eChapters

Aim

To study the levelling instruments

To practice the simple leveling

Leveling

Leveling is a method of surveying used for determination of the difference of elevations or levels of various points on the surface of the earth. The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below a reference level, called datum. Most commonly used datum is the mean sea level (M.S.L). Leveling is required to determine the undulations of the earth’s surface for topographic mapping. Leveling is needed for the design of highways, railways, canals, sewers, etc. Leveling is essential for the layout of construction projects, locating the excavation levels and for the control of various elevations in buildings, bridges, dams etc. The results of the leveling can be used to determine the catchment area, volume of the reservoir and the area submerged by a reservoir.

Aim

To determine the reduced level of various points

To find out difference of elevations of two points

Materials required

Dumpy level

Levelling staff

Aim

To determine the reduced levels on various points on the road

To plot the profile of the road

Materials required

Dumpy level

Levelling staff

Theory

Profile leveling is the process of leveling along a fixed line to determine the elevations of the ground surface along that line. The fixed line is generally the centre line of a highway, railway, canal, sewer, etc. The profile leveling is done to determine the undulations of the ground surface. Cross-sectioning is required to determine the levels across the line along which profile leveling is done. Profile leveling should be commenced from a bench mark and should end at a bench mark, as far as possible. When the ground surface does not have many undulations, the intermediate points are fixed at a uniform interval. If the ground surface is irregular and there are abrupt changes in the ground surface, the interval may be non-uniform.

Aim

To prepare a contour map by direct method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level

Leveling staff

Measuring tape

Wooden pegs/chain pins

Field book

Theory

For locating a point on the ground on a contour, its position and elevation in a horizontal plane should be known. In direct method, the contours to be plotted are located on the ground with a level by making various points on each contour, and these points are surveyed and plotted on plan. This method is more accurate but slow and tedious, and is suitable for contouring small areas where great accuracy is required. For locating the points of the same elevation, the instrument is set in such a commanding position from where maximum number of points can be covered. The bench mark is established near the site of survey. The height of the instrument (H.I) is determined after taking a back sight (B.S) on the established bench mark.

Aim

To determine the contours by grid method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level

Leveling staff

Measuring tape

Wooden pegs/chain pins

Field book

Aim

To determine the contours by cross-section method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level

Leveling staff

Measuring tape

Wooden pegs/chain pins

Field book

Aim

To determine the contours by radial line method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level
Leveling staff
Measuring tape
Wooden pegs/chain pins
Field book

Aim

To measure irrigation water by volumetric method

Apparatus required

Siphon tube

Stop watch

Measuring bucket

Aim

To measure irrigation water by area-velocity method by using (i) float and (ii) current meter

Apparatus required

Float

Current meter

Theory

The rate of flow of water in open channel can be determined by multiplying the cross sectional area of the flow section at right angles to the direction of flow by the average velocity of water. In area-velocity method, the water can be measured at motion. The water is measured in motion by means of rate of flow or discharge and is expressed in litre per second (lps), litre per minute (lpm), cubic metre per second (m³/s), etc. Litre per second: A continuous flow amounting to 1 litre passing through a point each second. Cubic metre per second: A flow of water equivalent to a stream of 1 m long, 1 m wide and 1 m deep flowing at a velocity of 1 metre per second. In area-velocity method, the velocity of water is measured either by float or current-meter

Aim

To measure the irrigation water by using weirs

a) Weirs

A weir is a notch or opening of some definite shape installed on a channel or a stream through which waterfalls (Fig.59.1). Materials like wood, concrete, mild steel, rigid PVC etc. can be used for construction of a weir. Mainly a cut on a sheet metal is used for fabrication of weirs, to be installed at various locations in a channel. Advantages of weirs are (i) capable of accurately measuring a wide range of flows (ii) easy to construct, portable and adjustable (iii) tends to provide more accurate discharge rating than flumes and orifices.

Aim

To measure the irrigation water by using orifice

Orifices

An orifice is an opening in a bulk head with closed perimeter usually circular or rectangular cross-section through which water flows. For measurement of water, orifices are fabricated by making an accurate cut of proper size and shape in a mild steel sheet, aluminum plate etc. Proper machining is done to have a sharp edge through which water flows (Fig.60.1).

Free discharge

If the downstream water level is lower than the bottom of the orifice opening, the water jet discharges freely into the air and then it is said to be free discharge. The depth of water on the upstream side of the orifice that causes the flow is called the head. The orifice flow formulae can be applied only when the orifice flows fully.

Aim

To measure the irrigation water by using parshall flume

Construction of Parshall flume

Parshall flume is a water measuring device that can be used to measure water flowing in an open channel and intended primarily for use in irrigation. The flume consists of a converging inlet section, a throat section with straight parallel sides, and a diverging outlet section (Fig.61.1). The floor of the converging section is level with walls which converge in the direction of flow, towards the throat. The throat section constitutes the middle portion of the Parshall flume. The floor of the throat section is dips downward in the direction of flow, but the walls are parallel. The throat width specifies the dimensions of the parshall flume. The diverging outlet section of the flume has a floor which rises in the direction of flow. The walls become further separated in the direction of flow (diverge).The parshall flume can be constructed by G.I. sheet, aluminum sheet, M.S. sheet, brick masonry, reinforced concrete or timber. Flumes made of G.I. or aluminum sheets are easily portable. Brick masonry and concrete flumes are permanently constructed in the channels. Stilling wells should be constructed at the side to take measurements.

Aim

To measure the irrigation water flowing through a pipe by using Venturimeter

Theory

A venturimeter is a device used to measure the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe and is often fixed permanently at different sections of the pipeline to know the discharge there. Venturimeter consists of three parts: (i) a short converging part (ii) a throat (iii) a diverging part (Fig.62.1). In the venturimeter, the fluid is accelerated through a converging cone of angle 15-20° and the pressure difference between the upstream side of the cone and the throat is measured, and provides the signal for the rate of flow. Due to the constriction there is an increase in the flow velocity and hence an increase in the kinetic energy. The fluid slows down in a cone with smaller angle (5-7°) where most of the kinetic energy is converted back to pressure energy. Because of the cone and the gradual reduction in the area there is no “vena contracta”. The flow area is at minimum at the throat.

Aim

To design the grassed water ways or open channel

Geometric characteristics of different waterways

The shape of open channel is dependent upon the field conditions and types of the construction equipments used.

The common shapes of open channels generally used are (i) Parabolic or semi circular (ii) Triangular (iii) Rectangular and (iv) Trapezoidal section.

The parabolic shape approximates a natural channel. The reason is that in natural course of channel flow, the trapezoidal and triangular sections tend to become in parabolic shape due to deposition of sediments and bank erosion.

Aim

• To design the contour bunds

Design parameters

The design of contour bund includes determination of following parameters:

• Choice of bund
• Spacing of bunds
• Size of bund
• Alignment of bund

1. Choice of bund

The choice of bund should be selected weather the contour bund or graded bund depends on the annual rainfall, soil condition and types of outlets used.

Aim

To design a graded bunds

The procedure in design of contour bund is followed while design a graded bund. A stability of 10-25%, should be given to contour bund. This is called graded bund.

Example: Design a graded bund length of 500 m with an average land slope of 3.5% in a sandy loam soil. Vertical distance between consecutive bund is 2.5 m. Rainfall intensity for the time of concentration and for the recurrence interval is 18.5 cm/hr. The runoff coefficient is 0.3. For stability, the grade provided for first 100 m is 0.1%, for next 200 m is 0.15% and for last 200 m is 0.18%. For the sandy loam soil, side slope of the bund and slope of seepage line are 1.5:1 and 5:1 respectively is assumed.

Aim

To design bench terrace

1. Components of bench terrace

The bench terrace essentially consists of the four components namely: riser, outlet channel, platform and shoulder bund

Aim

To estimate the soil loss using universal soil loss equation

Universal soil loss equation

Wischmeir and Smith (1962) has been developed a predictive equation for estimating the soil loss taking into account following factors: Climatic characteristics, soil characteristics, crop management and conservation practices. It is called Universal soil-loss equation (USLE).

Pomegranate (Punicagranatum L.) an extraordinary fruit crop that is cultivated worldwide with dominancy in Mediterranean countries like Morocco, Spain, Egypt, Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan since primordial times. Tropical and sub-tropical regions of the Indian sub-continent are the prominent areas under cultivation of this fruit crop. India plays a leading role in pomegranate production with contribution of nearly 50% of global production. The total area under pomegranate is 132 thousand hectare with annual production of 1357 thousand MT in 2014-2015.

Pomegranate (Punica granatum) a deciduous shrub in the family Lythraceae, subfamily Punicoideaeis one of the most adaptive sub-tropical fruit crop. It was introduced in the Indian subcontinent during 15^th century from the Mediterranean region of the globe. India holds the first rank as producer and exporter of pomegranate since last decade. Among the states, Maharashtra is the largest producer of Pomegranate (Punica granatum) in India. Pomegranate have an impressive nutrition profile it contains 7 grams fiber, 3 grams protein, 30% Vitamin C, 36% Vitamin K, 16% Folate and 12% Potassium. It also contains 24 grams of sugar and 144 calories. It contains two important compounds namely Punicalagins and Puninic acid. Along with the above nutritional advantages, it also has immense health benefits right from curing a fatal disease like cancer to remedying arthritis and joint pain. India stands first in the list of Pomegranate producer countries with respect to cultivation area. The states leading in pomegranate production in India are Maharashtra (70.2%), Karnataka (10%), Gujarat (7.4%), Andhra Pradesh (6.7%), Telangana (1.9%), Madhya Pradesh (1.9%), Tamil Nadu (1.0%) and Rajasthan (0.4%) (Source: Horticultural Statistics at Glance, 2015).

Introduction

Citrus (Citrus spp, Fam: Rutaceace, sub-family Aurantioidae) is considered as one of the most remunerative fruit crops in India occupying 953.4 thousand ha with an annual productivity of 11655 thousand tonnes fruit , thereby ranking 4^th at global level (Meena et al., 2018). Citrus is the third most important fruit crop in the world after apple and banana accounting for the production of about 135.76 million tonnes with massive area of cultivation spreading over 9.68 million hectares worldwide (Meena et al., 2018). It is believed that most species under the genus Citrus are originated from tropical and sub-tropical regions of Southeast Asia particularly India, South China, Indonesia and Peninsular Malaysia. The North-eastern states of India is recognized as one of the primary gene centre or natural home and reservoir of 17 Citrus species of which 8 species are indigenous to the region (Bhattacharya and Dutta, 1949).

The crop is commercially cultivated in all the four geographical zones viz. northwest, central, south and northeast, producing different kinds of mandarins (Citrus reticulata), sweet orange (C. sinensis), acid lime (C. aurantifolia), sweet lemon (C. limettoides) and lemon (C. lemon) (Biswas, 2010). They are universally propagated by budding onto seedling rootstocks, seed and propagating materials influencing the chances of pathogen infection, thereby, affecting citrus production nationally and internationally. Citrus production is subjected to variety of diseases caused by various microorganisms’ viz. fungi, bacteria, virus, viroids and nematodes. The present review gives a brief highlight about most important citrus diseases viz. canker, greening, quick decline, gummosis, exocortis, slow decline etc along with their characteristic symptoms, causal organisms, disease cycle, epidemiology as well as integrated management approaches.

Citrus Canker- Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri

Banana (Musa spp.) is one of the most important fruit crops grown in tropical and subtropical regions in the world. The word ‘banana’ is a general term embracing a number of species or hybrids between Musa acuminata and M. balbisiana in the genus Musa and family Musaceae (Perrier et al., 2011). India is known to be one of the origins for bananas and it was grown even before the Vedic period (c.1500 - c.500 BCE). It is referred as “Kalpatharu” (Plant of virtues) due to its multifaceted uses (Mishra et al., 2012). It has been estimated that one medium-sized banana contains about 105 calories (Bjarnadottir, 2017). Raw bananas contain 75% water, 23% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and negligible amount of fat (USDA, 2018). However, carbohydrate, protein and moisture content of banana depend upon the variety, genotype and climatic conditions (Mohapatra et al., 2010). Banana fruits are rich source of antioxidants and vitamins such as vitamin A, B, C, E and P-carotene (Paul and Southgate, 1978; Kanazawa and Sakakibara, 2000; Waller,2005), minerals like potassium and calcium (Mohapatra et al., 2010) and contains a fair amount of fibre (Bjarnadottir, 2017).

Banana is the major staple food crop for millions of people in Central, East and West Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. In 2016, world production of bananas and plantains was 148 million tonnes, led by India and China with a combined total (only for bananas) of 28% of global production with the adoption of advanced technologies like drip irrigation, use of quality tissue culture plants, fertigation and integrated plant protection technologies lead the country to be number one in area and production. Other major producers were the Philippines, Ecuador, Indonesia, and Brazil, together accounting for 20 per cent of the world total of bananas and plantains. In India, banana ranks first in production followed by mango and third in area among fruit crops after mango and citrus. Banana production accounts about 30.4 M tonnes from an area of 0.86 M ha with an average productivity of 35.4 tonnes/ha (Anon, 2017). Banana crop is a year round food security crop and source of income to a large group of farmers and has tremendous potential as cash and export commodity for most banana growing countries. However diseases and pests constitute major limiting factor for increasing its production and productivity. Banana cultivation is almost evenly spread out across the world and there is a remarkable low genetic variation among plantations, owing to the popularity of a select few cultivars. This exposes monocultures to increasing damage caused by pests and diseases (Ghag et al., 2015).

Introduction

The mango (Mangifera indica L.) is regarded as king of fruits. It is a key fruit crop in the subtropical regions of world including India. Prakash and Srivastava, 1987 reported that mango is attacked by more than 140 fungi (70 diseases), about 12 nematodes and a dozen of phanerogamic parasites and epiphytes. Among these diseases some major diseases of mango having economic important in India are briefly described in this chapter.

Anthracnose

Anthracnose is a severe disease of mango. High disease severity results to heavy loss including post-harvest losses during transit and marketing of produce. Mango anthracnose has been reported to spoil about 29 per cent of Alphanso fruits at Bangalore. Young plantations of Bombay green variety are completely wiped out in Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh as a result of severe wither tip Bose et al., 1973. At Lucknow, 24 per cent loss of fruits of Dashehari variety has been reported by Raoof and Prakash, 1984.

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) is the largest edible fruit in the world (Naik, 1949; Sturrock, 1977), known as “poor man’s food” belongs to the family Moraceae (Bose, 1985; Haque, 2010). It is an important tree crop in tropical and sub-tropical regions, usually grown in home gardens and commercially in orchards (Elevitch and Manner, 2006; Sangchote et al., 2003). The primary economic product is the fruit, but the tree is also used for timber, fodder, dyes and traditional medicines (Haque, 2006). Jackfruit originally native to Indian subcontinent, is now widely cultivated in the tropics of both hemispheres (Ochas et al., 1981). Incidence of different kinds of diseases of biotic and abiotic origin at different growth stages of Jackfruit have been reported (Haque, 2006; Sangchote et al., 2003). Some of the commonly occurring diseases of jackfruit with symptomatology, causal organism, perpetuation and management approaches have been elucidated below.

LeafSpot

Incidence of leaf spot at different growth stages of jackfruit caused by Chaetopyrena hesperidum (Srivastava, 1974), Cercospora mehra (Rao and Subhendar, 1979) Botryodiplodia theobromae (Rao and Deshmuk, 1986), Corynespora cassiicola (Sangchote et al., 2003), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Sirayoi, 1993; Srivastava and Mehra, 2004), Phyllosticta- artocarpi (Annon, 2003) has been reported by various workers from different parts of the world. Some of the common leaf spot diseases have been discussed below.

Economic Importance

Apple (Malus domestica, M. communis, M. pumila and M. sylvestris), the generic name Malus is derived from the Latin word belong to the rose family and include literally hundreds of cultivated varieties. In the apple, the original ancestral species is obscured by so many cultivated variations throughout the centuries that some authors lump them all into one species, Malus domestica. They all originated in western Asia (or Eurasia) and are characterized by fleshy fruits called pomes. In the pome a thick, fleshy hypanthium layer (also called the floral cup or calyx tube) surrounds (and is fused with) the seed bearing ovary or core. The edible part of most fruits is the actual ovary, but in apples and pears only the outer hypanthium layer is eaten (unless you enjoy eating the core). Apple is commercially the most important temperate fruit and is fourth among the most widely produced fruits in the world after banana, orange and grape. China is the largest apple producing country in the world. It is premier table fruit of the world and excels other fruits in having prolonged keeping quality and wide variety of flavour and taste (Sharma, 2000). Apple is a highly remunerative crop and is grown in all temperate regions of the world. In India apple is grown in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and some parts of Arunachal Pradesh. Jammu and Kashmir account for sixty per cent apple in total apple produced in India and is the most important fruit among all the cultivated fruits in the state. The state annually produces 1.31 lakh metric tons apple fruit from an area of 1.28 lakh hectares (Anonymous, 2008). It forms the backbone of the state’s economy and is main cash crop for the small and marginal farmers. However, the production and quality of apple is poor as compared to that of the developed countries because of several factors including diseases and insect-pests (Thakur, 2000). Although a large number of insect pests attacks to apple crops but some of them are very serious and need attention for their control. Besides the insect pests, mites are also associated with apple production and cause significance economic losses to commercial fruit growers (Kerik, 2012).

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. is one of the sacred trees of Hindus and is highly popular for its medicinal properties. This tree is commonly known as “Bael” in India and the leaves are used for worshipping Lord Shiva. It has the potential for curing a number of ailments and has been in use since time immemorial. At present bael has become an important source of medicine for curing various human diseases such asdiabetes, liver toxicity, fungal infection, microbial infection, inflammation, pyrexia and to relieve pain. The raw fruits are used to prepare sugar impregnated sweets called murraba and jelly where as juices and shakes are prepared after ripening.

Bael is native to India and found throughout Southeast Asia. In India this fruit is grown in Indo-Gangetic plains and Sub-Himalayan tracts up to a height of 500 m, in North-East India and dry and deciduous forest of central and southern India.

Aegle marmelos is a subtropical plant and grows up to an altitude of 1,200 m altitude from sea level. It grows well in the dry forests on hilly and plain areas. Aegle marmelos is a widely distributed plant and found in India, Ceylon, China, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Tibet, Sri Lanka, Java, Philippines and Fiji. In India it found in Sub-Himalayan tracts from Jhelum eastwards to West Bengal, in central & south India. It found almost in all the states of India.

Bael is a hardy crop and is quite resistant to diseases. However, there are certain fungal and bacterial diseases that have been reported to cause yield reduction in bael. In this chapter, important diseases of beal with causal organism, disease cycle, epidemiology and management practices are described.

Plant diseases comprise a major factor in the culture of papaya. Adequate control measures are necessary to intensify the production of papaya. There are over 17 diseases caused by fungi, viruses, mycoplasma and nematodes, which affect papaya plant all over the world. Of these about 5-6 diseases like collar rot, damping off, anthracnose, mosaic and leaf curl are serious problems in many papaya growing areas of the world. They can reduce yield greatly and impair marketability of fruits. They must be checked and losses due to them must be minimized in order to increase the economics of papaya production.

Anthracnose

Economic Importance

Anthracnose is considered as one of the principle postharvest disease of papaya occurring worldwide and has been noted to cause huge losses in countries like Brazil, Hawaii (USA) and Mexico. It is one ofthe most ubiquitous and destructive disease of papaya, mainly during storage. The fungus infects various parts of the plant but mainly occurs in fruits, which later becomes unfit for commercialization. It is a major limitation to papaya production of about 90% along with the exportation of the fruit to bigger overseas market. The disease can have serious effect on refrigerated fruit for export. The use of inappropriate postharvest methods can result in production of up to 100% diseased fruits from some orchards.

Guava, Psidium guajava L. (Family: Myrtaceae), is native to South America and the West Indies but it is also grown other parts of the tropics and subtropics including India. It is considered to be important hardy crop grown in neglected soil. It is commonly known as ‘Amrood’ or Safed Safari’ in Hindi, which is an important fruit plant of India. It is grown all over the country for its fruits which are nutritive, rich in vitamin C, highly flavoured and delicious. Leading producers are Brazil, India and Mexico. The cultivated varieties of guava are attacked by several pathogens which cause considerable loss in yield and reduce market value.

Wilt

Wilt is one of the most destructive disease of guava in India and there is a significant yield loss. In India, guava wilt was first reported in 1935 from Babakkarpur (Allahabad). Das Gupta and Rai (1947) reported the disease in a severe form in orchards of Lucknow, while Dey (1948) reported it from Allahabad, Kanpur and Lucknow. The work so far done on wilt disease has been reviewed by Prakash and Misra (1993), Misra (1995), Misra and Pandey (1996), Misra (2001) and Negi et al. (2001). Chattopadhyay and Bhattachaijya (1968a) reported up to 80% yield losses due to serious wilt in the commercially grown guava orchards in West Bengal. About 150 and 300 acres of guava orchards in the Punjab and Haryana was forced uprooting during 1979-81 (Jhooty et al., 1984). Wilt infection of 15 to 30% trees in Allahabad, Farrukhabad and Unnao, 5-15% in Kanpur and Jaunpur and less than 5% in Gorakhpur, Balia, Hardoi and Varanasi districts (Mathur, 1956).

Introduction

Mulberry (Morus spp.) is a most important crop which is used as food for silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) belonging to the genus Morus and family Moraceae. In tropical and temperate countries, mulberry is cultivated as shrubs and tree respectively. The total area under cultivation of mulberry in India is around 2,82,244 ha. The largest mulberry producing state is Karnataka (1,66,000 ha) followed by Andra Pradesh (38,084 ha). All over the world there are almost 68 species of Morus genus among 1000 varieties were commercially cultivated (Central silk board, Mysore). The nutritive values of mulberry leaves are affected by many diseases like leaf spot, powdery mildew, rust, root rot and bacterial blight which are causing severe yield loss up to 10-30%. In addition it also affects the growth, development of silkworm and cocoon yield due to feeding ofthose diseased leaves. (Sastry, 1984; Sundareswaran et al. 1998). Occurrence of these diseases based on some factors such as season, temperature, humidity and variety of mulberry (Sukumar, 1996). This chapter will be discussed about the disease causing organism, epidemiology and their management practices.

Cercospora leaf spot

Economic Importance

Cercospora leaf spot is an economically important disease causing abundant damage by reducing the leaf quality of mulberry (Siddaramaiah and Krishnaprasad, 1978). During July-December it causes yield loss of 10-15% and the disease present till January-February.

Introduction

Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) belonging to family Rosaceae is an important fruit crop in India and is commercially produced in temperate and sub- tropical areas of the country. In India, it is mainly cultivated in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. Nainital and Dehradun districts of Uttarakhand, Mahabaleshwar (Maharashtra), Kashmir valley, Kalimpong (West Bengal) are the core centers of strawberry cultivation in India. Sub-tropical areas in Jammu also possess tremendous potential to grow the crop in irrigated condition. Strawberry cultivation can boost the income potential of small scale and marginal farmers because its high value creates potential for significant profit. It yields quickest return in shortest time than any other profit. The leaves of strawberry are rich in essential oil. India exports strawberries to countries like Austria, Bangladesh, Germany and Jordan.

Strawberry also possess many health benefits such as flavonoids content lowers the risk of heart diseases. Potassium, Vitamin K and magnesium content of fruit are important for healthy and strong bone. Strawberries are rich in antioxidant ellagic acid, which protects the elastic fibres of skin to prevent sagging. Strawberries lowers blood levels of C- reactive proteins, a signal of inflammation in the body.

The optimum day and night temperature for better growth, development and fruiting of the plant is 22-25°C and 7-13°C respectively. Also, it thrives best on a well drained medium loam and slightly acidic soil with high organic matter content.

Although the strawberry crop is highly remunerative however, its management is intensive and encounters a number of setbacks in form of diseases and pests. A large number of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases are known to infect different parts of plant such as foliage, fruit and root.

Some major diseases of strawberry includes leaf spot, powdery mildew, anthracnose, grey mould, fusarium wilt, crown rot, rhizobus rot, red stele, nematode diseases etc. Few other diseases caused by abiotic factors includes sunburn, frogmouth, albinism.

Introduction

Pineapple is one of the most important commercial fruit crop in India. It occupied an importance in the horticultural wealth and economy of the country. India ranked seventh among the pineapple producing country in the world during 2013-14 (GoI, 2014). It grows well in practically all type of soils with slightly acidic in nature, both in plain and hills. It is affected by several different pathogens wherever it grown and result in substantial crop losses. Some important diseases cause complete loss of the fruit marketableimportance. The major problems faced by pineapple growers in India are discussed below.

Introduction

Pear (Pyrus communis L.) is a temperate fruit that mainly grows in hilly areas at a elevation ranging from 1,500 to 2,500 metres. This temperate fruit is commonly eaten fresh or is canned. It is used to produce an alcoholic beverages and perry. The production of pear is 17 million tons per year in worldwide and the cultivation is expanding throughout the worldwide.

Pear cultivation is affected by many bacterial, fungal and viral diseases due to which it reduces the plant strength and decreases the quality of yield. Besides,pear can be also affected by many disorders and nematodes.

Bacterial Diseases

Fire blight

Fire blight disease is a serious concern to pear producers. It can destroy an entire orchard under optimal conditions in a single growing season.

Introduction

Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana L.) is one of the important fruit crops of arid and semi arid zones of the world. It is known by various other names such as ber, bor, bogori, boroior, kool and ruguin Hindi, Punjabi, Marathi, Assamese, Bengali and Telegu respectively. In America, it is called jujube or Chinese date. Ber is popularly called “poor man’s fruit crop” but now its status in tropical fruit culture has improved considerably. The fruit is palatable and delicious and is known for its high nutritive value. The crop is considered as minor fruit in this country on the basis of its production in restricted area; popularity and awareness but recently itbecame an important cash crop in some areas and its acreage and production have increased. The plant is usually a piny, evergreen shrub or small tree up to 15 m high, with trunk diameter around 40 cm or even more; spreading crown; stipular spines and many drooping branches. The ripe fruits are mostly consumed raw (Bal and Uppal, 1992). In India it is extensively grown in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Gujrat and Maharashtra. The fruits are quite nutritious, rich in vitamin C, second only to aonla and guava and much higher than citrus and apple. The ripe fruits have high nutritive value, having 13-24 per cent total soluble solids and up to 160 mg/100g vitamin C. The dehydrated fruits are kept for a long time and are consumed in the off season.

Due to rapid spread of commercial cultivation, the crop has become a target of different biotic and abiotic factors causing serious losses. So far, little attention to the diseases of ber has been given as the importance of the crop generally continues in a locality or a particular state. So, it overlooked the national importance particularly crop protection measures, leading to limited knowledge for management of different diseases both in pre-harvest as well as post-harvest stage. Ber is affected by many serious diseases like powdery mildew, leaf spots (Alternaria, Cercospora, Septoria, Cladosporium, Pestalotiopsis etc.), sooty mold, anthracnose, fruit rot etc.

Grape is an important fruit crop grown mainly under tropical climatic conditions in India. It has spread on an area of 137 thousand ha with a production of 2951 thousand MTduring 2018-19. Famous Indian medicine scholars, Sasruta and Charaka in their medical treatises entitled ‘Sasruta Samhita’ and ’Charaka Samhita’, respectively, written during 1356-1220 BC, mentioned the medicinal properties of grapes. Native spp. resembling Vitis lanata and Vitis palmata grow wild in the northwestern Himalayan foothills. Indigenous varieties known as ‘Rangspay’, ‘Shonltu White’ and ‘Shonltu Red’ are grown in Himachal Pradesh even today. Cultivated grapes are believed to have been introduced into the north of India by the Persian invaders in 1300 AD, from where they were introduced into the south (Daulatabad in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra) during the historic event of changing the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad by King Mohammed-bin-Tughlak. Currently Mahrashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the major grapes growing states of India.

However, the higher production of grapes is constrained by the incidence of several diseases and pests. The important diseases of grapes causing economic losses have been listed below and discussed in detail in the chapter.

Avocado fruit has become one of the most sought after food sources worldwide. It is a nutritious source of food and is part of the staple diet of many people in third world countries where it is cultivated and where it is native. Production costs are very high owing to the cultural requirements of the avocado tree and the presence of diseases, which can be major limiting factors to production. Phytophthora root rot, caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi, is such a disease. During the developmental stages of hefruit in the orchard and at harvesting, the fruit is also exposed to diseases such as scab (Sphacelomapersea), anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) and Cercospora spot (Pseudocercospora purpurea) Marias (2006).

Major Fungal Diseases of Avocado

Phytophthora root rot

Economic Importance

The causal fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands was first isolated from cinnamon trees in Sumatra in 1922 and has since been reported from over 70 countries. It has an extremely wide host range including 1000 varieties and species of plants. In California alone it has been estimated to affect between 60-75% of the orchards and causes a loss in excess of $40 million annually (Coffey 1992).

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an important cash crop and India ranks second to Brazil in production (Shanthi and Vittal, 2012), the incidence of diseases considerable losses in cashew plantations. Cashew nut is a plantation crop that is grown extensively in area along with costal tract of peninsular India. It is the most important export crops and the main source of cash income. Cashews (Anacardium occidentale L.) are a perennial nut crop native to Brazil and belong to the Anacardiaceae family. (Zhongrun and Masawe, 2014). Plans produce numerous pinkish-white flowers and kidney shaped true fruit (nut) in gray-brown shell develops from a fleshy fruit, referred as ‘cashew apple’. The cashew apple is pear shaped and red to yellow in color. The cashew apple is also valued in alcohol fermentation and cashew shell oil for base of paints and water proofing agent. Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a perennial tree crop, originating from South America from Brazil now widely grown in the tropics. Cashew affected by many biotic and abiotic causes resulting in significant yield losses. Biotic diseases and pests are the most damaging cashew nut yield in terms of quality and quantity. (Freire and Rossetti, 1991; Freire, 1997; Freire and Cardoso, 1995). Many pathogens have now been recorded from seedlings, adult plants and from kernels (Freire, 1996; Freire et al., 1996, 1999).

Major diseases of cashewnut plants are anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), Pestalotia leaf spot (Pestalotia heterocornis), bacterial leaf and nut spot (Xanthomonas citri pv. anacardii), Powdery mildew (Oidium anacardii) Pink Disease or Dieback (Corticium salmonicolor) and gummosis (Lasiodiplodia theobromae) are reported in cashew tree worldwide often considered as the most important diseases causing severe economic damage cashew nut producing countries. According to Sijaona (2013) powdery mildew can cause yield losses ranging from 70 to 100%. In Brazil, anthracnose infection has drastically reduced cashew production by up to 40% in 2000 (Freire et al., 2002).

Introduction

India with exceeding population of 1027.01 million with 741 million living in rural areas is on the path of development. With 40% of population below poverty line, our country faces the problem of quality life. The lack of access to and control over resources is said to be the cause of poverty. The central aim of enhancing economic productivity of India is to improve the overall welfare of those residing under poverty line. To combat poverty, ‘self help promotion’ is of recent paradigm that has attracted attention of all sections of population. Now it is a matter of concern for all those social consciousness driven people who wants to vanish poverty through this concept known as Self Help Group.

As per the report of ILO, by the year 2050 about 33% of people in the developed countries and 19% in developing countries will be sixty years or older and most of them incidentally will be women. 2001 census reveals that unorganized labour account for more than 40% of the total work force and total employment in both sectors in our country is 397 crores. Out of the unorganized sector workers, 237 crores are employed in agriculture.

Women form half of our population. They have significant roles in overall development. Rural development concept in our country attaches more importance to women development. Through various projects and research, it has been recognized that group approach is only means of reaching disadvantaged people in our society within which women are included. Many countries in Asia have proved effectiveness of group approach in achieving development.

With increasing emphasis on development, quality life, livelihood, etc. group concept has to be worked out in development prospective. The advantages of group concept over individual approach are i) Democratizations ii) Visualization of common problem iii) Interaction to become homogeneous iv) Power to present problem before authorities v) Farming base for grass root level planning vi) Realization of one’s potentiality compared to others vii) Protection from risk or sharing of risk viii) Enabling to form acceptable rule and regulation and ix) feeling of empowerment.

It is an organized set up to provide micro credit to the rural women on the strength of the group savings without insisting on any collateral security for the purpose of encouraging them to enter in to entrepreneurial activities and for making them enterprising women (Gurumoorthy, 2000).

Puhanzhendi and Badatya (2002) find that the SHG programme has a positive social impact.

Rajamohan (2003) stated that SHG is a medium for the development of saving habit among the women.

Jeyasudha (2004) reported that eradication of poverty and the ushering in of speedy socioeconomic progress is the goal with which the developmental programmes are being implemented through a multipronged strategy, reaching out to the most disadvantaged sections of the society. She placed the concept of rural development at the top of agenda in national policies of developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. The developed countries have also recognized this need and have directed their efforts towards meeting the basic needs of the poorest people in developing countries.

The study entitled “SHG in Techno Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women” was conducted on the following specific objectives.

Empowerment of women in relation to SHG (ii) Profile of SHG

Structure and functions of SHG

SWOT analysis of SHG

Constraints of SHG and suggestion

Case studies

Concept and Meaning of Empowerment Meaning and definition

Women empowerment has been widely recognized as an important goal in global development process. The term “empowerment” was coined in the second half of the seventeenth century (Oxford English Dictionary). It gained momentum in USA in 1960s when the activists of Black Panat Movement used the term ‘empowerment’ in the context of political mobilization. In 1980s the term was adopted by NGOs worldwide to signify an alternative development agenda for poverty alleviation based on principles of participation and self help. During this period, the participation and self help came to forefront. There after it has entered many fields of theory and practice. Since 1980s, the world has witnessed the concept, used to describe this phenomenon (empowerment).

The voiceless and powerless are the common elements that need the concept of empowerment in terms of socio-economic, technological, cultural and political development. In the context of power, empowerment depends on two things. These are: power can change and power can extend. The concept came to exist that power can change and power can extend giving the term ‘empowerment’ as the power is created in relationship, power and power relationship can certainly change. Therefore, empowerment simply is a process of change.

Motives of joining SHG

Sensitization for joining SHG does not alone help to achieve immediate result. Motives when combined with inspiration, an individual is tempted to act so also the case with sample SHG who expressed motives for joining SHG as follows.

The study is confined to tribal zone of Orissa, especially of Koraput district where tribes account for 49.69% of the district population. The sample SHG were selected from Sadar, Similiguda and Koraput blocks without any prejudice to their performance. At the outset, it is admitted that SHG has created a sensation among the tribes to look forward the development process. The present study ‘SHG in Techno-Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women’ has been conceived to find out inter-play of technological and economic variables that reflect in social status.

Membership status

SHG starts with the philosophy of micro-approach. Small sized group dynamics, available technology and economic opportunity linked with market structure are the perceived objectives to bring change in livelihood system. The study considered the age of SHG, present membership status, rate of discontinuance as the basic factors of SHG in tribal zone.

SWOT analysis is the systematic identification of the internal strength and weakness of an organization or enterprise and environmental opportunities and threats. The analysis is based on the assumption that effective strategy maximizes strength and opportunities and simultaneously minimizes its weakness and threats. Entrepreneurial activities require a SWOT before initiation to provide first hand information about feasibility of the enterprise. All SHGs in rural sector are formed for income generation. A variety of enterprises coming up through SHG in rural sector may or may not be successful. SWOT provides basic direction for entrepreneurship at any level for benefit of the practitioners. The SWOT of SHG in tribal area where study was conducted has been analyzed.

The problems of SHG are many and diversified. The problems vary from place to place and SHG to SHG. Then problems cluster is in relation to economic productivity, overall welfare and livelihood. As we observe since five decades after independence, resistance of people in the state of social, economic, political disempowerment is considered to measure hindrance to overall development. The SHG being a part of society is not an exception to be cited with problem. During investigation the constraints experienced by SHGs members are categorized under five areas namely personal, social, economical, technological and marketing problem. These problem directly and indirectly affects the performance of SHGs. The evidences of past studies and experience in the present context reveal a wide variation in the dimension of the problem.

Family No. 1

Name and address:

Smt. Jamuna Khajuriputia

Age - 45 years, Caste - ST

Village – Rajbadei

Block – Similiguda, Koraput

Family size: A total of five members, husband Gopinath (50 years), the son Ramesh and Podu, daughter-in-law Dana and herself. Male : Female ratio is 3:2

Educational status: All members have education except daughter-in-law, Dana. The status score is 4.16 in 10 point scale.

Apple is a king of temperate fruit, symbol of health and premier fruit of the world. It is a deciduous temperate fruit tree and most widely grown in the world from time immemorial. In India, a large number of apple varieties were introduced in 1887 by Mr. Alexander Coutts, and his orchard is called Hillock Head in Mashobra near to Shimla. It was also introduced in Nilgoris and Bangalore, but it was destroyed by wooly aphid in 1887. At present a small cultivation is done in Nilgiris. Among the fruits, apple is having longest storage life. Apples are mostly consumed as fresh but a small part of the production is processed into juices, jellies, canned slices, wine and other products.

Origin and Distribution

An apple is originated in the Middle East/Central Asia more than 4000 years ago where its wild ancestor, Malus sieversii, is still found today. It is spreading across Europe to France; the fruit arrived in England during the time of Norman Conquest in 1066. The pioneer apple orchard in the North American continent was planted in Boston by Reverend William Blaxton in 1625. The Only North America native apples are called crab apples or common apples.

Captain R C Scot of the British army had introduced apples like Newton Pippin, King of Pippin and the Cox Orange Pippin to the Kullu valley in 1870. These apples were not popular because of their sour taste. The sweet apples were still being imported from Japan to meet the demand of Indian market. It was during a visit to America in 1915 that Samuel Stokes bought a few saplings and planted them at his Barobagh orchard in Thanedar and in the year 1926 the first apple trees bear fruit and the apples was sold and imports from Japan is stopped. The first few saplings from its, Golden Delicious of Kinnaur and Sweet Delicious of Shimla were became popular and Himachal Pradesh grew to become one of the largest producers of the fruit today. Therefore, the Himachal Pradesh is known as apple bowl of India.

Pear (Pyrus communis) is one of the most important fruit crops of temperate regions of the world. It is the second temperate fruit tree crop in terms of importance, area, production after apple in India. Pear belongs to the Rosaceae family which have been cultivated in Europe and in Asia for more than 3000 years. Their fruit are tasty with pleasant flavor and commonly eaten fresh or is canned. It is used to produce perry, an alcoholic beverage. Pears are grown under temperate and subtropical climatic conditions of India because of its wider climatic and soil adaptability. It is primarily grown in hills at 1700–2400 m above mean sea-level in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Low-chilling pears have adapted very well in the subtropical regions of our country. Improved pear cultivars were introduced in 19^th century and cultivation started due the success of Barlett and Gola in hills and patharnakh in Punjab of our country. European/common/soft pear (Pyrus communis) and Oriental/Japanese pear (P. pyrifolia) are commercially pear species grown in India.

Origin and Distribution

The common pear is originated from Europe and Asia where it has been cultivated since ancient times. The pear was introduced into the New World by European settlers. Early Spanish missionaries carried the fruit to Mexico and California. In most pear-growing countries of the world outside Asia, by far the most widely grown pear variety is Williams’ Bon Chrétien, known in the United States as Bartlett (Verma at el., 2010). A highly popular variety in England and the Netherlands is Conference. Common Italian varieties include Curato, Coscia, and Passe Crassane, the latter also being popular in France. In Asian countries the pear crop comprises primarily local varieties of native species, such as the Asian, or Chinese, pear (P. pyrifolia). Some species, especially the Callery pear and its cultivars, are invasive species and easily escape cultivation in areas outside their natural range. The poet Homer wrote that pears were “Gifts from the Gods”. Today, pears are a favourite fruit of Americans, second only to the apple.

Peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch) belongs to the Prunoideae subfamily of the Rosaceae with other species collectively referred to as “stone fruits. Unusual in its subgenus, the peach is largely self fertile. There are at least 77 wild species of Prunus and most of them are found in Central Asia. Peaches include different types of varieties downy skin with freestone or clingstone (peach), smooth skin with freestone or clingstone (nectarine) (Bretaudeau and Faure, 1991). It is considered as favourite table fruit and highly valued for its taste, flavour and attractive colour. The fruits are rich source of sugars, vitamins and minerals and malic acid (1.2%). Peach fruit shapes vary from round to flat, beaked, skin colors vary from white to red or yellow, the flesh color white or yellow melting or non-melting types and it can be clingstone or freestone. Regions with warm to hot summers are produces highest quality peaches. It has a range of uses as fresh fruit for table purpose as well as processed product especially in sauces, slice production and canning. Peaches are highly ruminative and nutritionally rich crops for mild temperate to subtropical regions. Peaches are excellent sources of fiber, vitamins and antioxidants. The carbohydrates, organic acids, minerals and dietary fiber are among the major constituents of peaches, which contribute to the nutritional quality of both fresh fruits and the juices (Manzoor et al., 2012).

There are many cherry species, but only a few have been domesticated. The sweet cherry trees are large (30–40 feet tall) and usually pyramid shaped. Branches grow upright. The fruits are large, have a deep stem cavity, vary in colour from light yellow to dark red to purplish black. Flowers arise from clusters of 2 to 5 flowers on short spurs with multiple buds at tips; the distal bud develops into a leafy shoot. The flesh ranges in texture from tender to firm, and is sweet. Most sweet cherries are consumed as fresh fruit. The tart cherry, is sometime called “red cherry” or “sour cherry” and may have arisen from an unreduced pollen grain of Prunus avium crossed with Prunus fruiticosa. Trees are very cold hardy, but are shorter lived than sweet cherry. The fruit is relatively small, and have higher acid and lower sugar content than sweet cherry. Tart cherries are used for processing, jam, and pie filling. The Duke cherry is a hybrid of Prunus avium and Prunus cerasus and all gradations between the two species exist, but most varieties more closely resemble sweet cherry. Sweet cherries are the variety most often found in markets. They have a thick, rich, and almost plumb-like texture. Sour cherries are not usually eaten raw, but are widely used for making preserves, candy etc. Sour cherries are much smaller than sweet cherries and all varieties are self-fertile. Cherries are cultivated all over the world and the top 3 producers of cherry are Turkey, USA and Iran. The cultivated forms are of the species sweet cherry (Prunus avium) to which most cherry cultivars belong, and the another sour cherry (P. cerasus), which is used mainly for making preserve etc. Both species originate in Europe and western Asia; they do not cross pollinate. Some other species, although having edible fruit, are not grown extensively for consumption, except in northern regions where the two main species will not grow.

Japanese plum (Prunus salicina) is widely grown in hill and to a limited scale in the plains of north-western India. Although the fruit quality of plums produced in subtropical is poor however, it fetches high process in the market because of it early availability. Its availability in market at a time when the competition from other fruits is less. It is known as Japanese plum due to its cultivation in Japan from where cultivars spread to other places. At present, plum is cultivated in all temperate climate countries of the world. Plums are a familiar part of our diets. These sweet, fleshy fruit are a common sight in super market shelves. Prunus domestica, the European plum, is an important crop that has been cultivated in Europe for over 2,000 years. When the early European settlers landed on the shores of North America, they found various kinds of native plums scattered throughout the countryside, all of which were found to be of inferior quality. Until the 19th century, most plum cultivation in the United States was confined to the European varieties that were brought overseas. Today, new plum hybrids of native and Asian species have been developed for fresh market consumption, but Prunus domestica remains the prime source for processing plums. Depending on the variety, these plums can be good for either canning, drying as prunes, for culinary uses, or, in lesser amounts, eaten fresh.

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is commonly known as ‘Akhrot’ in India. Internationally, walnut is known as English walnut or Persian walnut. It is an important nut grown in temperate regions of the world. It is cultivated for nut and wood in the northern hemisphere (Europe, Asia, and North America) and the Southern hemisphere (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America). Walnut kernel is rich source of proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and polyphenols. Inclusion of walnuts in human diet has positive effect on heart, skin and circulatory system. Wood of walnut is used for making quality furniture, interior joinery constructions,music instruments, carving, sport items, gun stocks and fore-end, and producing highly figured veneers, usually from burrs, which are used for cabinet-making and decorative panels