a self-cross linkable cellulose hydrogels/biphasic calcium phosphate granules construct promotes bone regeneration in a critical-size segmental defect model of non-union in dogs. It is also reported that protein, insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) stimulates direct migration of human mesenchymal progenitor cells (MPC) and contributes to the recruitment of MPC in bone formation and bone healing.

A. Mesta diseases

1. Anthracnose

Occurrence & severity status

Mesta (Hibiscus cannabinus) is very much prone to be attacked by anthracnose disease (Singh, 2014). It is very destructive disease in India (Ghosh, 1983). The disease also occurs in South Korea with overall disease incidence of 20%. (Kwon et al., 2015).

Symptoms

Symptoms on kenaf plants include dark brown spots on the leaves, petioles and stems. New leaves and shoots are most susceptible to infection (Kwon et al., 2015). Initially the terminal bud is attacked, where stipules and young leaves are affected and develop necrotic spots and withers (Singh, 2014). Mature lesions on fully expended leaves are dark brown and often irregular in shape, and not vein delimited. Later, the infected leaves fall off; Flowers and seed capsules are also affected by the disease (Singh, 2010). The stems are affected in patches. On stem the lesions are elongated and black, which later form cavities and in severe cases, stem-dieback or wilt occurs (Singh, 2010; Kwon et al., 2015).

Abstract

Meta analysis quantitatively summarizes the findings of a large collection of individual experiments. It is a powerful statistical tool since it integrates a vast literature and thus includes large sample size. It leads to a stronger conclusion than traditional literary review as studies are analyzed applying statistical methods. Meta- analysis is increasingly being applied in different fields of biological sciences. It has been emerged as an independent subfield of modern health science researches as in this field very few studies achieve statistical power in isolation. Meta- analysis has also become an integral part of plant science research, e.g., agricultural research, ethnobotanical research, tea and health science research etc. Meta-analysis has few limitations although rigorously conducted meta- analyses are considered more valuable than any single study contributing to the analysis.