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The History of Fish Keeping

Philip Henry Gosse (1810-1888) coined a term “Aquarium” which is now familiar to all of us, in his 1854 book The aquarium: An unveiling of the wonders of the deep sea.

The idea of keeping aquariums can be dated back to 2500 BC and has evolved into a complex hobby that exists today. Ancient Sumerians and Romans kept fish in containers as early as 2500 BC, similar to what we now know as fish tanks. These tanks were designed to keep fish alive long enough to prepare the specimen for food. It is also known that Romans and Babylonians kept ponds filled with fish for ornamental use (History of Fish Keeping as a Hobby).

As time progressed, the art of fish keeping became a “luxury for the rich” (DuHammel 1). Many people consider the Chinese as being the most important contributors to the hobby. “By 1136 AD Emperor Hiau-Tsung started to breed and keep these fish in a more controlled environment. Several new breeds of ornamental fish ornamental emerged.” (DuHammel 1). As more people became involved in the idea of fish keeping, having a goldfish was no longer an indicator of a person’s status. Many common people began to keep goldfish; the fish that they kept represented a good luck charm.

India is situated north of the equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude, is the largest peninsular country in the world bordered by Arabian Sea in the west, Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. India has a coastline of 8118 km and 0.5 million t sq. km continental shelf endowed with 2.02 million sq. km of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). It has a catchable annual fisheries potential yield of 4.41 million occupying third rank in world marine fish production (Table 1). India’s territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast baseline. The vital details on marine capture fisheries of India are given in table

Smoking is an ancient method of food preservation, which is also known as smoke curing, produces products with very high salt content (>10%) and low water activity (~0.85). Smoking is a process of treating fish by exposing it to smoke from smouldering wood or plant materials to introduce flavour, taste, and preservative ingredients into the fish. This process is usually characterised by an integrated combination of salting, drying, heating and smoking steps in a smoking chamber. The drying effects during smoking, together with the antioxidant and bacteriostatic effects of the smoke, allow smoked products to have extended shelf-life. Smoked seafood includes different varieties like, smoked finfish and smoked bivalves. Many of the smoked products are in the form of ready-to-eat.

Developments of modern food preservation technology, such as pasteurization, cooling/refrigeration, deep-freezing, and vacuum packaging, have eclipsed the preserving functions of many traditional methods including smoking. Nowadays, the main purpose of smoking has been shifted for sensory quality rather than for its preservative effect.

Depending upon how the smoke is delivered into the food and smoking temperature, four basic types of smoking can be defined: hot smoking, cold smoking, liquid smoking, and electrostatic smoking. Hot smoking is the traditional smoking method using both heat and smoke, which usually occurs at temperatures above 70 °C. For smoked fish and fishery products, a minimum thermal process of 30 min at or above 145 °F (62.8 °C) is required by FDA (2001). Therefore, after hot smoking, products are fully cooked and ready for consumption.

Introduction

Fish and shellfish constitute an important component of global nutrition. Fish protein is an essential source of nutrients for many people, especially in developing countries. Health benefits of fish oil in preventing heart attack and other cardiovascular diseases are well appreciated. Mounting evidences suggest that the benefits of fish consumption are not limited to the well-known effects of fish oil alone. Fish is also a rich source of protein containing all essential amino acids, which is required for the body maintenance and muscular build-up. The protein content in most of the raw finfish meat is in the range of 17 to 22% (g per 100 g), while the cooked portions of some fish such as tuna may have as high as 30% protein. The amino acid score of fish protein compares well with that of whole egg protein, which is considered as a standard protein source. Fish is also rich in the non-protein amino acid - taurine, which has a unique role in neurotransmission. Apart from nutritional properties, fish proteins also possess a number of functional properties such as emulsifying, foaming, gel forming, water binding and fat binding properties, which are important in product formulations. These functional properties are mainly attributed to the major meaning myofibrillar proteins, actin and myosin.

During the processing of fish only the fillets are generally retained while the bulk of product (up to 66%) is discarded. About 30% of the total fish weight remains as waste in the form of skins and bones during preparation of fish fillets. This waste is an excellent raw material for the preparation of high value products including protein foods. The utilization of fish wastes help to eliminate harmful environmental aspects and improve quality in fish processing. Skin and bone are sources of high collagen content. The average quantity of waste generated during fish and shellfish processing operations (based on average annual marine landing data) is indicated in Table 1.

Micronutrient deficiency

Micronutrient deficiencies are the cause for widespread health problems, especially in developing countries. The deficiencies in vitamin A, iron, and iodine have been identified as the greatest concern, as they affect over one third of the world’s population (WHO, 1995). In addition, these micronutrients interact with each other, i.e., synergistic effects between iodine deficiency disorder (IDD) and iron deficiency anemia (IDA), or between vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and IDA to deepen their negative impacts (Lonnerdal, 2004; Lynch, 1997; Zimmermann et al., 2004). Deficiencies typically coexist in children in developing countries (Zimmermann et al., 2000).

70% of people in India do not consume enough micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals. About 70% of pre-school children suffer from anaemia caused by iron deficiency and 57% of preschool children have sub–clinical Vitamin A deficiency. Neural Tube Defects (NTDs) are the most common congenital malformation with an incidence that varies between 0.5-8/1000 births. It is estimated that 50-70% of these birth defects are preventable. One of the major causes is deficiency of folic acid. Thus, micronutrient deficiency also known as “hidden hunger”, is a serious health risk. Unfortunately, those who are economically disadvantaged do not have access to safe and nutritious food. Others either do not consume a balanced diet or lack variety in the diet because of which they do not get adequate micronutrients. Often, there is considerable loss of nutrients during the processing of food.

Fisheries comprise a major economic activity within complex interactions between human beings and water - ‘the first among equals’ of the natural resources (Ahmed, 1992). Fisheries data assembled by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) suggest that global marine fisheries catches increased to 86 million tonnes in 1996, then slightly declined. In the past three decades, employment in fisheries and aquaculture has grown at a higher rate than the growth of world population. The fishery engineering is evolving as an important domain in view of depleting stocks on both pre and post-harvest scenarios. It will also aid in fish processing technologies, optimizing energy and water use in seafood industries, mitigating climate change related issues and reducing carbon foot print. It is important to explore novel ways to obtain, quantify, and integrate industry responses to declining fishing stocks and increasing management regulations into fishery - and ecosystem-based management advice. The technological interventions help to reduce the wastage of fishes, which is otherwise a highly perishable commodity by preservation technologies and converting it into value added products with higher shelf life. Use of appropriate technologies along the fish value chain will help in producing better quality products and fetch more markets and higher price.

Major areas of technological interventions in the field of fishery engineering cover design and development of fish processing equipment and machineries, energy efficient and eco-friendly solar fish dryers, fuel efficient fishing vessels and fiberglass canoes, indigenous electronic instruments for application in harvest and post-harvest technology of fish, quality improvement of Indian fishing fleet and energy and water optimization techniques for fish processing industries. Focused areas include development of cost effective solar dryers with LPG, biomass, Infra-Red or electrical back-up heating systems, fish de-scaling machines, Fish freshness sensor etc.

Value chain analysis and its management is a strategic planning tool used in analyzing the value chain of a company or sector or a product. Initially, it was used to assess the process of a company or single unit. Then, it was visualized as a holistic and integrated framework in upgrading the activities of companies as a whole with the coordinating efforts of the various units or sub-systems. It is useful in improving the existing system or through introducing a new component in the system.

Value chain

The word ‘value chain’ was first introduced by Michael porter in his book ‘Comparative Advantage’ during 1985. Value chain is defined as “the full range of activities which are required to bring a product or service from conception, through the different phases of production (involving a combination of physical transformation and the input of various producer services), delivery to final customers, and final disposal after use”.

Value chain comprises of full range of activities required to bring a product or service from the stage of conception, production and distribution to consumers (Kaplinsky and Morris, 2001). The study on value chain is intended to achieve comparative advantage through cost minimization and attaining consumer satisfaction. It is the preliminary step in the mapping of market (FAO, 2006).The value chain can be analyzed using Value Chain Analysis (VCA) through either quantitative or qualitative tools or both.

For achieving the inclusive and sustainable development of the tribal communities in the selected areas we believe that imparting technical know-how of improved agricultural practices, development of vocational skills among rural resource-poor schedule tribes and ensuring the availability of quality technological input material will be instrumental. Considering these facts, in order to enhance the livelihood of the tribal communities in the selected district of Bihar this intervention project was designed with the following objectives.

In most of the underdeveloped and developing countries, regional diets are monotonous, unbalanced and poor in quality having a high percentage of starchy components and inadequate proportion of protein. The long-term solution to the problem of protein malnutrition lies in the greater production and better distribution of a protein-rich diet. Fish offers protein in a cheap and alternative form. Probably due to this, man has exploited the hydrosphere for food and consequently the history of the development of pisciculture. As the fish perishes rapidly, methods have been devised to keep the fish fresh between the catch and consumption.

The development of fisheries in India has attained considerable progress in increasing the per hectare yield of carps by controlled breeding and rearing of the young ones. Keeping the pace of development, the culture of air-breathing fishes has attracted the attention of aqua-culturists. Many varieties of these fishes have been successfully bred using pituitary extract (Ramaswami and Sundararaj, 1957; Moitra et al, 1979; Thakur, 1976). The traditional methods of transport of spawn, fry, fingerlings and even brooders in various open and closed systems pose major problems due to their heavy mortality. The mortality of live fishes is high mostly due to stress during transportation. For a long, studies on different aspects of transportation of carps and their allies have been carried out by fishery scientists. Some of the works which need special mention are that of Khan (1939, 1946), Ganapati and Chako (1951), Ranade and Kewalramani (1956), Saha and Chowdhury (1956), Saha et al, (1956a and b), Ramchandran (1969), Singh (1977), Selvaraj et al, (1981) and Jha (1995) etc. In comparison to Indian major carps, consumption of air-breathing fish is not so popular although they are a rich source of protein. However, their demand is gradually increasing. Much has to be done to meet the increasing demand of air-breathing fishes to exploit the maximum available derelict water.

The two commercially important Indian air-breathing fishes, Anabas testudineus (Bloch) and Channa punctatus (Bloch) commonly known as climbing perch and snake-headed murrel belong to the order Perciformes and Channiformes respectively. They live in different trophic zones of swamps and derelict ponds and are highly predatory habits. In the present work, oxygen uptake has been observed in Anabas testudineus and Channa punctatus concerning their body weight and group size. The effect of anaesthetic on the oxygen uptake and the effect of ammonia on the structure and function of the gills in Channa punctatus have also been studied. The findings have been used to evaluate suitable methods for long-distance transportation of these fishes. As we surviving in the COVID-19 pandemic, proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories is one of the essential steps for fish transportation.

Shrimp culture is slowly emerging as one of the major and fastest growing food production sector in the world. High demand in the international market encouraged many developing countries to grow shrimp in their coastal areas. Many countries including India earn sizable foreign exchanges by exporting both shrimp and frozen shrimp. International institutions like the World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) etc. have also encouraged production of shrimp that fetch huge returns on investment within a short period of time. Indigent coastal people in India have been farming fish for hundreds of years. The warm climate, accessibility to coast, saline water and relatively low wage rate provides a comparative advantage for shrimp cultivation. Commercial shrimp farming developed in India on account of the government’s policy to promote shrimp culture in view of its potential to utilise the vast saline tracts along the coastline and to provide employment opportunities to coastal rural population. After the liberalization, development of shrimp culture gained greater momentum in the country. Individual entrepreneurs were also encouraged to take up shrimp farming with both financial and technical support from the government.

‘Shrimp’ which is an aquatic organism inhabiting the sea, estuaries and backwaters remained the backbone of Indian marine products exports. Shrimp is a protein-rich food with universal taste. Shrimp farming is a short duration activity and therefore, provides quick return on investment. It also provides gainful employment opportunities to the rural poor in the remote coastal areas. The value of shrimp exported in 2011-12 from India was estimated at about Rs. 8175.26 crores (US$ 1741.20 million). According to an estimate made by MPEDA, one hectare of shrimp culture operation can provide direct employment to atleast two persons and can also generate indirect employment to the extent of 1100 man-days.

Shrimp culture has a long tradition in India that began with the tidal stocking of shrimp in paddy fields and lagoons and holding them until harvest. More intensive forms of shrimp farming developed rapidly during the 1990’s. As was the case in many other nations in Asia, the development of shrimp farming in India took place without planning and regulation. This resulted in a variety of environmental problems and social conflicts. Although India has benefited from rising foreign exchange earnings, the conflict of coastal communities with shrimp farming has prompted a heated debate over the relevance of aquaculture in coastal ecosystem. Questions have been raised on its sustainability in the long run and some people also accused that this culture has disturbed the social harmony and has raised the inequality level in the rural areas.

Tillage is the physical manipulation of the soil with tools and implements which, results in good tilth for better germination and subsequent growth of crops.

Tilth is the physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage. Soil is said to be in good tilth when it is mellow, friable and adequately aerated. Tilth is dynamic. Mechanical forces may change the roughness of the soil surface, the total porosity and bulk density of the tilled layer and the aggregate or clod size. Heavy rainfall and high velocity wind or water destroys the tilth. The action of wetting and drying, freezing and thawing regenerates desirable tilth. The roughness of the soil surface is an index of the amount of water that can be stored in soil depressions and may also be related to the resistance of the soil surface to sealing. Roughness may be related to rate of evaporation, transfer of heat and air between the soil and atmosphere.

Drying/ Dehydration means the process of removal of water.

Drying : Removal of water (moisture) by using non conventional energy sources like Sun or wind.

Dehydration : Process of removal of moisture by the application of artificial heat under controlled conditions of temperature and / or humidity and air flow.

Glauber J. R. (1604–1670) in Netherlands first proposed that the salt peter (KNO₃) was the principle of vegetation. He obtained large increases in crop yield by addition of salt peter.

Mineral soils contain 0.04–3.0% K. Total potassium content of soils range from 3000 to 100000 kg per ha in the upper 0.2 m of soil profile. Of this total potassium approximately 98 percent is bound in mineral form whereas 2% in soil solution and exchangeable phases.

ROLE OF POTASSIUM

It is Involved in activating the enzymes (as many as 80) responsible for carbon dioxide reduction and required for synthesis of adenosine triphosphate. Hence deficiency of potassium reduces crop growth and yields.

SOIL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Good soil management is the basic for deriving greater benefits from the fertilizers used in crop production. Some of the good soil management practices are

Good tilth is the first feature of good soil management. It means a suitable physical condition of the soil and implies in addition a satisfactory regulation of soil moisture and air.

The maintenance of soil organic matter which encourages granulation is an important consideration of good tilth.

Tillage operations and timings should be adjusted as to cause the minimum destruction of soil aggregates. Good tilth minimizes erosion hazards.

The choice and sequence of adaptable crops or crop rotation are other very important considerations. These are related to climate, particularly rainfall and its pattern of distribution and the characteristics of the soil profile, including drainage and extent and duration of available soil moisture. A proper sequence of crop varieties greatly influences soil conditions. It is more realistic to evolve cropping patterns and land management practices according to land capability. Cropping patterns chosen and management practices adopted should aim at soil and moisture conservation for efficient nutrient and moisture utilization.

Food fortification is the procedure in which micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) are added to the food. As a public health policy fortification can be carried out by the food manufacturers or by the governments to help people in combatting dietary deficiencies within a population. Fortification can be done in food even if these nutrients are originally present or not. However, it improves the nutritional status of a population by overcoming the deficiencies of micronutrients. Deficiency of micronutrients is known as hidden hunger which is a serious health risk. Access to safe and nutritious food is a must.Due to the lack of consumption of a balanced diet, adequate micronutrients are not supplied to the body. Therefore, there is a considerable loss of nutrients during the processing of food. One of the strategies to address this problem is fortification of food.

For Indian foods

Food processing industries are the fastest growing in India. India is the largest producer of milk, bananas, mangoes, guavas, papaya, ginger and okra. It is the second largest producer of wheat, rice, fruits, vegetables, tea, sugarcane and cashew nut. It is the third largest producer of cereals, coconut, lettuce, chicory, nutmeg, mace, cardamom and pepper at the global level (Highlights of Agriculture Census, 2010-11, http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=132799). Most part of the income is spent on foods. It is important to establish and nurture mutually beneficial relationships with global food processing, food retail and related supply chain organizations. This will in turn help in the realization of significant business growth opportunities in India, through newer technologies, innovations and ways of value additions. The geographical location of India helps in the export of items to other countries. It is connected to Europe, Middle East and Africa from the western coast and to Japan, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Korea, Australia and New Zealand from the eastern coast. Food processing is a priority sector for the Indian Government, especially in recent times with “Make in India” initiative.The country is considered as one of the most favourable markets because of the easy and affordable credit and other fiscal incentives. The total consumption of food and beverages in India is US$ 369 billion which is expected to increase to US$1.142 trillion and the output in the food processing sector might increase to US$ 958 billion by 2025. This offers a vast market opportunity by the Indian food processing, food retail, transport, logistics and related infrastructure sectors to players in the food processing value chain. The market for plant and machinery in the food processing sector is estimated in the year 2024-25 to be USD 51.41 billion as compared to the current value of USD 17.3 billion (2016-17).

Introduction

Chemical pesticides play an important role in plant protection in India and most of the developing countries of the world. These synthetic organic insecticides provide spectacular control of insects. Chemical control is one of the effective and quicker methods in reducing pest population. However, over reliance and injudicious use of pesticides resulted in a series of problems in the agricultural ecosystem mainly, the development of resistance in insects to insecticides, pest resurgence, outbreak of secondary pests into primary nature, environmental contamination and residue hazards, destruction of natural enemies of insect pests etc. All these problems aggravate the pest problem in agricultural crops. Thus, the importance of eco-friendly pest management techniques is being realized more and more in the recent past. The modern concept of pest management is based on ecological principles and involves the integration of different control tactics into a pest management system. This is not altogether a new concept. It was practiced before the advent of modern chemicals. Integrated Pest Management is an ecological approach in which utilization of all available techniques of pest control to reduce and maintain the pest population at levels below economic injury level. The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation defines IPM as the careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasizes the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms. A well-defined Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a program that should be based on prevention, monitoring, and control which offers the opportunity to eliminate or drastically reduce the use of pesticides, and to minimize the toxicity of and exposure to any products which are used. So, IPM is an eco-friendly approach which encompasses cultural, mechanical, biological and need based chemical control measures.

Mycorrhizal symbiosis is the most prevalent and important mutualistic association in plant kingdom. ‘Mycorrhiza’- the word means fungus - root, this association was reported by A.B.Frank in the year 1885. Nearly 95% of plant species form this mycorrhizal association. This serves as critical linkage between plant roots and soil and characterized by the movement of plant produced carbon to fungus and fungal acquired nutrients to plants. Through its hyphae this fungus absorbs the available P from soil and transports directly to root cortex. Mycorrhizal associations vary widely in structure and function. There are seven types of mycorrhizae (Table 1). These are endo (arbuscular), ecto, ectendo, arbutoid, monotropoid, ericoid, and orchidaceous mycorrhizae. Among them, endomycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae are the most abundant and widespread

The major components of foods are the protein, carbohydrates and fat. The spoilage of foods containing fats includes the deterioration of the fatty components; the principal difficulties found in their preservation are in the development of rancidity. The spoilage of fats and oils has received much attention and substantial progress has been made in their preservation. One of the major causes of food deterioration is the chemical oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in the lipids present in all foods. These fats are present in fat deposits and in cell membranes. End products of lipids oxidation, mainly aldehydes and ketones, contribute to the rancid off flavour and odours in the foods.

Fatty acids in food occur in the form of esters with the alcohol. The predominant esters are triacylglycerols accompanied by minor amounts of mono- and diacylglycerols and free fatty acids. The unsaturated bonds present in all fats and oils represent active sites that can react with oxygen. This reaction leads to formation of primary, secondary, and tertiary oxidation products that may make the fat or fat containing food unsuitable for consumption. Other consequences of oxidation include discolouration; changes in the texture, flavour and taste; and loss of nutritional value due to the destruction of essential fatty acids as well vitamins. Unsaturated fatty acids are subject to oxidation at their double bonds. In the presence of suitable catalysts, or in contact with lipooxidase enzymes, long chained unsaturated fatty acids may be fragmented to short chained fatty acids. The cleavage usually involves an intermediate peroxide formation. Many chemicals compounds aid in food preservation to protect the nutrients, flavour and texture, and storage stability of food stuff for longer period.

Extrusion cooking is an emerging technology having advantages of low production cost, capable of producing end products in various shapes and sizes, from a variety of food materials with easy digestibility, maintaining hygiene and high product quality and leaving no effluents or hazardous materials. Minimal energy consumption and processing costs and possibility of flavour addition are the added advantages of technology. The process/technique has the versality and ability to constituently produce a given product in continuity at a given set of pre – determined specifications. It destroys fat splitting enzymes to avoid rancidity and thus extends the shelf life of products considerably. Microorganisms present in food materials are destroyed. It can be effectively utilized to develop functional and designer foods by using several locally available under-utilized food materials. However, it leads to increased package cost as puffed or expanded food products have low bulk density. R & D studies are further needed for co – extrusion of variety of cereals with high fibre content foods and micronutrients.

Agroforestry is a new name for a set of old practices. The general concept of agroforestry is to integrate trees and agriculture so as to create a more diversified landscape, while providing the producers with new environmental and economic benefits. In other words, agroforestry is a method of farming that allows trees and shrubs to grow along with crops and/or livestock, therefore blending agriculture and forestry in the same production system. In fact, man’s association with forest is much older than with agriculture. First man was a food gatherer and hunter in forests. Then he realized that the seeds of the fruits he collected germinated, grew into plants and bore the fruits again and thus man started to cultivate foods. Man’s desire to live in a community created settled agriculture.

The pressure on the agricultural lands has increased manifolds due to the increasing population, expansion of urban area and the industrialization process. The environment has also been disturbed. Soil is losing its productivity and the biodiversity is threatened. Farming community is trying all means to increase the land productivity. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are applied in higher proportion, causing environmental pollution hazards. Under all these circumstances agroforestry has shown that besides sustainable agriculture it can also help promote a better environment. Trees have always played an important role in mankind’s survival. This relatively young science known as agroforestry was brought from the realm of indigenous knowledge into the forefront of agricultural research four decades ago and was promoted widely as a sustainability-enhancing practice that combines the best attributes of forestry and agriculture.

Agroforestry systems are not simply systems where trees and crops or animals give useful products to the farmers, rather systems where trees and crops and/ or animals interact. Interaction literally means influence or mutual or reciprocal action. So, component interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the performance of other component as well as the system as a whole.

In agroforestry systems, trees are grown in close proximity to crops and pasture. Their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Various interactions take place between the woody trees and herbaceous plants (crops or pastures) which is referred to as tree-crop interface. These interactions take place through the media of soil and microclimate and may exert favourable or adverse effects on the crop. Study of interaction helps to know how the components of agroforestry utilize and share the resources of the environment, and how the growth and development of any of the components will influence the others. Interaction occurs both above and below the ground and includes a complex set of interactions relating to radiation exchange, the water balance, nutrient budget and cycling, shelter and other microclimatic modifications.

The success of an agroforestry system relies heavily on exploitation of the component interactions. In an ideal relationship, production of trees as well as crops or grasses in combination could be comparable to their sole performance. Agroforestry could be even more advantageous if the production of associated components is increased due to influence of trees. This is possible because trees are capable of improving productivity of soil in many ways. A large number of trees are known to fix nitrogen symbiotically. Nevertheless, instances of crop inhibition in association of trees are not uncommon. Such inhibitions are primarily caused by shade effect as well as competition for below-ground resources such as nutrients and water. In some cases, inhibitory effect may also result from allelochemicals secreted by some of the tree species.

Ecology of a place is influenced by a number of biotic and abiotic factors. An agroecological zone is broadly homogeneous in climatic and edaphic factors, but not necessarily contiguous, where a specific crop exhibits roughly the same biological expression. On the other hand, the characteristics of an agroecological zone influence the crops and cropping patterns of the zone. Thus, there are considerable variations in the types and management practices of agroforestry systems being followed in different agroecological zones.

AGROFORESTRY FOR HUMID AND SUBHUMID TROPICS

Humid and subhumid tropical regions have much variation in biological, social and economic parameters. The characteristics of humid tropics include high mean annual rainfall of more than 1500 mm, dry season of less than four months in a year and mean annual temperature of more than 22° C. Rainfall usually exceeds the evapotranspiration. However, demographic pressure has caused excessive deforestation and overgrazing which developed soil related problems like low soil fertility, low organic matter, high acidity and high rainfall erosivity. The agroforestry practices designed for this region should aim for improved fallows, soil fertility improvement and conservation, food production, etc. Thus, the common agroforestry systems in this zone are taungya, homegardens, alley cropping, plantation-crop combination, windbreaks, silvipastoral systems and various intercropping systems. Shifting cultivation is a common practice in tropics which should be discouraged as it causes environmental degradation and ecological imbalance, soil erosion and soil nutrient loss.

Introduction

Since long time fermentation process is in use for the production of functional food products for human welfare. SSF is a cost effective industrially important method that could be used by food industries to improve the nutritional profile of natural substrates (Salar and Purewal, 2016; Postemsky et al., 2017). The process is being carried out by trained microbiologists in the presence of aseptic conditions using suitable starter culture on steam sterilized substrates. Steam sterilized substrates possess minimal amount of moisture so as to support the microbial growth during the fermentation period. Growth of microbial strains on specific substrates during the fermentation time results in formation of koji (antioxidant rich fermented product). Selection of substrates and starter microbial strains is an important step in the fermentation process which will determine the nutritional properties of fermented product. One of the major advantages of SSF at industrial level is its potential to be utilized on cereal grains, fruits, vegetables and even agricultural wastes (Salar et al., 2012; Postemsky and Curvetto, 2015; Bhanja et al., 2009). Most common substrates that are being used as solid platform for the growth of microbial strains are cereal grains.

Salicyclic acid: Salicyclic acid (from Latin salix, willow tree, from the substances used to be obtained) is aminohydroxybenzoic acid, a type of phenolic acid and a beta hydracid. It has the formula C₇H₆O₃. This colourless crystalline organic acid is widely used in organic synthesis and function as a plant hormone. It is derived from the metabolic of salicin. In addition to being an important active metabolic of aspirin (acetylsalicyclic acid), which acts in part as a prodrug to salicyclic acid, it is probably best known for its use as a key ingredient in topical anti-acne products. The salts and esters of salicyclic acid are known as salicylates.

Salination: The process of accumulation of soluble salts in the soil.

Saline adaptation: Genetic modification of individuals in a population that increases their ability to survive excess salt.

Saline adjustment: Physiological and biochemical changes of individual plants that increase their ability to survive excess salt.

ABSTRACT

The food industry has many the environmental challenges in terms of emerging microbial strains, bacteria, viruses and accumulation of toxic chemicals. Ozone (O₃), environmental bluish gas is an extremely potent oxidant, which is effective solution for disinfection, sanitization for various kinds of products. The application of ozone treatment in agro processing has become green technology with increasing acceptance. It can apply in liquid form, gaseous form to sanitize food, food packaging materials, process water and to disinfect equipments. Ozone can be generated by different methods such as ultraviolet radiation method, corona discharge method etc. In this chapter, ozone properties, its generation, antimicrobial power and advantages with application of ozone has covered. Fruits and vegetables treatment with ozone have shown increased shelf-life and many hazardless advantages of the products. Some products preserved with ozone. Anti microbial activity, no residues in foods, assurance about preservation of sensory, nutritional and physicochemical properties of food have made ozone application as a promising technology for all kinds of food products

ABSTRACT

Packaging plays an important role in food industry. The huge waste of packaging generated every year poses a great threat to the environment. The recycling and reuse of the food packaging is limited. Plastic packaging in particular are the serious concern with respect to their disposal. This is the high time when eco-friendly green technologies for the food packaging should be explored. This chapter discusses various possibilities to use the green and eco-friendly approaches for food packaging.

Keywords: Green packaging, bio-degradable, recycle, reuse, edible packaging.

ABSTRACT

Microencapsulation is one of the latest technologies used in the food, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmetic industry where it is used for maintaining the stability of the food ingredients and slow release of the active food ingredients. For many decades the encapsulation technique was used in the pharmaceutical industries, but from last three decades it has been effectively used in the food industries showing enhanced results in flavour masking and retention of bio- active components present in the food. The production of the microcapsules can be achieved by the various process technologies. The process technologies have been reviewed in this paper such as spray drying, extrusion, spray chilling, emulsions, fluidized bed coating, freeze drying, molecular inclusion, crystallization, co-acervation etc. the encapsulation of food materials has shown a promising result in the newly growing food processing industries. Some of the recent developments in the microencapsulation viz. sweetener immobilization, controlled release and the carrier materials are also being presented in the reviewed paper.

ABSTRACT

The improper disposal of food waste poses an environmental threat. The management of food waste in a sustainable way is always a challenge. Food waste is generated at various stages starting from food production till consumption. The cooked food waste generated due to various reasons leads not only to a loss of the food produced but also the water and energy used to cook it. This cooked food leftover can be served to the needy people or if not possible, can be processed further. This chapter focuses on various technological options for the management of cooked food waste in a sustainable way.

Keywords: Cooked food waste, Compost, Bokashi, Bio-surfactants, Environment

ABSTRACT

Banana plants areextensively known for their fruits butby-products (pseudostem, root, leave, male banana flower, and banana peel) from banana farms also have potential applicability because recycleprocess of these wastes can convert waste of banana farms into an outstandingresource of valuable raw materials for other industries. This practice avoids huge losses of unused biomass and environmental hazards. Banana flowers are discarded in banana farms during the harvesting of banana fruit bunches and produce a great amount of agricultural waste. Consumption of banana flower as a vegetable is trendy in some parts of Asian countries but the cleaning process of banana flower is an unwieldy practice because of the time and the laborengaged in separating the calyx and the pistil portion of these flowersbefore processing. Itis an abundant source of well-balanced essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, dietaryfiber, vitamins, minerals,and flavonoids. This flower also having tremendous medicinal properties as they possess several secondary metabolites. Thepresent review discusses the transformation of this agricultural waste into a different value-added product. The transformation of banana flowers into highly commercial outputs can be beneficial forsupplementary income to small scale farming industries.

Keywords: Banana, Banana flower, By-product, Value-added product, Antioxidant, Pre-treatments, Processing.

The objective of larval rearing is to mass-produce high-quality and healthy juvenile fish. In larval rearing, the management of both rearing environment and feeding regime are the most important aspects. Improving larval rearing technique requires understanding of larval morphology & behaviour and requirements of live food, artificial diet and environmental conditions at different ages of larvae (Liao et al., 2001). Striped murrel is predatory as well cannibalistic species in nature. Therefore understanding about its behavior with respect to feeds and feeding, stocking density with growing age is utmost important. It is a general thinking that fish hatchlings do not require exogenous food until yolk-sac attached to their body is exhausted. But this is untrue with many carnivorous fish species, particularly those observe cannibalism. Larvae of such fish species start feeding much before the yolk-sac absorption; rather delay in getting feed make them weak or force them to feed on the conspecifics. Therefore in order to understand larval behavior of this species in respect of feeds and feeding, knowledge on its ontogenic development is crucial particularly in respect of age at which mouth opens; mouth gape size, food choice, size of food particle at different age-groups and finally the age when gut digestion starts.

Yulintine et al. (2017) have given ontogenetic details of striped murrel larvae since hatching. According to him, mouth opens and exogenous feeding begin in this species when hatchling grows to a size 4.63+0.25mm on second say of hatching. On day-3 after hatching, the buccopharynx channeled with the anterior intestine through a short oesophagus and rather narrow lumen, with having prominent liver developed by this time. Two pyloric caeca appeared on day-25 hph, indicating the transition from larval to juvenile stage and acquisition of an adult type of digestion. This chapter provides strategy for larval rearing of striped murrel based on ontogenic studies and work carried out by various workers in this field including that of authors.

The farming of striped murrel is quite old in many south-eastern and south Asian countries including India under traditional farming system. Wee (1981) has given an account of traditional farming of striped murrel in Thailand, where seed of wild stock was stocked in very high density (75-460 numbers/m²) in ponds. Freshwater small fish (FSF) were fed to the seed during pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons and subsequently marine small fish (MSF) mixed with rice bran to satiation level. The fish grew to 700-1000 g in 7-10 months with an FCR of 6.5:1 and production of 9.0-15.6 kg/m². In another culture trial, Diana et al. (1985) have described a poor survival of 9-13%, when they stocked seed @ 40-80 number/m² collected from wild sources and fed them on FSF for 9-11 months. There are records of backyard production of this species also (Wan et al., 1992). The major problems with traditional farming were poor & uncertain survivals, problems of getting SFs and occurrence of diseases due to poor management protocols.

Therefore for a scientific farming of this species, the major bottlenecks are the non- availability of hatchery seed, species & size specific feed, cannibalism at all stages and disease occurrence. These bottlenecks have been addressed to a greater extent by the researchers in recent and protocols for hatchery seed production and cannibalism reduction have been simplified to a greater extent with the availability of commercial pellet diets to boost its farming. Vietnam has been pioneer in the production of farmed striped murrel in recent, following new initiatives and based on its success, neighbouring countries such as Indonesia, Camobodia, Thailand, Myanmar, etc have also taken initiatives to boost production of this high value species in their countries.

1.1. What is Earth?

The Earth is a layered body consisting of three parts: core, mantle, and crust. The radius of the Earth is nearly 6370 km of which crust, mantle and core share a depth of 40, 2850 and 3480 km, respectively (Figure 1.1). Exterior of the Earth contains the outer lithosphere which is surrounded (70% of surface) by water (hydrosphere). Solid and liquid sphere are surrounded by gas (atmosphere). The atmosphere is of 320 km above the lithosphere / hydrosphere. It is believed that there is a progressive increase in temperature with depth, if one goes to the core from the Earth crust. There is a rise of approximately about 1°F for every 64 feet depth on an average. Therefore, one could imagine that the interior of the earth is in molten condition.

Introduction

Climate smart agriculture (CSA) refers to the incorporation of adaptation and mitigation practices in agriculture that enhances the system-resistance and recovery-mechanism against climatic hazards. Climatic hazards / disturbances include drought, flood, heat / cold wave, erratic precipitation, sudden dry spell etc. In nutshell, CSA is the ability of the system to bounce back. It can also be explained as an approach to build-up resilience of agricultural systems, to increase adaptive capacities of farming communities to climate change and variability, and to ensure food security (Prasad et al., 2015).

Climate change can be defined as a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting of an extended period, typically three decades or longer (Pathak et al., 2014; NAAS, 2013, Bhattacharyya et al., 2016). The surface air temperature, sea level rise, occurrence of extreme events (heat wave, cyclone, flash flood) is the direct evidences of climate change. The annual average surface temperature has increased by 0.87^°C in 100 years (IPCC, 2018). Recent report revealed that more than 90% of Northern Hemisphere land areas outside the tropics showed at least 1^°C above average, whereas temperatures were less extreme in Southern Hemisphere. Importantly, temperatures were above normal over most of the ocean areas. Global sea level rose to about 15 mm, in between November (2014) and February (2016), as a result of ElNino, which was well above the post-1993 trend of 3.0-3.5 mm year^-1. However, Indian summer monsoon rainfall since 1901 to 2012 showed no long-term trends, with some regional changes. Importantly, night temperatures have increased sharply during recent years, which couple with erratic precipitation could significantly affect agricultural production. The fifth IPCC (IPCC, 2014) reports clearly brought out global and regional impacts of climate change on Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). South Asia has been characterized as one of the most vulnerable regions. Impacts of climate change witnessed all over the world; however, countries like India is more vulnerable because of its huge population primary dependent on agriculture for livelihood, predominance of small and marginal farmers, and fragmented land holding.

Introduction

Climate change refers to change of weather variables over a long period of time. The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defined climate change as a “change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer”. This may occur due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. The change may be in the form of magnitude or variability of a single or multiple weather variables or weather phenomena. Global shift in temperature and precipitation pattern as well as increasing frequency of extreme weather events are consequence of climate change which is perceived over several decades. Climate change is indeed increasingly recognized as a considerable risk to agriculture particularly with respect to direct impact on crop production and yield stability (Barzman, 2015).

Effect of Climate Change in Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases

Global warming as the resultant of climate change has become an issue of serious concern worldwide for existence of life on the earth. Over past hundred years, the global temperature has increased by 0.8⁰C and is expected to reach 1.1-5.4⁰C by the end of next century. Major factors affecting the global warming and the climate change is the concentration of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. On the other hand, CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere has increased drastically from 280 ppm to 370 ppm and is likely to be doubled in 2100 (IPCC, 2007).

Introduction

Environmental friendly Insect Pest Management (IPM) relies on preventive rather than reactive strategies. The cropping program should focus primarily on preventive practices above and below ground such as crop management and soil management to build the farm’s natural defenses. Reactive management viz., reactive inputs for pest management and reactive inputs to reduce plant stress are reserved for problems not solved by the preventive or planned strategiesfor supplemental pest management practices and planned supplemental soil practices to reduce crop stress and/or optimize yield and crop quality. Earlier IPM models are designed from the scientific perspective with a focus on ecological, environmental friendly and evolutionary aspects of pest management to reduce or prevent economic losses.There are four major components in the new environmentally pest management model that address various pest management options, the knowledge, and resources the grower has to address the pest issue, planning and organization of information to take appropriate management actions, and maintaining good communication to acquire and disseminate knowledge about pests and their management. These models mainly address the human, environmental, social and economic factors that influence food production.

Introduction

The basic needs of life are food, clothing and shelter. In the 21^st century a fourth need added to mankind is energy. According to the laws of physics, energy is defined as capacity to do work. Energy, economics and the environment are mutually dependent. Also, there is very close relationship between agriculture and energy. The level and pattern of energy use in agricultural production system depends on variety of agronomic and socio-economic factors. Energy use in agriculture encouraged maximization of yields from limited available arable land, minimization of labour intensive operations and improving standard of living. Efficient and effective energy use in agriculture is one of the conditions for sustainable agricultural production, since it provides financial savings.

Introduction

Conservation of biodiversity and mitigation of global warming are two major environmental challenges today. In the context of climate change and the global carbon cycle, the relationship between plant biodiversity and soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration has become a subject of considerable scientific interest. The Earth’s terrestrial vegetation plays a pivotal role in the global carbon cycle. Not only are tremendous amounts of carbon stored in the terrestrial vegetation, but large amounts are also actively exchanged between vegetation and the atmosphere. Anthropogenic perturbations exacerbate the emission of CO₂ from soil caused by decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) or soil respiration (Schlesinger, 2000). The emissions are accentuated by agricultural activities including tropical deforestation and biomass burning, plowing, drainage of wetlands and low-input farming or shifting cultivation. In addition to its impact on decomposition of SOM, macroclimate has a large impact on a fraction of the SOC pool which is active. Conversion of natural to agricultural ecosystems increases maximum soil temperature and decreases soil moisture storage in the root zone, especially in drained agricultural soils (Lal, 1996). Thus, land use history has a strong impact on the SOC pool (Pulleman et al., 2000). The dynamic relationship between plant biodiversity and SOC depicts that any land use practices that increase vegetative cover, or reduce its removal, could have an influence on the global carbon budget by increasing the terrestrial carbon sink.

Introduction

The ultimate aim of agricultural research or any other related activity is to increase yield. Yield improvement could be obtained mainly through the enhancement of photosynthetic efficiency. Photosynthesis is a process in which plants convert light energy to chemical energy. Sun is the ultimate source of energy for photosynthesis. However only half of the total solar radiation (51%) reaches the earth’s surface of these only 1.2% reaches the plant canopy. Solar spectrum contains an array of other radiations which can be harmful for plant and human life. With increasing global climatic change amount of harmful radiation reaching the earth’s surface has increased and this is found to influence plant productivity. Under this scenario, protected cultivation is gaining popularity in many countries as it helps to reduce harmful effects of undesirable radiation, to allow cultivation of crops irrespective of seasons and also expand cultivation to non-traditional areas by artificially manipulating crop environment. In this context, spectral manipulation for crop production has emerged as an important area in crop production system

Introduction

Plants are considered as immobile organisms with poor sensitivity and limited ability to respond. Within the plant kingdom, Mimosa pudica (also called the sensitive plant), Drosera (sundews), Dionea muscipula (flytraps) and tendrils of climbing plants which showed rapid and purposeful movements were considered as exceptions. These sensitive plants attracted attention of outstanding pioneer researchers like Pfeffer (1845-1920), Burdon-Sanderson (1828-1905), Darwin (1809-1882), Haberlandt (1854-1945) and Bose (1858-1937). Stahlberg, 2006 reported the presence of various mechanoreceptors in such species which could trigger action potentials (APs) which activated these sudden movements.

The first extracellular recording of a plant action potential (AP) development was initiated by Charles Darwin; later, the animal physiologist Burdon-Sanderson in 1873 performed similar studies on leaves of the Venus flytrap (Dionea muscipula Ellis). Haberlandt (1884) demonstrated that phloem strands were the actual paths for excitation by destroying the external, non-woody part of vascular bundles. This notion was confirmed in Mimosa and other plant species by a number of recent studies. Houwink (1935) carried out experiments with two species of Vitis (grape) and obtained electrical fluctuations which was similar and comparable with the action potentials he obtained with Mimosa. In 1907, Bose, used a D’arsonval galvanometer to demonstrate propagating electrical effects in different genera of plants such as Ficus, Artocarpus, Cucurbita, Corchorus, “fern” etc. APs have their largest amplitude in phloem sieve cells and cells adjacent to this area (Sibaoka, 1969). Other studies found that AP-like signals are propagated with equal rate and amplitude throughout the cells of vascular bundles.

Bone is the only tissue in the body able to heal without microscopical scarring. On the other hand fracture healing is a slow process causing long immobilization periods with consequently high costs for fracture healing giving rise to delayed healing, fibrous healing or non-healing with subsequent problems for both, the patient and the orthopedic surgeon. Fracture healing is complex phenomenon which involves numerous cells, regulators of cell function and biochemical interactions in the repair process. The healing potential of bone, in a fracture model is influenced by a variety of biochemical, biomechanical, cellular, hormonal and pathological mechanisms. A continuous occurring state of bone deposition, resorption and remodeling facilitates the healing process.

Biodegradable and bioinert ceramic materials such as hydroxyapatite (HA), tri-calcium phosphate (TCP), aluminum-calcium-phosphate (ALCAP) ceramics provides scaffold to support the attachment and migration of newly formed bone cells into the osseous defect and also help in formation of a vascular network through the newly formed bone. Bioceramic also act as a carrier to deliver stem cells for osteogenesis.

Specific bone-inductive proteins/growth factors can induce bone formation and healing in vivo. These morphogens are therefore, to be an ideal alternative to autogenous bone grafts. These findings initiating intensive research into bone regeneration orchestrated by putative soluble signals and lead to the discovery and identification of an entirely novel family of protein initiators collectively called the bone morphogenic protein (BMPs), which belong to transforming growth factors-ß (TGF- ß) super family. These growth factors might possess a biological activity that is site and tissue specific in the induction of bone formation. Different growth factors have been demonstrated to possess osteoinductive and fracture healing properties.

Stem cells have therapeutic potential in the realm of orthopaedic surgery because of their capacity to self-renew and differentiate into various types of mature cells and tissues, including bone. Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are pluripotent cells derived from the inner cell mass of pre-implantation embryos and represent embryonic precursor cells that give rise to any cell type in the embryo. Specifically, it has been shown that ES cells can differentiate into osteogenic cells under selective culture conditions. These osteogenic cells are capable of in vitro producing bone nodules in three dimensional scaffolds.

Bone grafting is important in the treatment of non-unions, delayed unions, joint arthrodesis, and filling of bone cavities and the replacement of bone lost due to cyst, trauma or tumours. An ideal bone graft or substitutes should be a material that is biologically inert or bioadaptable, a source of osteogenesis, having osteoconductive property, act as a mechanical support, readily available, easily adaptable to the site in term of shape and size and replaceable by the host bone. The beneficial effect upon osteogenesis of impregnating allograft bone with autogenous red marrow or autogenous citrated plasma has been the subject of current research. It is claimed that autogenous fresh bone marrow and citrated plasma are two useful contributors for osteogenesis. Biodegradable and bioadaptable ceramics like ALCAP (Aluminum-calcium-phosphorus oxide) seem to be the most promising biomaterials for correcting bone defects, since these ceramics encourage self-replacement by endogenous bone. However, use of bone grafts and ceramics with autogenous bone marrow or citrated plasma has not been investigated so far. This chapter is undertaken to evaluate bone marrow and plasma impregnated bone allografts and ceramic implants in fracture healing in goats.

Study protocol & grouping

Eighteen, locally available nondescript male/female goats of 12-14 months of age are selected on the basis of their clinical status and are kept under observation for a period of one month before start of experiment. The animals are housed in their shed and are allowed to graze in the surrounding pasture. They are kept on standard feed and fodder throughout the experiment. The animals are randomly divided into six groups consisting of three animals each. Two trials of a similar experiment are performed in each goat. A total of 36 trials are conducted to evaluate different bone grafts and ceramic implants (six trials for each group with three animals each): Group A, frozen decalcified allogenic bone grafts; Group B, frozen decalcified allograft impregnated with autogenous bone marrow (composite bone graft); Group C, frozen decalcified allograft impregnated with autogenous citrated plasma (composite bone graft); Group D, ALCAP ceramics; Group E, ALCAP ceramics impregnated with autogenous bone marrow; Group F, ALCAP ceramics impregnated with autogenous citrated plasma.

Boron (B) de?ciency has been realized as the second most important micronutrient constraint in crop production after that of Zn in the world (Ahmed et al., 2012). However, in Nepal, B de?ciency is more wide-spread than Zn de?ciency, as 80 to 90% of soil samples were de?cient in B, 20 to 50% in Zn and 10 to 15% in Mo (Anderson, 2007). In India, B de?ciency has increased from 2% of the soil samples de?cient in B in 1980s (Katyal and Vlek, 1995) to 52% soil samples in 2000s (Singh, 2012). Total B content in Indian soils varies from 7 to 630 mg kg^–1 soil (Kanwar, 1976); being the highest in arid regions of the country and the lowest in wet humid regions of the country (Behera et al., 2009; Prasad et al., 2014). Boron de?ciency is most in the heavy rainfall areas of Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Karnataka and the eastern states of Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh states of India (Fig.13.1). The wide-spread de?ciency of B in India can be seen from the fact that B fertilization recorded the highest bene?t : cost (B : C) ratio in rice–wheat cropping system at Palampur (Himachal Pradesh), Ludhiana (Punjab), Faizabad, Modipuram and Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) and in rice–rice cropping system at Maruteru (Andhra Pradesh), Karjat (Maharashtra) and Jorhat (Asom) (Singh and Goswami, 2014). Response of wheat to B fertilization is also reported from Bangladesh (Halder et al, 2007).

7.1. Summary of Findings

This study dealing with the examination of various advantages of commodity futures market to farmers, RMC traders and RMC officials along with the level of awareness about this market among these selected beneficiaries is presented in brief. This chapter summarizes the findings. It begins with the interpretation of the significant findings derived from both secondary and primary analysis. This is followed by suggestions, the section on major contributions of the present study to the existing body of knowledge, on the role of commodity futures market in agricultural development of the state.

Murray (1926) and Pirie (1927) first described Listeria independently. In India, animal listeriosis in sheep was first reported by Mahajan (1936) in Andhra Pradesh.

Robert Koch first isolated Erysipelothrix in 1876 from a mouse he inoculated with putrefying blood. Koch initially named the bacterium “Bacillus of mouse septicemia”. Pasteur and Dumas (1882) first isolated Erysipelothrix from the infected pigs. Friedrich Loffler (1886) first experimentally produced the infection in pigs. Rosenbach (1909) first described human erysipeloid. The nomenclature of the bacterium is changed several times and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was finally accepted by the scientific community in 1966. The name is originated from Greek words such as ‘erysipelas’ (red skin), ‘trix’ (hair), ‘rhusius’ (reddening) and ‘pathus’ (disease).

The word ‘Mycoplasma’ is originated from the Greek word mykes (fungus) and plasma (formed). It was first used by Albert Bernhard Frank (1889), a German biologist. He thought it was a fungus. An older name for Mycoplasma was pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO), referring to organisms similar to the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP).It was later found that the fungus-like growth pattern of Mycoplasma mycoides is unique to the species. It was first isolated in 1898 by Edmond Nocard and E. Roux from bovine lungs. Mycoplasma pneumoniae was considered as a virus previously. Eaton and his co-workers cultured the causative agent of human primary atypical pneumonia (PAP) or ‘walking pneumonia’. It was known as ‘Eaton’s agent’. In the early 1960s, Leonard Hayflick, in Philadelphia, was first to isolate and cultivate the causative agent of primary atypical pneumonia and identified the agent as a Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

Properties of genus

1 Morphology: Mycoplasma have no cell wall and therefore are resistant to the antibiotics used to inhibit the cell wall synthesis like penicillin, cephalosporin and vancomycin. The bacteria are the smallest prokaryote (0.3-0.8µm). They are pleomorphic due to absence of the rigid cell wall. The different shapes include ring, globules, filaments and elementary bodies. Due to their plasticity in shape and size, they can be passed through the membrane filter with pore size of 0.45µm. The cell membrane is constituted of trilaminar structure enriched with phosphoprotein, lipoprotein, glycolipid, phospholipid and sterol. So Mycoplasma require sterol for their growth.

In the physical methods of preservation, fruits and vegetables are preserved by (i) adding heat, (ii) removing moisture content of produce to prevent spoilage and (iii) irradiated by Gama rays which kill the microorganisms responsible for spoilage of foods. These methods are described below.

Processing and Preservation by Adding Heat or Heating

In this method, heat treatment is given to destroy the microorganisms which are responsible for spoilage of the produce. Heat treatment is given by many methods.

Fungi

Definition

Fungi are eukaryotic, spore bearing, achlorophyllus, heterotrophic and thallophytic plants with varied forms and habitats, representing heterothallic or homothallic types of sexuality with characteristic sexual and /or asexual means of reproduction without tissue differentiation.

Most of the insect pest and disease (insects, mites, diseases, nematodes, etc.) management problems arise from relying entirely on pesticides for control. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a strategy that draws on a range of management tools with the goal of using the least ecologically disruptive techniques to manage pests within economically acceptable levels. IPM considers the production system in a holistic manner and looks at all aspects of the farming enterprise as potentially increasing or decreasing pest numbers and, where possible, enhancing the activities that reduce these pest populations.

Strategy for Integrated Pest and Disease Management

The basic IPM strategy involves routine crop monitoring to ensure that pesticides are only applied when needed, as well as to ensure appropriate timing of pesticide applications. The most developed bio-intensive IPM relies primarily on beneficial organisms to manage insect pests. When greater pest control is needed, interventions chosen are complementary to the survival of these beneficial organisms. As other pests are incorporated more and more prevention strategies are adopted which reduces the need for direct control practices.