eBook Chapters

Year         Milestones

1951       :    First amino acid was sequenced by F. Sanger and H. Tuppy.

1953    :    J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick proposed that DNA is a double helix.

1958    :    Discovery of DNA polymerase by Kornberg’s group and DNA replication studies began.

1959    :    Isolation of RNA polymerase.

1970    :    Discovery of reverse transcriptase showed that RNA can act as the template for the transcription of DNA and opened the way for cloning using cDNA libraries.

1970    :    General method was developed by M. Mandel and A. Higa for introducing DNA into cells by calcium dependent method.

1970    :    G.H. Khorana synthesized an artificial gene from DNA nucleotides.

1971    :    Restriction endonucleases for mapping DNA was first used by K. Danna and D. Nathans.

1972    :    The recombinant DNA Era begins. J. Mertz and R.W. Davis used T4 ligase to join DNA molecules.

Food adulteration is a global issue, and because there are insufficient regulations and oversight, developing nations are more vulnerable to it. But in many nations, food adulteration has gone unnoticed. Contrary to popular assumption, milk adulterants can, regrettably, present major health risks that result in fatal diseases. Modern milk adulteration involves increasingly complex techniques, necessitating state- of- the- art research to identify the adulterants. Because milk contains so many nutrients that are needed by both adults and infants, it is referred to as the ideal food. In terms of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, it is among the best sources. Regretfully, milk adulteration is a very common problem worldwide. Potential causes could be the gap between supply and demand, the perishable nature of milk, the low purchasing power of the consumer, and the absence of appropriate detection tests. Because there is insufficient oversight and inadequate law enforcement, the situation is substantially worse in developing and underdeveloped nations. While quantitative detections of adulterants in milk are varied and complex, qualitative detections can be carried out simply using chemical reactions. The type of quantitative detection methods used depends on the milk’s adulterants.

Typical Adulterants in Milk

The addition of vegetable protein, milk from different species, whey addition, and watering are the main adulterants in milk that are known to be economically motivated. There is no serious health risk associated with these adulterations. Some adulterants, though, are too dangerous to ignore. Urea, formalin, detergents, ammonium sulfate, boric acid, caustic soda, benzoic acid, salicylic acid, hydrogen peroxide, sugars, and melamine are a few of the main adulterants in milk that have been shown to have serious negative health effects.

Liquid milk is the cheapest form of milk whereas value added products like yoghurt and paneer, already popular in India are ways to earn a higher income with some raw materials. Farms should focus on dairy herd improvement, herd management etc. Milk and dairy products are always very helpful to farmers for a constant source of income besides their regular farm products. They do not required to expend extra for their feeding if the number of cattle are less. With slight extra care they can earn enough to meet their daily expenses. Cows, buffalo, all the milk giving animals are easy to care.

5.1 Introduction

Waste from the dairy processing industry is generated through production of milk products at different stages. With diversification of dairy products, by-products have also gained some importance. Utilization of dairy by- products improves economical and nutritional aspects of milk production and reduces environmental pollution originating from dairy waste. Important dairy by-products include butter milk, ghee residues and whey, the major waste arising from production of cheese, casein, paneer and chhana. Whey arises as a result of protein coagulation/precipitation in the preparation of these products. It is used for manufacture of whey powder, whey drinks and lactose (milk sugar). Whey protein concentrates can be prepared by modern technological methods like ultra-filtration and reverse osmosis. Desi buttermilk is an important domestic beverage since olden days. Ghee residue can be utilized for manufacture of chocolate burfi, samosa filling etc. Hence, utilization of dairy waste particularly whey, butter milk and ghee residues obtained during manufacturing of various main products, has not only increased the availability of nutritional milk foods but has also indicated the profitable method of by products utilization and helped in minimizing the problems of pollution. This chapter focuses on utilization of these dairy industry wastes.

    1.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in buffalo milk
        a)    5 & 9    b)    6 & 8
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    2.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  cow milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    3.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  standardized milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4.5 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None

Importance

The dairy products, which have originated in India, are called indigenous dairy products. The products can be broadly classified in to khoa based and channa based. The importance of the dairy products were known to Indians since time immemorial or it could be roughly estimated to be around five thousand years ago and the development could be considered as an art.

Introduction

There has been a considerable progress in the overall production in the dairy sector. Without a proper marketing, the country would not attain the expected rate of growth in dairy farming. Marketing is a flow of goods and services from producer to consumer and users. In this process the activities include moving the goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. The activities like creation of time, place, form and utility are involved. According to Philip Kotler, marketing as a human activity directed at satisfying the needs and wants through exchange process. The performance of the trade activities involved in the f low of goods and services affect the marketing efficiency and producers share in the consumer rupee. A marketing system consists of different milk marketing channels. That marketing channel is considered good in which producer get the highest share in consumer rupee and consumer share is highest in producers rupee. The interest of the Producer is to get the highest possible returns from their milk. Between them, there are marketing intermediaries or middlemen who perform various marketing functions like transporting and retailing. All the intermediaries/ middlemen are also interested to make highest profit from the milk business. The present lesson provides information on the economic aspect of marketing of milk and milk products through a empirical study conducted in Rajasthan state.

1. Ethyl alcohol content in alcoholic beverages is determined by Pyknometer Method or SG (Hydrometer) Method (after distillation). %Alcohol (v/v) = 8610.6 – (16584 x SG) + (7973.3 x SG 2)
2. 1 ml of 0.05N NaOH is equivalent to 0.00375 g of tartaric acid.
3. Volatile acidity of alcohol drinks is measured in terms of as acetic acid. 1 ml. of 0.05N NaOH is equivalent to 0.003g of acetic acid.
4. Esters in alcohol drinks is expressed as ethyl acetate gms. per 100 liters of abs. alcohol. 1 ml. of 0.1N NaOH is equivalent to 0.0088g of Ethyl acetate.
5. Esters in Higher alcohol drinks is expressed as Amyl alcohol gms. per 100 liters of abs. alcohol.1 ml of 0.1N NaOH is equivalent to 0.0088g of Amyl alcohol.
6. The concentration of Higher alcohol g/100L is determined by spectrophotometer method using p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde solution by reading the % T or Absorbance (OD) of developed colour of samples and series of standards in spectrophotometer at 530/535 nm against reagent blank as reference.

The significance of milk in human nutrition is now well established as it is considered as the best, ideal and complete food for all age groups. However, in spite of being so, milk can also serve as a potential vehicle for transmission of some diseases under certain circumstances. Moreover, by virtue of possessing almost all the essential nutritional factors, milk can also serve as an excellent culture and protective medium for certain microorganisms, which may include potential pathogens capable of causing serious health problems to the consumers. In this way, milk may serve not only as a vehicle of transmission of disease causing organisms, but it can also allow these pathogens to grow, multiply and produce certain toxic metabolites, thereby making itself an extremely vulnerable commodity from public health point of view.

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy derivatives of aldehydes or ketones and undergo all the organic reactions common to the carbonyl groups and hydroxyl groups. The principal milk carbohydrate is lactose. It is a disaccharide. Hydrolysis of lactose with enzyme β-galactosidase yields glucose and galactose.

Lactose is the major carbohydrate present in all types of milk. The first record of isolation of lactose was in 1663, by Bartolettus by evaporation of whey. Milk contains only trace amounts of other sugars, including glucose, fructose, glucosamine, galactosamine, neuraminic acid, and neutral and acidic oligosaccharides.

Lactose plays a significant role in milk and milk products that are

• It plays a major role in the production of fermented dairy products.

• It contributes to the nutritive value of milk and milk products

• It affects the texture of certain concentrated and frozen products;

• It is involved in heat-induced changes in the color and flavor of highly heated milk products.

Status of Lactose

Lactose content varies extensively in the milk of different species. Breed of animal, individuality factors, udder infection, and especially the stage of lactation regulates the lactose content in milk. The lactose concentration in milk decreases gradually and significantly during lactation; this behavior contrasts with the lactational trends for lipids and proteins, which, after a decrease during early lactation, increase significantly during the second half of lactation. Lactose synthesis is hampered during mastitis. Lactose, along with sodium, potassium, and chloride ions, plays the principal role in controlling the osmotic pressure of the mammary system. Thus, any change in lactose content is compensated by a change in the soluble salt constituents. The osmotic relationship between lactose and soluble salts during the secretion of milk partly explains the presence of high lactose in milk with a reduced ash content and vice versa (Table 1).

Milk is the one food for which there seems to be no adequate substitute. It constitutes almost the entire diet for the young of all mammals. Each species produces milk that is especially adapted to the growth of its own young, but milk from one species may be used as food for others. Since animals were domesticated centuries ago, the milk from various species such as cow, buffalo, goat and camel, has been used in the diets of people throughout the world. Only cows milk is of commercial importance in the United States, although small amounts of goat’s milk are sold.

Whole cow’s milk is approximately 88 percent water, 5 percent carbohydrate, 3.5 percent protein and 3.3 percent fat. Its nutrient content varies from species to species, from breed to breed, seasonally and even from the beginning of the milking to the end of the process. In the United States it is cow’s milk that is used commonly as a beverage and in food preparation. Therefore the milk discussed throughout this chapter is cow’s milk.

Physical Properties of milk
Procedure: Collect different types of market milk samples and study the  properties of milk. Boil the milk and note down the properties given in table 1 and record the observations

Types of Enazymes in milk

1. Endogenous and 2. Exogenous.

Three sources of enzyme in milk:

1. The blood via defective mammary cells.

2. Secretory cell cytoplasm. Some of which are occasionally entrapped with fat globules by the encircling MFGM.

3. The outer layer of MFGM is probably the principal source of endogenous enzymes in milk. The outer layer of MFGM is derived from the apical membrane of the secretory cell which in turn originates from the Golgi membrane and acts as the principal source of enzyme in milk.

General Characteristics of Milk Enzymes

1. Deteriorative character e.g. lipase (commercially most important enzyme in milk), proteinase, acid phosphatase, xanthine oxidase.

2. Preservative enzymes. e.g. superoxide dismutase, sulfhydryl oxidase.

3. As an indicator of the thermal treatment history of milk. Related enzymes are alkaline phosphatase, ϒ glutamyl transpeptidase, and lactoperoxidase.

4. Mastitis infection indicator. Related enzymes are catalase, n-Acetyl-β D-glucosaminidase, and acid phosphatase.

5. Antimicrobial activity.

6. Commercial source of ribonuclease and lactoperoxidase

Common Milk Enzymes and their Role in Dairy Industry

Abstract

Vitamin D or “sunshine vitamin” is an essential fat soluble vitamin required for healthy bones. It is responsible for enhancing intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphate. Its deficiency leads to osteoporosis and osteomalacia in adults and rickets and other bone deformities in children. Vitamin D deficiency is being reported to be quite common these days due to modernization accompanied with changes in lifestyle and environmental pollution which limit sun exposure for several individuals. Inadequate sun exposure results in reduced vitamin D synthesis and ultimately poor vitamin D status necessitating compensation through dietary intake. Dietary vitamin D intake is very low in India because of low consumption of vitamin D rich foods, absence of fortification and little use of supplements. It is becoming a major public health problem, needing immediate attention. Fortification of milk and milk products is the safe and effective approach to deal with widespread vitamin D deficiency as milk is consumed and liked equally by all age groups. This paper highlights the importance, sources, recommended allowances and other relevant issues related to vitamin D fortification and its health effects.

The first use of milk in a solid chocolate product is commonly attributed to Daniel Peter in 1875. Milk chocolate is the most popular type of chocolate, and milk ingredients are critical in delivering the highly desired properties and taste profile to consumers. Milk ingredients also have a significant effect on chocolate processing.

Milk is one of the most complex raw materials used by the food industry. A typical bovine whole milk has a solids content of about 13.5%, comprising about 3.4% protein, 4.6% fat, 4.7% lactose and 0.7% minerals.

Milk proteins can be classified as either caseins or whey proteins - typically found in milk

Introduction

There are manypeople all over the world who have a certain level of sensitivity or intolerance towards milk and milk products. The reactions to milk which involve the immune systemare termed as milkallergy, whereas, difficulty in the digestion of the milk and milk products is known as milk intolerance. Milk intolerance occurs due to malabsorption of milk sugar (lactose) in intestine, a condition in which lactose is not digested into its monomers (galactose and glucose) due to lower activity or insufficiency of lactase enzyme. Inability to digest lactose, which is a disaccharide present only in milk, is specifically known as lactose intolerance. However, hypersensitivity involves the adverse immune reaction(allergic reaction) inthe body causeddue to the ingestion of milk proteins. Milk and milk products are major source of basic as well as essential nutrients and cannot be skipped from the diet of the individual. It is a rich source of calcium,which is essential for the growth and reformationof bones. The decline in calcium may lead to thin, fragile bones that break easily, a condition called osteomalacia or osteoporosis in women. Thus, it is a matter of concern for both children andadults whoare allergic or intolerant towards milk and milk products and not getting enough calcium and other nutrients in diet. This chapter would provide more insight about milk intolerance and milk allergy/hypersensitivity and how to deal with it.

India

Milk legislation and regulations are designed to prevent fraud and adulteration. But they now cover many factors that affect sanitation and public health. Milk generally is classified into grades according to the care with which it is produced.

Milk lipids or milk fats exist as an emulsion of small spherical droplets called milk fat globules. These globules are very small in size but very large in number. The diameter of the milk fat globules ranges between 0.1 and 22 µm and the number varies between 1.5 and 3.0 billion globules/mL. The average size of milk fat globules ranges from 2 to 5 µm. The average fat globule size in cow and buffalo milk are 3.4 and 4.5 µm, respectively. The surface of the milk fat globules is coated with an adsorbed layer of material known as the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). MFGM contains phospholipids and proteins in a complex form. MFGM has two main functions (a) fat globule stabilization and (b) preservation of the fat globule’s identity.

General Composition

Triacylglycerols (triglycerides) represent 97–98% of the total lipids in the milk of most species. The diglycerides probably represent incompletely synthesized lipids in most cases. Although phospholipids represent less than 1% of total lipids, they play an important role in being present mainly in the MFGM and other membranous material in milk. The principal phospholipids are phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and sphingomyelin. Trace amounts of other polar lipids, including ceramides, cerebrosides, and gangliosides, are also present. Phospholipids represent a considerable percentage of the total lipid of buttermilk and skim milk reflecting the presence of proportionately larger amounts of membrane material in these products.

The primary objective of dairy plant hygiene is to ensure the consistent daily turn-out of safe and clean products which comply with pure-food and public health laws. A secondary and commercially important aim is to preserve the keeping quality of dairy products and so enhance consumer confidence in them. An integral part of a dairy is the quality control laboratory. Continuous testing is necessary for many purposes, including equipment hygiene. Bacteriological standards of dairy products can be maintained only if the raw product is of good bacteriological quality and is protected against contamination from the equipment with which it comes in contact during all stages of processing. 
Many factors may influence the maintenance of dairy equipment in a hygienic condition; the most important are the dairy buildings, the materials and construction of the equipment, personnel, water supply, cleaning procedures, and laboratory control. It is quite impossible to place these points in order of importance, efficient control of dairy plant hygiene being dependent on proper attention to all factors.

10.1 Introduction

Milk is a unique substance in that it is both consumed, as fluid milk with minimal processing and it is the raw material used to manufacture a wide variety of products. From the nutrition point of view, milk is an almost ideal food and considered to be perfect food. The human body needs more than thirty distinct materials in its food supply. No single food stuff supplies all of them but milk supplies nearly all. Since milk by its nature is perishable and an ideal product for bacterial growth, so it must be carefully handled, both during production and while processing. This chapter focuses on the technological (processing) aspects of the transformation of milk into its various consumer products, including beverages, fermented products, concentrated and dried products, butter and ice cream.

Milk production in India is a subsidiary activity of agriculture in contrast to the organized dairy sector in the western countries. Farmers and landless labour maintain one to five milch animals. As a result, small quantities of milk are produced in a scattered manner. Due to this reason, milk procurement models from western countries, such as bulk cooling and bulk transportation are not applicable under Indian conditions. Collection of small amounts of milk is scattered over long distances and, therefore, poses a formidable challenge in maintaining the quality attributes and keeping costs down.

3.1. Rural Milk Collection

A systematic approach to rural milk collection suitable for the tropical climate and techno-economic conditions prevailing in India has been developed, based on the indigenous experience gained over the past few decades. In the first phase, extensive surveys are undertaken in the milkshed areas, where the milk plant is to be established. The second phase involves ‘route planning’ taking into account, availability of quantities of milk, access to roads for plying vehicles and distance from the site of dairy plant. Then zones are identified, representing equal costs of collection and transportation. In the third phase, planning is done for locating the primary collection centres as well as chilling centres, where, milk can be cooled to 4ºC before transporting to the milk plant. Milk may be collected from individual producers either by the contractor or by forming village level cooperative societies.

The goat milk has several peculiarities, being a food of high digestibility and high nutritional value.Goats can hardly compete with cattle or buffalo in milk production ability. Goats produce approximately 2% of the world’s total annual milk supply. Neverthless, goat is an important source of animal protein for the landless and marginal farmers of tropical countreis, in areas where other classes of livestook cannot possibly survive and for several classes of people allergic to cow milk. Goats contribute about 4 % of the total milk produced in India. Goats and sheep producing milk for people start with the beginnings of domestication. For thousands of years they have provided sustainance for the people. During the last 150 years genetic selection and better feeding conditions led to several superior goat and sheep breeds in some countries in terms of milk and solids productivity, proving a great potential for evolution in both species, and responding to an increasing market demand and popularity. Some sheep breeds can produce more than 1000 kg milk in one lactation and several goat breeds more than 2000 kg milk, but in physiologically comparable terms of 4% fat-corrected milk both species can be equal. Goat milk production leaders have been capable of producing 10 kg milk per day of lactation.

Goat has been referred to as the Poor mans cow or wet nurse in Europe. Goat provides the cheapest source of milk to the poor both in rural and urban areas. The milk of goats is sweet, nourishing and medicinal. Goat milk is white in colour. Goat milk is whiter than whole cow milk. Butter and cheese made from goat milk are also white, but may be colored during processing. Exploitation of goats as a source of milk for human beings dates back from antiquity. Goat milk has been acknowledged as an ideal food for the aged, the sick and convalescent as well as for infants and growing children. Ever since Cleopatra filled her bathtub with goat milk , fresh goat’s milk has been revered for its superior moisturizing properties.

Bovine milk contains an average of 3.5% protein. The concentration of protein changes significantly during lactation. The first few days of lactation exhibit the main change in protein concentration. The main changes occur in whey protein fraction.

Distribution of Protein in Milk

80% casein and 20% whey protein (β lactoglobulin- 10%, α- lactalbumin- 5%, serum albumin, and immunoglobulin- 5%).

Fractionation of Milk Proteins Fractionation of milk protein is mainly done by acidification at pH 4.6 around 30 °C.

Almost 80% of the bovine milk protein precipitates at pH4.6, and this fraction yielded by precipitation is called casein.

The remaining soluble part of the protein is referred to as whey protein/serum protein/ non- casein protein. Wide variation is observed in the casein- whey protein ratio in different types of milk(protein synthesis is independent of animal diet)

Significant Difference Between Casein and Whey Protein

1. Casein precipitates at pH 4.6 but does not precipitate whey protein at that pH. This property of milk protein is commercially exploited for the preparation of industrial casein and certain varieties of cheese.

2. Chymosin or other proteolytic enzymes produce specific changes in casein resulting in coagulation in the presence of calcium. Whey protein does not undergo this type of coagulation.

3. Casein is very stable to high temperatures. They can withstand heating up to 140 °C for 20 minutes but whey protein is relatively heat labile. They are completely denatured by heating at 90 °C for 10 min.

4. Casein is a phosphoprotein containing an average of 0.85% phosphorous while whey protein does not contain any phosphorous. The phosphate of casein is an important contributor to remarkably high heat stability and calcium- induced coagulation of rennet- altered casein.

5. Casein contains very low sulfur (0.8%) whereas whey protein is relatively rich in sulfur (1%). The principle casein contains only methionine but whey protein contains a significant amount of cystine, cysteine, and methionine. These sulfur- containing amino acids are responsible for many changes in milk on heating.

6. Casein is synthesized only in the mammary gland and no other sources in nature. Some of the whey proteins β lactoglobulin, and α- lactalbumin are synthesized in the mammary gland but bovine serum albumin and immunoglobulin are not synthesized in the mammary gland but derived from blood.

7. The whey protein is dispersed in solution and has a simple quaternary structure. Casein has a complex quaternary structure and exists in milk as large colloidal aggregates.

The salts of the milk include those constituents that are present as ions or in equilibrium with ions. The main salts of milk are phosphates, citrates, chlorides, sulfates, carbonates, and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Approximately 20 other elements are found in milk in trace quantities including copper, iron, lead, boron, manganese, zinc, iodine, etc. These ions are more or less associated with themselves and with proteins. Some metals act as catalysts in the oxidation of milk fat leading to oxidative rancidity and certain metals like Ca, P, Mg, Mo, Co, Fe, etc. are components of metalloproteins such as lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, xanthine oxidase, and parts of phospholipids.

Distribution of Salts Between Casein Micelles and Serum

The phosphorus is present as orthophosphate, but part of it is bound to organic components like serine and threonine residues of casein, molecules of hexoses and glycerol, phospholipids, etc. Phosphorus is also found in the hydroxyapatite structure of the colloidal calcium phosphate in the micellar structure of casein. The sulfur content of milk is about 0.36 g/kg, but most of it is in the amino acid residues methionine and cysteine of the proteins. About 10% is present as inorganic sulfate.

Physical Equilibria Among Salts

Milk contains several elements but all of them are not entirely in a soluble state. Some minerals exist in colloidal and ionic states at the normal pH of milk. The compounds that are in soluble condition play an important role in keeping various milk constituents in stable condition. A balance exists between the components that are in a soluble state and those which are in colloidal state.

12.1. Introduction

Milking is the crucial operation in a dairy farm, as milk is the main source of revenue of a dairy farm. Milking is a labour intensive operation. About 50-60 percent of the total time of farm operation is required for milking and allied activities. Milking is an art which requires skill, patience, efficiency and experience. It should be handled quietly, quickly, gently, cleanly and completely, by avoiding any type of pain, annoyance or inconvenience to the animals. Possession of high yielding animals or good managemental conditions will not generate profit if the milking operation is inefficient.

Letting the cow to release its milk so the dairy farmer can extract it for personal use or to sell is the procedure of milking. Consequently, it is not totally a natural process. The natural process must be manipulated by the dairy farmer to his advantage. Therefore, in order to control the natural process, one must first understand it. The process of producing milk from blood-derived basic materials by alveolar cells and storing it in the alveolar cavity is known as milk secretion. Only when the alveolar cavity is full and the pressure on the alveolar cells prevents further secretion does this continuous process come to an end.

Milk

Importance

Milk contains approximately 86% water, 4.7% sugar (lactose), 4.1% fat, 4.2% protein and 1% minerals. It supports the growth of micro-organisms and thus is prone to contamination. The purpose of milking a dairy cow is to obtain milk that is fit for human consumption. Milk from the udder of a healthy cow contains very few bacteria and to ensure that it remains fresh for long it should be handled under conditions of good hygiene. Unclean milk can be a source of disease to the consumer, rejected at the market and so is a loss to the farmer, does not keep for long and is not good for processing.

Millets like finger millet, foxtail millet, pearl millet, sorghum millet and other small millets are the ancient super grains and nutrition reservoirs for better health. In semi-arid regions, these are the important food and fodder crops, and primarily acquiring more importance in the world. 

Millets or nutri-cereals are the ancient grains which have now regained the interest of the scientific community as the super grains. These exhibit excellent nutritional and technobiofunctional profile apart from exhibiting tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The millets are gluten free and show high in vitro protein digestibility, resistant starch content, antioxidant and prebiotic potential providing health benefits for all age groups ranging from paediatrics to geriatrics. The presence of certain anti-nutritional factors can lower the bioavailability of proteins and minerals. Processing enhances the nutritional and functional properties by increasing the antioxidant content and lowering the antinutrients. Different value added products can be prepared by incorporating millets thereby enhancing the nutritional and functional attributes. It is necessary to bring millets into regular consumption by the food industry in the interest of nutritionally and health-conscious consumer.

1. Introduction Millets, also known as “smart crops” or “miracle grains,” are a group of small-seeded, hardy cereal crops that have been cultivated for millennia. They are used as a staple food in many of the countries particularly located in arid and semi-arid regions. Millets have been overshadowed for quite a long time by commonly consumed cereals like wheat, rice, and maize. Nevertheless, they have made a remarkable comeback in our cuisines owing to the growing awareness and recognition of the numerous benefits at individual and environmental level. These small, drought-resistant grains play a pivotal role in addressing some of the most pressing global issues like food security, malnutrition and climate change.

Millets are a type of minor cereals found in the Poaceae family. Millets are often described as “Nutri-Cereals” since they contain more nutrients than commonly produced main cereals. They are an important part of human’s diet in the world. These are foods with a high nutritional content, gluten-free and have nutraceutical qualities. The adequate amount of protein (essential amino acid), micronutrients and phytochemicals are found in millets. The phytochemicals found in millet grains enhance human health by lowering cholesterol and phytates in the body. Millets are full of antioxidants, minerals including dietary fibre, iron, calcium and magnesium that are vital for battling a variety of diseases. These are beneficial to include in our daily diet because the grain is healthy and nutritious. They decrease blood pressure, prevent cancer and lessen the chance of tumour growth. The rich nutrient content in millet has many health advantages such as cancer, obesity, lower risk of cardiovascular disease, gastrointestinal issues, migraines and asthma. People utilise millet-based products to fight a variety of nutritional deficiencies and diseases.

Millets which are also known as “Shree Anna” are a type of grass with small seeds that belongs to the Poaceae family and are widely grown throughout the world. Millets have high levels of proteins, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants that why they are known to be climate-change-resilient crops. Proteins are essential amino acids that the body cannot synthesize and are used as a nitrogen source during embryo development following germination. Millets are high in dietary fibre and are important staple crop in many parts of the world. They are versatile grains that can be used to make a variety of food products, including millet flour. Millets are good for cardiac health, weight management, antioxidant activity, and may have anti-cancerous properties. They are nutrient- dense, provide sustained energy, and contain antioxidants such as polyphenols and flavonoids. Millets are considered safe and have a variety of health benefits. Surprisingly, millets perform major non-millet cereals in terms of nutrition. They are particularly high in dietary fibres, minerals, antioxidants, phytochemicals, and polyphenols, all of which have broad-spectrum positive effects on human health.

Introduction

Millet is a very important cereal grain that many people around the world eat. In fact, over a third of the world’s population consumes millet. It’s the sixth most produced cereal crop globally. Some common types of millet include Jowar (Sorghum), Sama (Little millet), Ragi (Finger millet), Korra (Foxtail millet), and Variga (Proso millet). Among these, Bajra and Sama have more fat, while Ragi has the least. Millet has been cultivated for thousands of years and is used in many parts of the world. In the past, even the Romans and Gauls enjoyed millet-based porridges. Today, China, India, Greece, Egypt, and various African countries are the major producers of millet. In rural areas, some types of millet, like Finger millet and Sorghum, are eaten by people, while others are primarily used as animal feed. These millets have packed with several beneficial nutrients and play a crucial role in traditional diets in many regions. Compared to commonly used rice and wheat, millet is three to five times more nutritious. While wheat and rice mainly provide food security, millet offers not only food security but also health benefits and livelihood opportunities. It can help manage health issues like diabetes and high cholesterol.

In India, Karnataka is the top producer of millets, accounting for over 58% of global production. Despite its nutritional and health benefits, many people in India are not aware of the advantages of consuming millet. (Upadhyaya et al., 2007). Millets are fantastic crops when it comes to pest management. Traditionally grown millets don’t require pesticides and the land used for millet cultivation remains largely pest-free. Some millets, like foxtail millet, not only resist pests themselves but also serve as natural protectors against pests in storage conditions for other crops like green gram. This means there’s no need for fumigants to keep them safe. It has a treasure trove of micronutrients, including vitamins and beta-carotene, which are now seen as essential as pharmaceutical pills. In the present day, millets are exceptionally superior and serve as a solution to the widespread issues of malnutrition and obesity affecting a significant portion of the Indian population (Singh KP et al., 2012). Millets are rich in essential fatty acids, including linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids, which are present in their free form. They also contain compounds like monogalactosyl, diacylglycerols, digalactosyl diacylglycerols, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylcholine in bound forms. Although other fatty acids like arachidic acid, behenic acid and erucic acid are found in millets, they are in trace amounts. Millet oil can be a valuable source of linoleic acid and tocopherols. Additionally, millets are gluten-free and have an alkaline effect in the body. They contain essential B vitamins such as niacin, folacin, riboflavin, and thiamine, as well as phosphorus. These nutrients play a crucial role in energy synthesis within the body.

Introduction

One of the most important concerns confronting both developed and developing nations in this age of rapid industrialization is how to deal with the ever-increasing volume of solid waste. One aspect of the environmental crisis that occurs alongside the development of the global economy is the rapid increase in waste volume (Zibres et al., 2011). The threat that organic waste poses to both the natural world and people’s health in today’s modern society makes it a primary topic of investigation in the modern community. The annual production of agricultural waste across the globe is greater than hundreds of megatons, and a significant portion of this waste is either improperly disposed of or burned directly, which contributes further to the acceleration of both global warming and air pollution (Zhang et al., 2016).

The compost that is produced through the biological process of composting can be used as an organic fertilizer in agriculture, vegetable gardens, and other types of gardens. Composting is a biological process that acts on the transformation of the organic matter that is present in the residues into material that is humidified (Antunes et al., 2021). In addition to having low production costs, this method is also environmentally friendly, making it a viable option for the long-term processing of this waste (Lopez-Gonzalez et al., 2015). Composting processes that are mediated by invertebrates from the soil fauna, such as vermicomposting and milli-composting, are proposed along with a variety of mixtures, practices, and management to improve the efficiency of composting as well as the quality of the compost produced. Traditional composting relies heavily on the activity of microorganisms. Vermicomposting and milli-composting are two examples of composting processes that use invertebrates from the soil fauna. Milli-composting is a relatively unknown biotechnology that uses diplopods, more commonly known as millipedes, to increase the biotransformation of vegetable wastes into stable organic matter. It not only aids in climate change mitigation but also aids in carbon sequestration, so milli-composting can be used as an alternative to modern composting as it is crucial for preventing pollution and promoting lush plant life.

Introduction

The milling machine is one of the maximum flexible conventional system equipment with a huge variety of steel-reducing capabilities. Many complex operations along with indexing, multi-milling and saddle milling, etc. may be completed on a milling system. A milling device is a tool that cuts steel at the same time as the workpiece is fed closer to a rotating multi-element milling cutter. This machine can also contain one or greater knives at a time. That is why a milling device has extensive utility in production work. It’s better for other machines when it comes to precision and a better surface finish. It is also designed to perform a variety of jobs in the tool room.

Introduction

Robotics is a branch of engineering and science that deals with robot design, construction, operation, and uses. A robot is a machine that is capable of carrying out a complex series of actions autonomously or semi-autonomously, typically programmed by computer software or controlled by remote operators. Robotics technology combines various disciplines such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and computer science to create machines that can interact with the physical world and perform tasks that would otherwise be difficult or impossible for humans to accomplish. The term "robot" was initially brought to public attention by Karel Capek, a Czech writer, in his play Rossum's Universal Robots, which was published in 1920.

1. Introduction

Man (Homo sapiens) since his appearance on the sylvan Blue Planet started his search for healthcare and beautycare, besides food and shelter. Eventually, he also became conscious about his mind and attempted at ‘mindcare’. He employed leaves, flowers, fruits, etc. or some plant products altering his mind to remain aloof from his heavy worldly affairs, stress or even incurable diseases. He also endeavoured to use plants for his amusement. He exerted more pressure on local biodiversity, modified his study and observations on biodiversity which resulted into ‘cultural biodiversity’. He intensified his method of ‘trial and errors’ to search new sources or biodynamic chemicals. In recent times, he is emphasizing value-addition of the products in hand for his welfare. After food, medicine was his next priority to sustain life in primitive societies. Naturally, his study and research laid emphasis more on food and medicine in comparison to mind-altering bioresources. Even the modern man also paid more attention on the former rather that the latter. These trends have perforce led in partial negligence of research for psychoactive plants in his ambience. The present author, therefore, extended efforts to prepare an inventory of the mind-altering vis-à-vis psychoactive plants in the state of Maharashtra.

Neural suitcase determines the size of our world.

We think. We imagine. We generate ideas. We make sense of things. We take decisions. We observe patterns, and then try to understand their significance. Our neural suitcase does all this. It tells us the tales of many minds (1). The tales are beautiful, vulnerable, quiet, chaotic, real, fictional, wise, foolish, friendly, hateful, meaningful, and blind. Our neural suitcase builds castles in the air. It determines the size of our world.

CALCIUM & PHOSPHORUS

Source of mineral

Soluble grits (Limestone grits containing chiefly CaCo3) which is soluble in acid medium of crop. It differs from insoluble grits (gravel, granites, sand etc.) which acts only mechanically in the gizzard.

ABSTRACT

Mineral exploration is not only highly imaginative and creative but a very costly activity as well. The fast emerging Geomatics technology is a real boon in mineral exploration as it encompasses a whole spectrum of solutions and services which are of great help for exploration geologists. Geological maps which generally form the basic requirement for any kind of natural resources inventory operations currently witness tremendous changes and the same is mainly attributed to the integration of Geomatics technology. Usage of Geomatics has revolutionized the art of mineral exploration as geological maps can be easily integrated with other important details like geomorphology, structure and tectonic pattern, geophysical data etc. This kind of data integration facilitates for the better identification of mineralized zones. In addition, GIS with its powerful analyzing capability provides tools at several stages in the process of mapping for building up a database containing various types of data for quantifying and extracting features related to mineralization. The present paper narrates an overview of mineral exploration using Geomatics technology.

Summary

Fertilizers are materials when applied replenish lost soil nutrients on farmer’s field. Without the use of fertilizers farmers would find it extremely difficult to increase their production to meet the ever-growing mouths. The purpose of this session is to discuss what a fertilizer is, and the different terminologies used in fertilizer technology.

PLANT NUTRITION

Plants use inorganic minerals for nutrition, whether grown in the field or in a container. Complex interactions involving weathering of rock minerals, decaying organic matter, animals, and microbes take place to form inorganic minerals in soil. Roots absorb mineral nutrients as ions in soil water. Many factors influence nutrient uptake for plants. Ions can be readily available to roots or could be “tied up” by other elements or the soil itself. Soil too high in pH (alkaline) or too low (acid) makes minerals unavailable to plants.

The living organisms in the terrestrial ecosystem have unique characteristics of taking up the substances from atmosphere and soil for the synthesis of their own cellular component or as a source of energy. The supply and absorption of chemical compounds required for the growth and metabolism of the organisms may be defined as nutrition and the compounds required by them are called nutrients. The process by which the nutrients are converted to cellular material is known as the metabolism. Out of 118 chemical elements so far detected in the modern periodic table, 92 elements from hydrogen to uranium are naturally occurring, a large portion (more than sixty) of such have been detected in the plant tissues. But, the elements which take part in the nutritional requirement and metabolic processes of the plant are said to be essential elements, others which do not participate in such processes are considered non-essential.

19. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Def : The minerals are naturally occurring solid bodies having definite chemical composition and certain atomic arrangement, and are formed by inorganic processes in the nature.

All the minerals possess certain physical properties which are considered as follows.

1.Characters depending upon light such as colour streak, luster, transparency, translucency, phosphorescence and fluorescence.

2.Characters depending upon certain senses such as taste, odour and feel.

3.Characters depending upon the atomic structure and state of aggregation such as form, hardness, tenacity, fracture, cleavage and surface tension effects.

On the basis of these three characteristics, the minerals are identified and distinguished.

The earth's crust is made up of minerals and rocks. Minerals are inorganic substances with a definite chemical composition, whereas rocks are mixture or aggregates of minerals. Each mineral is composed of certain elements present in fixed proportion. For example, mineral quartz, SiO₂ is a compound of the elements silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) combined in the proportion of 1:2, so its chemical formula is SiO₂, whereas rock granite is a mixture of several minerals like quartz, feldspar etc. Nature has provided unique physical properties to different minerals that can be used to identify them.

4.1 Physical Properties of Minerals

Majority of minerals contain following properties that can be used to identify them in field and in laboratory: crystal habit, cleavage, hardness, density, luster, streak, color, tenacity, magnetism, and taste.

4.1.1 Crystal habit

The faces that develop on a crystal depend on the space available for the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one another or in a restricted environment, it is possible that no well-formed crystal faces will be developed. However, crystals sometimes develop certain forms more commonly than others, although the symmetry may not be readily apparent from these common forms. The term used to describe general shape of a crystal is habit.

Some common crystal habits are as follows:

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why deficiency of potassium in livestock is very rare?

Ans: The potassium uptake by plants is about 10 times more than sodium. So, deficiency of potassiumin livestock is veryrare.

2.    HowZn helpsin vitamin Autilization?

Ans: Zn is a component of alcohol dehydrogenase which has a significant role in converting retinol to retinaldehyde or vice versa foreye vision, reproductionandutilization of Vitamin A

3.    What is parakeratosis?

Ans: This is a Zn deficiency disease in pig characterized by hyper keratinisation, thickening and reddening of skin followed by eruption and scab formation giving an appearance of mange.

4.    Why ruminant have additional requirement of vitamin B12? Ans: Theruminants have an additional requirementfor thevitamin B₁₂ because of itsinvolvementin themetabolismof propionic acid.

5.    Why perosis is also called as slipped tendon?

There are six major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fibre, proteins, minerals and vitamins. Water is not a nutrient but play important role in livestock industry. These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, and proteins. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

The term minerals is used by nutritionists to refer to inorganic chemical elements, but is used by many other scientists to mean a homogeneous crystalline compounds. Mineral elements are not inert materials. Mineral elements may change valence states and are transferred from one chemical compound to another. Minerals are active participants in enzymatic reactions, have specificity of function, and are critical to life.

Minerals are the building blocks of the earth’s crust. Derived inorganically, either as chemical elements or more often as chemical compounds, minerals are essentially solid. Minerals often form crystals, while aggregate of minerals constitute a rock. Mineralogy is the discipline devoted to the study of minerals including their formation, occurrence, properties, composition and classification . Needless to say, the subject of mineralogy is the foundation of crystallography, petrology and other branches of geology.

Section A dealing with Minerals comprises nine chapters. Chapter I presents salient features of the earth including composition. and structure of the crust mantle and core. Chapter II presents their categories and the how minerals derive their names. Since minerals are essentially a combination of atoms and molecules the significance of chapter III which deals with crystal chemistry cannot be over emphasized.. Chapter IV and V deal with physical and optical properties of minerals which are crucial in identifying them in hand specimens and under the polarising microscope. Classification of minerals and their occurrence is dealt in a general way in chapter VI while descriptive mineralogy is presented in Chapters VII ( Silicate Mnerals) and VIII ( Non-Silicate Mnerals). Minerals are no doubt a subject of serious scientific curiosity but ultimately their use to man is by far the most important theme. Chapter IX therefore is devoted exclusively to different uses that are minerals are put to. The chapter ends with eye opening information as to the quantum of minerals that man uses, taking one of the most industrialized nation USA as an example.

Mineral

A mineral is defined as “a natural substance, usually inorganic, having a definite chemical composition and commonly a definite molecular arrangement which is usually expressed in geometric form”.