eChapters

2.1. Seed

Defined as a mature ovule or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, reserve food and a protective cover.

3.1. Seed generation system

Seed multiplication is nothing but production of a particular class of seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage.

4.1. Seed policy

4.1.1. Seed policies formulated for governing seed quality control system

5.1. Seed village

Compact area approach in which the whole village is involved in seed production.

Concept is a win-win model (Deepak Mullick)

6.1. Genetic principles

6.1.1. Maintenance of genetic purity during seed production

1. Steps suggested by Home (1953)

10.1. Seed Act (1966) and Seed Rules

To ensure the availability of quality seeds, GOI has enacted Seed Act in October 1966 and Seed Rules in September 1968.

Seed Act passed by the Indian Parliament in 1966.

2.1. Causes of pest outbreak

Activity of human beings which upsets biotic balance of ecosystem is prime cause for pest outbreak.

3.1. Paddy

3.1.1. Thrips: Stenchaetothrips biformis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

4.1. Black gram, green gram, lablab and cowpea

4.1.1. Bean aphid: Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

1. Host range: Groundnut, redgram, peas, beans, safflower, lablab, niger

5.1. Groundnut

5.1.1. Aphids - Aphis craccivora (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

6.1. Cotton

6.1.1. Leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)

7.1. Early shoot borer: Chiloinfuscatellus snellen

1. Damage symptoms

8.1. Definition

Managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools to minimize economic, health, and environmental risks.

9.1. Plant quarantine

Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and between states within the country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and diseases in areas where they do not exist.

Plant quarantine regulatory measures are operative through the Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1914 (Act 2 of 1914) in the country.

10.1. Classification of pesticides

10.1.1. Based on organisms

Semiochemicals are chemical substances that mediate communication between organisms.

Classified into pheromones (intra specific semiochemicals) and allelochemicals (inter specific semiochemicals).

12.1. Sprayers

Atomizes spray fluid into a small droplets and eject it with little force for distributing it properly.

Regulates amount of pesticide to avoid excessive application that is wasteful or harmful.

13.1. Storage pests

13.1.1. Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae, S. zeamais, S. granarius

1. Host range: Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, paddy.

1.1. Definition

Alteration in one or more of physiological processes culminating in a loss of coordination of energy utilization in a plant as a result of the continuous irritation due to presence or absence of some factor or agent.

A plant is said to be diseased when there is a harmful deviation from normal functioning of physiological process (Federation of British Plant Pathologists, 1973).

2.1. Types of plant diseases

2.1.1. Types of infection

1. Localized diseases

Methods for plant diseases control were first classified by Whetzel (1929) into exclusion, eradication, protection and immunization.

Two more principles - avoidance and therapy were created (NAS, 1968).

4.1. Physical methods

Employed for reduction or elimination of primary inoculums that may be present in seed, soil or planting material.

5.1. Cultural methods

5.1.1. Eradication

Elimination of pathogen after it has become established in the area where host is growing.

6.1. Fungicides

Fungicide originated from two latin words viz., fungus and caedo.

Word caedo means to kill.

Fungicide is a chemical agent which has the ability to reduce or prevent the damage caused to plants and their products.

Physical agents like ultra violet light and heat should also be considered as fungicides.

Antisporulant and fungistatic compounds do not kill the fungi, they are included under the broad term fungicide

7.1. Rice

7.1.1. Blast

Magnaporthe oryzae (formerly Magnaporthe grisea) anamorph: (Pyricularia oryzae)

8.1. Redgram

8.1.1. Wilt: Fusarium udum

1. Symptoms

9.1. Groundnut

9.1.1. Early leaf spot: Cercospora arachidicola

1. Symptoms

10.1. Sugarcane

10.1.1. Yellow leaf disease

1. Vector: Melanaphis sacchari , Rhopalosiphum maidis

2. Symptoms

11.1. Storage fungi

Store fungi include all species of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium.

Aspergillus flavus, A. candidus, A. niger, A. parasiticus, A. repens, A. rubber, A. versicolor, etc. Penicillia etc

Penicillia are more prevalent in cooler climate.

1.1. Above ground feeders

1.1.1. Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs.

Seed gall nematode: Anguina tritici

Leaf and bud neamtode: Aphelenchoides

Stem and bulb nematode: Ditylenchus

2.1. Rice

2.1.1. Rice root knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola)

1. Symptoms

3.1. Definition

Systems approach to reduce nematode to tolerable levels through predators and parasites, genetically resistant hosts, natural environmental modifications and appropriate nematicides.

1.1. Weeds

Plants that are unwanted in a given situation and may be harmful, dangerous or economically detrimental.

Weed invasion ranked second to habitat loss in causing biodiversity decline.

Major threat to both the productivity of land and water and integrity of natural ecosystems.

2.1. Based on life span

2.1.1. Annual weeds

3.1. Cereals and millets

3.1.1. Rice

1. Major weeds

Grasses

Bioagents like insects, pathogens etc., and other animals are used either to reduce growth or kill weeds.

But, not possible to eradicate weeds.

1.1. Farm business management

Concerned with resource allocation.

Useful to impart knowledge and skill for optimizing the resource use and maximizing profit.

2.1. Principles

Six basic principles.

2.1.1. Principle of variable proportions or laws of returns

Helps in deciding optimum amount of an input needs to be applied for cultivation of a particular crop or enterprise.

Law of diminishing returns will operate.

Classification of the farming systems based on following criteria

Available natural resources, include water, land, grazing areas and forest; climate especially altitude; landscape including slope; farm size, tenure and organization.

Dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods, include field crops, livestock, trees, aquaculture, hunting and gathering, processing and off-farm activities.

4.1. Agricultural production economics

An applied science, wherein principles of choice are applied to use of land, labour, capital and management in farming.

Explains conditions under which profit and output can be maximized and cost and use of physical inputs can be minimized.

5.1. Cost concepts

Cost refers to the money value of effort extended or sacrifice made in producing an article or rendering a service or achieving a specific purpose.

Expenses incurred in organizing and carrying out production process.

Includes outlays of funds for inputs and services.

Total costs: Money value of all inputs used in the production process.