eChapters

Ornamental horticulture is the branch of horticulture concerned with cultivating plants of all kinds for show and to satisfy the eye rather than for food (Bailey, 1960). It includes floriculture, the culture of trees for shades, display and landscape gardening. Gill (1988) defined taxonomy as a study aimed at producing a system of classification of biological organisms, which best reflects the totality of their similarities and differences. According to
him, there are three inter-related aspects of taxonomy namely: Identification, Nomenclature and Classification. Identification deals with the determination of a taxon as being identical or similar to another and already known organisms. Nomenclature on the other hand has to do with determination of the correct name for the organisms and is governed by International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. It permits only a single valid name for each plant. Classification is the placing of plants in groups or categories according to particular plan or system.
The objectives of taxonomy are to provide: a convenient method of identifying, naming and describing plants, a classification which as far as possible express the natural relationships of organisms, detect evolution at work, discovering its processes and interpreting its results, an inventory of plant resources-local, regional and continental and to provide an integrating and unifying role in the training of biology.

Introduction to Animal behavior
The tale of modern humans is a captivating narrative that begins around 200,000 years ago, marked by the practices of gathering and hunting wild animals. The advent of domestication heralded a new era, paving the way for diverse human societies, cultures, and traditions in what is known as the Neolithic transition. Domestication, an evolutionary process driven by genetic changes through artificial selection for human-beneficial traits
and natural selection in captivity over numerous generations, reshaped the relationship between humans and animals. This intricate dance of evolution, genetics, and human ingenuity gave rise to an array of species adapted to human care and companionship. Fitness, in this context, refers to an animal’s ability to thrive in close quarters with humans, conspecifics, and other animals, consume readily available food, breed successfully in captivity, and elicit human care in an anthropogenic setting. This adaptation process led to phenotypes characterized by reduced “fight or flight” responses, increased social tolerance, and less selectivity, enabling efficient use of available resources. Traits such as early sexual maturity, less seasonality in breeding, and, occasionally, pedomorphism—the retention of juvenile, playful behavior into adulthood—further illustrate the transformative effects of domestication.For terrestrial animals, three primary domestication routes have been identified: the commensal pathway, the prey pathway, and the direct route. In the commensal pathway, animals played a significant role in their domestication. Attracted by human waste, they initially settled in artificial environments, eventually forming mutually beneficial relationships with humans. Species such as the chicken (Gallus domesticus), cat (Felis catus), and dog (Canis familiaris) followed this pathway.

Indian poultry industry has made a fastest and remarkable growth ever since its inception and is presently emerging as a sunrise sector with a growth rate of 6-8 percent per annum. Today India is third largest producer of chicken egg and fifth largest producer of broilers/chicken meat in the world (Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT), 2018), with estimated production of 103.3 billion numbers eggs and 4.06 million tonnes of poultry meat in year 2018-19. Poultry sector contributes Rs.1347.57 billion in total output of livestock sector which hold 12.91 percent share (Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics (BAHS, 2019). The Indian poultry market was worth Rs.1,750 billion in 2018 and was worth Rs. 2,049 billion in 2019. The market is further projected to reach Rs. 4,340 billion by 2024, growing at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 16.2 percent during 2019-2024 (www.indianmirror.com). The major growth drivers for the sector are increasing incomes coupled by changing food habits, large un-penetrated market, growth in the processing sector, and awareness of the consumer about the safe and hygienic poultry products. The sector has provided direct employment to 40 lakh and indirect employment to 2.5 crore people (Khan, 2019). The annual per capita availability of poultry products has increased from 5 eggs and 400 gram chicken in 1950 to 79 eggs and 3.21 kg chicken in 2019. However, it is far below then recommended consumption of 180 eggs and 10.8 kg poultry meat per person per annum by Indian Council of Medical Research.

Project Formulation and Finance
Project Formulation and Finance involves two key aspects of project
management: developing the project’s structure and ensuring it has the necessary financial resources. Here’s a closer look at each part:
1. Project Formulation: This is the initial phase where you define the project, including its scope, objectives, and outcomes. It involves identifying stakeholders, setting goals, and determining the resources required. Effective project formulation ensures that the project is feasible, aligns with organizational strategy, and addresses the stakeholders’ needs.
2. Project Finance: This aspect focuses on securing the financial resources needed to execute the project. It includes planning the budget, analyzing investment requirements, and managing financial risks. Financing strategies might involve obtaining funds through loans, equity, grants, or other financial instruments. This phase also covers the assessment of financial viability and the preparation of financial forecasts to ensure that the project is economically sustainable.

Nutrition plays a vital role in the health, well-being and longevity of animals. The science behind nutrition encompasses the dietary needs of animals and how these needs are met through various forms of food/ feed, supplements and feed additives. A well-balanced diet is fundamental to the health of both domesticated and wild animals. Veterinary nutrition takes into account the physiology, biology and pathology of animals, aiming to optimize their health, performance and longevity through the right nutritional approaches. Proper nutritional management is crucial not only for growth and reproduction but also for disease prevention and recovery. Veterinary nutrition encompasses understanding metabolic and nutritional disorders, gastrointestinal disturbances, metabolic imbalances and systemic conditions. It focuses on providing animals with balanced diets to meet their physiological needs. The right blend of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals supports growth, immune function and production. Deficiencies or excesses in nutrition can lead to disorders such as metabolic imbalances, gastrointestinal disturbances, and organ dysfunction. Understanding nutritional science enables veterinarians to address and prevent conditions like ketosis, fatty liver, and etabolic acidosis. Veterinary nutrition and the understanding of associated metabolic and systemic disorders are essential for ensuring animal health and productivity. From preventing nutritional deficiencies to managing complex metabolic conditions, veterinarians play a critical role in maintaining the wellbeing of animals and poultry. By addressing these challenges through research, innovation, and education, we can ensure sustainable animal husbandry and improved welfare.

Dr Chauhan is a name that resonates with compassion, innovation, and an unyielding commitment to animal welfare. With a career spanning over three decades, he has emerged as a towering figure in the field of veterinary medicine, touching the lives of animals and humans alike through his groundbreaking work and empathetic approach. His exceptional dedication to the health and well-being of cows has earned him the affectionate nickname “Cowpathy Man,” a testament to his pioneering efforts in bovine healthcare, conservation of indigenous cows and his relentless advocacy for these gentle creatures.
From a young age, Dr. Chauhan displayed an innate connection with animals. Growing up in Aligarh, U. P. surrounded by rural landscapes and farm animals, he developed a deep appreciation for the role of cows in sustaining communities. This early bond shaped his career path, guiding him toward Veterinary Medicine with a special focus on bovine health. After earning his veterinary degree, he embarked on a journey that would not only establish him as a leading expert in the field but also as a passionate advocate for the humane treatment of animals.
Dr. Chauhan quickly rose to prominence due to his innovative approach to Veterinary care. While he treated animals of all kinds, his work with cows became the cornerstone of his career. Recognizing the cultural, economic, and ecological significance of these animals, he delved into research on common bovine diseases, nutrition, and sustainable farming practices. His dedication led to the development of innovative diagnostic protocols, treatment and preventive measures, improving the health and productivity of cows across the region.

Introduction
Entrepreneurial communication is an action intended to forge a relationship with the other party in order to affect their interest, attitude, and behavior. This is due to the fact that it is never done without considering how it would affect both qualitative and quantitative outcomes. A person can transmit or receive information about another person’s needs, wants, perceptions, knowledge, or emotional states through the act of communicating. In the context of entrepreneurship, communication refers to a set of procedures for exchanging knowledge and understandings between individuals who are engaged in a predetermined or novel situation.
Every interaction that takes place during communication involves a shift and is dynamic. Since it is dependent on interaction and a transaction between speakers, communication cannot be understood s a straightforward process of transmission. The planned actions and activities are not hindered because the emission and reception occur simultaneously, with h the transmitter acting as both a receiver and a transmitter. The process of sending and receiving signals as knowledge, feelings, emotions, skills, talents, attitudes, activities, etc. is known as entrepreneurial communication.
In terms of information sharing about events, situations, involvement, impact, adaptation, etc., it is built on interactions between business owners, educators, and educated youth.

The magnitude and trajectory of changes in ecosystem services and functioning have been as conspicuous as has never been until before 1980’s in this subcontinent. Both the services and resilience of agro-ecosystem, the pivotal for agricultural production and security have been disrupted in the name of modernization of agriculture as well as commercialization.
The impact of green revolution in India, that look place during 1960’s and 1970’s have started eroding very fast and as the consequence of this green revolution, the ground water depletion has gone to the worst, it is contaminated either. 40 % of ground water in Punjab has been moderately or severely contaminated leaving agriculture a coercive proposition both from economic and ecological perspective. 10-15 tonnes of top soil are being eroded per hectare per year in its wrong welcoming to farm mechanization process. Most of the highly yielding varieties which did the ‘magic revolution’ now has been fatigued or segregated either. The social-ecological impacts on agriculture perhaps have been both disruptive and deleterious. Due to unabated fragmentation of holding which again is tiny in size, has initiated another problem of resource and energy wastage, bad enough to add to an ecological disruptions.
With a non-denial to the gleaming success of green revolution, which ensured us with much awaited food security and self-reliance, has its intrinsic weakness and coercion as well.

1.1 Carbohydrates Biochemistry
Carbohydrates are essential for life, both in plants and in animals. They are organic chemical compounds made of C, H, and O. These elements get arranged in different ways so that several simple, and stored complex compounds (starch in plants and glycogen in animals) are available in abundance on the Earth. They are involved in enormous biological and nonbiological functions. Their biological functions, found in all living things, are the chief energy source for men and animals, even for herbivorous fishlike carp and rohu fingerlings. Carbohydrates are also essential structural components like nucleic acids, containing genetic information. One must recognize the protective function in cells, plants, and human health management. Even bacteria form a glycocalyx and biofilm for protection. Knowledge about their involvement in blood groups helped to identify universal donors, universal recipients, and genuine donors for the recipient to save a life. Carbohydrates are found as a storage structure for energy in emergency conditions.
Upon combustion, they yield carbon dioxide and water. Autotrophs (plants) synthesize them from carbon dioxide and water to grow, reproduce, and store, but heterotrophs (humans and other animals) use them, too. In plants, they occur as fibers, supporting structures, and simple sugars. The plant carbohydrates are used for preparing adhesives, fermentation, foods, and papers. Cotton fibers are used to make clothes to cover the body and protect humans and animals against adverse climatic conditions.

Human migration is the movement of people from one area to another with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new site (geographic region). The movement frequently happens across great distances and from one nation to another, although internal migration (inside a single country) is also feasible; fact, this is the major type of human migration worldwide. Migration is typically connected with stronger human capital at both individual and household level, and with better access to migration networks. Age is also essential for both job and non-work migration. People may travel as individuals, in family groupings or in big groups. There are four primary modes of migration: invasion, conquest, colonization and immigration/ emigration (Daylit et al., 2022).
Individuals migrating from their home owing to forced displacement (such as a natural catastrophe or civil conflict) may be classified as displaced individuals or, if staying in the home nation, internally-displaced persons. A person who seeks shelter in another nation may, if the reason for leaving the home country is political, religious, or another type of persecution, submit a formal application to that country where protection is sought and is then commonly characterized as an asylum seeker. If this application is successful this person’s legal status becomes that of a refugee.
In modern times, migration governance has grown strongly tied with state sovereignty. States maintain the right of deciding on the admission and stay of nonnationals since migration directly impacts some of the distinguishing qualities of a State (Mawire et al., 2020).

The North Eastern region of India is a gift of nature having rich cultural heritage and biodiversity reigning under diversified agro-climatic conditions. The region, which is only 7.76 percent of the geographic area of the country, accounts for 25.11 percent of its forest cover (Forest Survey of India, 2008). For its richness in biodiversity, the region has been identified as one of the 18 biodiversity hot spots of the world. The region is inhabited by many important tribes, which are about 27 percent of the population of the region. An important feature of the land use in the region is prevalence of shifting cultivation, locally called jhum, in almost all the states. Shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture is the main form of agriculture. It involves clearing of vegetation and then slashing and burning the plant parts including debris. Shifting cultivation, beside an agricultural practice, is also an integral part of their ethno-cultural life style. With the rising population, the cycle of shifting cultivation has reduced to less than 5 years, resulting in degradation of forest in these areas. After 2-3 years of cropping, the land loses its fertility and farmers shift to another piece of forested land for cultivation.
The Himalaya and adjacent hill ranges in the North East present a complex array of physical and geo-political environment, well known for geo-hydrological, biological, aesthetic and cultural values. Although the main Himalaya and the hills of North East have a number of similarities in their physiography and ecology, they differ inherently in terms of origin and evolution. The former ranges, geologically young and tectonically active, were formed as a result of massive collision between Eurasia and the north ward drifting Indian plate, nearly 40 million years ago. As the Indian plate is still moving northward, the Himalayan ranges continue to be pushed upwards at the rate of about 5cm/ year.
Agriculture and animal husbandry have been an age old traditional land use practices practices in the Indian Himalayan Region. Traditional millets, cereals, pulses along with horticulture crops are grown in many areas. In Himachal Pradesh, with good network of roads, horticultural crops have been a major source of revenue. It is established that at least seven units of forest are needed to sustain one unit of agriculture in the mountains.

From the dawn of settled agriculture, the rhythm of seasons and the vagaries of weather have dictated the fortunes of human societies. The earliest farmers were keen observers of the skies, their very survival intricately linked to predicting rainfall, temperature fluctuations, and the onset of frost. This fundamental dependence fostered the nascent field of agricultural meteorology, an art and science passed down through generations, relying on empirical knowledge and local wisdom. Think of the ancient civilizations that timed their planting cycles with the flooding of rivers, or the traditional weather lore that guided farmers on when to sow and harvest. Even today, this fundamental understanding remains crucial, forming the bedrock upon which modern agricultural meteorology is built (Fig.1.1).  However, the 21st century presents agricultural systems with unprecedented complexities. The looming shadow of climate change manifests in increasingly erratic weather patterns: intensified heatwaves scorching crops, prolonged droughts decimating livestock, and more frequent and severe floods inundating arable land. These changes disrupt traditional agricultural practices, threaten yields, and exacerbate food insecurity, particularly in vulnerable regions. The comfortable predictability of the past is eroding, demanding a far more sophisticated and proactive approach than ever before.

Escalating chaos and entropy in ecosystem poses threats to resilience and stability
Since the beginning of industrial revolution in 18th century onwards and until today, the chronicle of civilizations depicts more horrible consequences that it we predicted. Ecological metamorphosis hag gone the dare devil way to deny the quiet and placid pathway of evolution as delineated by Charles Darwin, it has become more serendipitous, ephemeral and phenomenal as well. The changes are becoming non-linear in ecosystem, far away from simple harmonic motion. Bay of Bengal has become the global capital of depression followed by severe cyclonic storms, good enough to make the resilience of ecosystem unexpectedly disrupted and fragile. Continuous perturbation and chaos lead to upscaling entropy and disorder. An analogy can take a serpentine look like Cyclone-destruction of mangrove-flood-crop damage-migration-ingroup vs outgroup conflict and chaos.
When uncertainty and unpredictability cripples into system deeper, we need or it should be our choice to take the help of AI and machine learning. Peoples soft perceptions need to undergo a quantification process for better understanding of their role-contribution-mainstreaming process and as a result the tools like ANN, FCM, AHP, ARIMA would be more effective and inevitable.
From history data to present assessment and from assessed algorithm to practiced scenario, there will be more mathematics and strategy of analysis. In the beginning of eco-system analysis, we had history data only. Then we get busy to go for status report kind of data clubbing, cataloguing, and networking. Today we can underscore the application of AI in futuristic approach to ecosystem analysis including intervention plan and scenario analysis. We can quantify what amount of uncertainty an individual can sustain, confront and adapt to. For the honey collectors in Sundarbans, how many deaths and fear to die, as an abrupt attack by tigers can be adaptable to the poor collectors are of million dollars’ question.

Aquaculture is practiced in the majority of countries worldwide, however the significance of water quality standards remains largely unknown to farmers and new aqua entrepreneurs. They may achieve maximum fish production with minimal input costs if they are trained and stay up to date on water quality management in the aquatic ecosystem. The water quality categorised into three main of metrics as physical, chemical, and biological parameters. Dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), free carbon dioxide (CO2), pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, alkalinity, bacterial density primary productivity (chl a), plankton population, etc. play a significant role for fish production. However, even small variations in certain physical and chemical parameters—particularly pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen (DO)—can cause stress in the animals, which may manifest as physiological changes, reduced reproductive capability, and altered behavior. Water parameters such as alkalinity and hardness are relatively stable, whereas others like pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and temperature fluctuate regularly. Proper maintenance and monitoring of these water quality parameters in aquatic environments support fish health and enhance fish production. On the other hand, variability in dissolved ammonia, nitrites, and nutrients like nitrate significantly affects aquaculture production. It has also been observed that high feeding rates in aquafarms create eutrophic conditions in water bodies, leading to substantial algal blooms. These blooms are responsible for die-offs, and as a result, ammonia levels in the ponds rise rapidly. The environmental factors responsible for generating high ammoniacal concentrations may also lead to increased nitrite concentration in aquafarm. Both ammonia and nitrite are directly toxic or sublethal cultured aqua animals, leading to reduced resistance to diseases. In aquaculture system, ammonia is produced through the ammonification process, which occurs when organic matter is broken down by the microbial community. However, this decomposition also reduces dissolved oxygen levels in the system. Low dissolved oxygen surges the toxicity of ammonia to cultured animals. Ionized ammonia (NH4 +) and hydroxide ions occurs in equilibrium with unionized aqueous ammonia solution. The unionized form of ammonia (NH3) is toxic

The entire world is now facing a crisis situation. The problems encountered to address the crisis are interactive with each other and there is no easy way to find solution. The world’s population is expected to increase by 70 per cent by the end of year 2050 and there is need to step up agricultural production for a hunger free world. Nearly 70 per cent of the fresh water is used in agriculture sector. The demand for water in agriculture sector can be judged by the fact that several thousands of litres of water is required to produce one kilogram of food grains. Whatever maybe the source from which water is drawn for agriculture, all the sources depend upon the precipitation for replenishment on continuous basis. The precipitation patterns are not consistent and are known for greater variability from season to season, year to year and from region to region. These inconsistencies are further increasing due to recent threat of climate change triggered by the atmospheric pollution. The atmospheric pollution due to increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is responsible for rise in temperatures. The rise in temperature induced changes in global pressure and wind systems. The consequence effect of it is changes in rainfall patterns, frequent occurrence of extreme weather events like floods, droughts, heat waves, intensified cyclonic activity. Rise in temperatures is increasing evaporation of water and water requirement of crops as well. There is considerable increase of the chemicals in the agriculture sector in the form of fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and weedicides how to increase crop production and protection of crops from biotic and abiotic stresses. Consequently, there is increased pollution of water resources which may adversely affect the availability of fresh water, which is essential and critical input in agriculture for increasing agricultural production. It calls for efficient utilization of water resources in agriculture. More concerted efforts are required immediately to:
• Improve water use efficiency in agriculture
• Reduce pollution of water resources
• Conservation of fresh water resources
• Reduce emissions in agriculture sector and
• Prevent dwindling of fresh water resources

1.1 Weather Forecasting
Farmers have always been at the mercy of the weather, and accurate forecasting has become an essential tool for their decision-making process. Weather forecasts play a critical role in supporting farmers’ decision-making processes, from crop planning and management to harvest planning and economic decision-making. Crop planning and management is one of the key areas where weather forecasts are crucial. Farmers use weather forecasts to determine the best time to plant seeds, taking into account temperature, moisture, and sunlight requirements. This enables them to choose crops that are suitable for the predicted weather conditions. Additionally, forecasts help farmers optimize irrigation, reducing water waste and ensuring crops receive adequate moisture (Fig.1.1).
Weather forecasts also help farmers mitigate weather-related risks. Extreme weather events like floods, droughts, heat waves, and storms can have devastating effects on crops. Accurate forecasts enable farmers to prepare for and respond to these events, reducing crop damage and loss. For instance, forecasts help farmers take measures to protect crops from frost and freeze damage, which can be catastrophic for certain crops.

Agricultural sciences stand at the forefront of human progress, addressing some of the world’s most pressing challenges - from ensuring global food security to mitigating the effects of climate change. This multidisciplinary field encompasses the study of crop production, animal husbandry, soil science, agrometeorology, biotechnology, and agricultural economics, all working collectively to improve farming systems and resource management. With the global population projected to surpass 9 billion by 2050, agricultural sciences hold the key to producing more food sustainably while minimizing the environmental footprint of agriculture. However, the effectiveness of agricultural sciences in meeting these challenges depends not only on the quality of research produced but also on the systems that govern how this research is evaluated, disseminated, and applied.
One of the most significant drivers of academic and professional success in agricultural sciences is the journal rating system. These systems serve as benchmarks for evaluating the quality and impact of scholarly publications, influencing funding decisions, academic promotions, and research collaborations. A Research Evaluation System is a structured framework or methodology used to assess and measure the quality, impact, and relevance of research activities, outputs, and outcomes. These systems are crucial in academia, industry, and research institutions to ensure that resources are used effectively and that research aligns with organizational or societal goals. The evaluation of performance in scientific research at any level - whether at the individual, institutional, research council or country level – is not easy. Traditionally, research evaluation at the individual and institutional levels has depended largely on peer opinion, but with the rapid growth of science over the last century and the availability of databases and scientometric techniques, quantitative indicators have gained importance. Yet, the methodologies underlying these rating systems are often opaque, biased, and narrowly focused on quantitative metrics such as citation counts and impact factors. Such limitations create barriers for researchers from underrepresented regions and disciplines, perpetuating global disparities in scientific research and its application. Both peer review and metrics are subject to flaws, more so in India because of the way they are used. Government agencies, funding bodies and academic and research institutions in India suffer from the impact factor and h-index syndrome. The uninformed use of indicators such as average and cumulative impact factors and the arbitrary criteria stipulated by some agencies

Agriculture is the backbone of rural livelihoods in many developing countries, providing employment, income, and food security for millions of people. However, agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods are increasingly vulnerable to climate-related stresses, such as droughts, floods, and extreme temperatures. The impact of climate variability and change on agricultural systems is a major concern, particularly in rural areas where people have limited capacity to adapt to these changes.
1.1. The Role of Agricultural Meteorology
Agricultural meteorology plays a critical role in supporting sustainable rural livelihoods by providing weather and climate information to farmers, policymakers, and other stakeholders. Operational agricultural meteorology involves the application of weather and climate information to improve agricultural decisionmaking, reduce climate-related risks, and enhance agricultural productivity. By integrating weather and climate information into agricultural decision-making, farmers can make informed decisions about planting, irrigation, pest management, and harvesting, ultimately leading to improved crop yields and reduced losses.
1.2. Objectives and Scope
This book aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the role of operational agricultural meteorology in supporting sustainable rural livelihoods. The book will explore the current state of agricultural meteorology, its applications, and its potential to improve agricultural productivity and reduce climate-related risks. The book will also discuss the challenges and opportunities in implementing operational agricultural meteorology, including the need for capacity building, infrastructure development, and policy support. This book is intended for a wide range of stakeholders, including:
• Agricultural meteorologists and researchers
• Policymakers and decision-makers in agriculture and rural development
• Farmers and agricultural extension agents
• Students and academics in agricultural meteorology and related fields
• Development practitioners and NGOs working in rural development and agriculture.

The climate crisis is one of the most pressing issues of our time, with farreaching consequences for global agriculture, ecosystems, economies, and societies as extreme weather events, shifting rainfall patterns, and rising temperatures threaten crop yields and food security. However, the climate crisis is not a new phenomenon. Its roots can be traced back to the Industrial Revolution, when human activities such as8 burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and land-use changes began to release large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. In the 1960s and 1970s, scientists began to sound the alarm about the potential consequences of human-induced climate change. The first climate models were developed, and researchers such as Roger Revelle and Charles David Keeling began to track the rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The 1980s saw the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which has since become the leading international body for assessing climate change science.
1.1 Climate Crisis
Despite these early warnings, the climate crisis has continued to worsen. The past decade has seen a proliferation of extreme weather events, from heat waves and droughts to floods and storms. The year 2024 was the hottest on record, with global temperatures averaging 1.55°C above pre-industrial levels (Fig. 1.1). The consequences of climate change are already being felt, from melting glaciers and sea-level rise to devastating wildfires and water scarcity.

Irrigation: definition and objectives; Importance: Function of water for plant growth, water resources and irrigation development for different crops in India.
Introduction
The effect of supplemental water application as irrigation for crop production at its needs during rainless period is well established throughout the world. The plant has life, so it requires water for growth and development to give us proper quality and good yield. Water is required for metabolic activities including solubilization, absorption and translocation on the way of biochemical processes in photosynthesis, transpiration and respiration. India with 2.4% of the world’s total area has 16% of the world’s population; but has only 4% of the total available fresh water. This clearly indicates the need for water resource development, conservation, and optimum use.
Importance of irrigation water management
The importance of irrigation in the world is well stated “Irrigation in many countries including India is an age-old art–as old as civilization – but for the whole world it is a modern science–science of survival”. The pressure of survival and the need for additional food supplies are necessitating a rapid expansion of irrigation throughout the world including India. Production and productivity of agricultural lands is primarily dependent upon the availability of irrigation water to crops. Expansion of irrigation has paid rich dividends in India. fter independence, production registered nearly 4.52 times increase from around 50.8 million tons in 1950-51 to about 230 million tons in 2007-08. This has been mainly attributed to three factors viz., high yielding cereals, expansion of area under irrigation and fertilizer use. Irrigation may be considered as the major factor of modern intensive agriculture as it aids in efficient use of costly fertilizers and other inputs besides meeting crop water needs.

1.1. Meteorology and Climatology
Atmospheric science encompasses the main subfields of meteorology and climatology that are similar in the scientific principles and phenomena being examined, but usually differ by approach, time scale, and application. Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere and weather including weather forecasting. It is an interdisciplinary science that involves observing, understanding and predicting weather conditions likely to prevail well in advance (Fig.1.1). The study of meteorology has been around thousands of years, but significant progress did not begin until the 18th century. Climatology is an atmospheric science that focuses on the processes that create weather patterns and variability. Climatology was developed as a science that is based on weather data recorded at multiple locations for comparatively longer periods, usually for 30 years or more. The study of climatology based on the physical processes is influenced by the geographical features, topography and interaction between land and oceans.
1.2. Agricultural Production
Life demands food. The production of food depends upon 4 major factors that are soil, genetic material, management practices and weather. Over a period of time, formers have evolved the cropping strategies based on their local knowledge and experience on the changes in weather within a cropping season. With rapid advances in agricultural sciences, several new varieties of crops were developed, appropriate soil and water management practices were evolved and suitable measures for reducing abiotic and biotic stresses on crops were identified. However, the recent threats of climate change due to increased atmospheric

The rhythm of life for a significant portion of the world‘s population is intrinsically linked to the cyclical patterns of monsoons. These seasonal winds, predominantly experienced within the tropics between 20° North and 20° South latitude, dictate not only the climate but also the agricultural productivity across vast regions spanning South Asia, East Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Americas. This dependence is starkly highlighted by the fact that a considerable proportion of the world‘s arable land relies solely on rainfall, with monsoons being the primary source of this vital resource. In India alone, for instance, nearly half of the agricultural land is rainfed, a figure indicative of the broader reliance on monsoonal patterns in many other nations within these regions. Agriculture, the primary source of livelihood for many in these monsooninfluenced areas, remains heavily dependent on the timely arrival and consistent behavior of these rains. The delicate dance between the monsoon and agricultural cycles has shaped cultural practices, economic structures, and societal well-being for centuries. It is estimated that a substantial percentage of global agricultural production is reliant on monsoonal rainfall, underscoring the profound impact these weather systems have on food security and economic stability worldwide. The variability of monsoons – in terms of onset, intensity, duration, and spatial distribution – directly translates into fluctuations in crop yields, impacting everything from local food supplies and farmer incomes to national economies and international trade. Beyond the economic implications, the social vulnerability associated with monsoon variability cannot be overstated. Communities that depend on rainfed agriculture are particularly susceptible to the vagaries of the monsoon. Delayed or weak monsoons can lead to widespread crop failures, resulting in food shortages, economic hardship, and even migration. Conversely, excessively heavy rains can cause devastating floods, destroying crops, infrastructure, and livelihoods. Therefore, understanding, monitoring, and, crucially, forecasting the behavior of monsoons is not merely an academic exercise but a critical necessity for ensuring the prosperity and resilience of a significant portion of the global population. This book endeavors to delve into the intricate the need for Effective Climate Guidance i.e. 'ECG' of these monsoons, exploring the complex interplay of factors that govern their behavior and highlighting the advancements in forecasting that

The yesteryear concept of employing one or two acclaimed anaesthetic drugs to produce sedation and general anaesthesia is now switching over to the era of balanced sedation and balanced anaesthesia. The theory of balanced anaesthesia entails achieving the state of general anaesthesia with the proportionate administration of a mixture of small amounts of several neuronal depressant drugs which summates the advantages of the individual drugs but not their disadvantages (Bettschart-Wolfensberger and Larenza, 2007). Knowledge about balanced anesthesia and targeted effects of drugs on neuronal pathways has started to influence veterinary anaesthetists worldwide. But there are many constraints for a vast majority of veterinary practitioners in India to follow this emerging modality of anaesthetic practice. It is almost impractical for most of them to get the assistance of a veterinary anaesthesiologist every time. So they experience complexities to deal with the pharmacological dosing of multiple component drugs of balanced anaesthetic protocols. Memorising the doses and calculating the volume of injection of multiple component drugs where the doses of some drugs has to be calculated in milligram per kilogram body weight while others have to be calculated in microgram per kilogram body weight becomes a cumbersome task for the practitioner. Moreover, many of these anaesthetic drugs are available in ampoules, and hence multiple ampoules have to be broken for every single surgery; consuming a lot of time. Wastage of the leftover anaesthetic in opened ampoules is another concern. Unavailability of some drugs at some areas is another issue the practitioner faces. These challenges constrain the practitioner from practicing balanced anaesthesia and most of them lean on the verily familiar conventional anaesthetic protocol, based exclusively on one or two frequently used drugs, for almost all the surgical procedures of varying depth. Since only one or two anaesthetic drugs are involved in the protocol, the drugs have to be used at its upper limit of pharmacological doses to achieve the desired endpoints of anaesthesia. This will increase the probable risk of undesired side effects of these drugs. The challenges that restrict our practitioners from advancing beyond the era of sole reliance on one or two drugs for producing the state of anaesthesia has to be addressed and measures to resolve these issues have to be evolved to promote and equip our veterinary practitioners to practice the safer technique of balanced anaesthesia. Encompassing these objectives, and based on evidence and

1.1 Evolution of Factory System
Family-run cottage businesses transformed to the factory system, which employed a division of labour and machinery-based manufacturing process, during the Industrial Revolution. At the start of the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s, the factory system was initially implemented in Great Britain and quickly extended around the world. The employment of machinery, initially propelled by steam or water and subsequently by electricity, is the primary feature of the factory system. When cotton spinning was mechanised, the factory system spread widely. The factory would receive raw cotton, spin it, bleach it, dye it, and weave it into finished cloth. Before the factory system, many goods, such as shoes, were crafted by expert artisans, who would typically create an entire item by hand. By contrast, factories employed a division of labour whereby most workers were either unskilled workers who moved materials and finished things or low-skilled labourers who operated machinery. From the textile industry, the factory system expanded to other sectors of the economy. To produce metal, small local forges and blacksmiths were replaced by massive furnaces and mills. Eventually, machines took the position of skilled artisans in most of the items that were produced.
1.2 Need of Products Made by Industries
As time passes, the need of the products manufactured by various industries grows exponentially. This is mainly to give comfort to the people in their day-today life. Take the case of cycle, which helps people to move from one place another place. Later, it has been partially replaced by powered motor cycle, which serves the same purpose, but with power using fuel. This gives the comfort of travelling long distance in less time. Presently, there are high powered two wheelers, which can travel at a speed of more than 100 km per hr. If one compares the growth of the technology from cycle to high powered two-wheeler, there is a tremendous improvement in terms of end uses to satisfy customers. The goods that are produced by the industries are classified into consumer goods and industrial goods. Consumer goods are completed items that are sold to and utilised by customers, whereas industrial goods are raw materials used to produce other products. Industrial products are purchased and utilised for

Throughout history, humanity has been locked in a perpetual struggle with the forces of nature, and one of the most insidious and destructive of these forces is drought. A creeping disaster that seeps into the very fabric of communities, drought leaves behind a trail of devastation and despair, testing the resilience of societies and pushing the boundaries of human endurance. From the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia to modern-day cities, droughts have ravaged the landscape, claiming lives, destroying livelihoods, and reshaping the course of human history. • The impact of drought is far-reaching and multifaceted, affecting not just the environment, but also the economy, health, and overall wellbeing of individuals and communities. Crops wither and die, livestock perish, and entire ecosystems are disrupted, leading to food and water shortages that can have catastrophic consequences. The economic toll of drought can be equally devastating, as agriculture, industry, and tourism is severely impacted, leading to widespread unemployment and poverty. • What makes droughts particularly pernicious is their ability to unfold slowly, their effects accumulating over time,

The Asia-Pacific region is highly vulnerable to climate change, with impacts such as more frequent natural disasters, sea-level rise, floods, droughts, and changing weather patterns. Rural areas, particularly those reliant on agriculture, are disproportionately and non-identically affected. The Asia-Pacific region, home to over 60% of the world's population, is among the most vulnerable to climate change due to its diverse geography, dense coastal populations, and socioeconomic disparities [IPCC, 2022a], Climate change is an emerging threat that affects all countries to varying degrees. The recently released IPCC Assessment Report identified agriculture as one of the critical sectors both susceptible to climate change and contributing to it through Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. Countries in the Asia-Pacific region are investing significant resources to strengthen agriculture on various fronts. These investments focus on the research and development of new varieties and agro-technologies to adapt agriculture to emerging climatic threats and, simultaneously, mitigate GHG emissions from the agricultural and allied sectors. These initiatives are in their early stages, and there is a need to assess the current status of countries' vulnerability to climate change and the measures taken to address

The phases of green revolution and post green revolution of Indian agriculture have assured us of security. We are now producing 354 million tons of food grains and our target is to produce 550 million tons before 2050. This is really an incredible progress for any country dominating with rural and agrarian economy. As on date, the contribution of Indian agriculture to national GDP is 14.7 % but it has to support around 60% of population. While food security has been ensured for 1480 million of population, the issues of malnutrition are standing paramount. It sounds melancholic that India is also sustaining world’s highest count of hungry population close to 51% newborn babies are underweight, 60% of rural women are anaemic, millions are deprived of dedicated safe drinking water. According to FAO, between 702 and 828 million people in the world faced hunger in 2021. Health, hygiene and nutrition are organically linked to each other, in terms of calorie intake of rural women. We are still far below of international standard. Alongside, the hemoglobin level runs below the expected level to indicate that women are runningin a moderate to acute anaemic condition. Around 840 million people are malnourished from insufficient calories. According to Black et al., (2008) nutrition related factors were found to be jointly responsible for around 35% of the child fatalities and 11% of the overall global illness burden in an analysis that took into account co-exposure. Due to poor quality of drinking water, whatever available, the propagation of water born diseases has been endemic and robust. The geo-spatial distribution of hunger and malnutrition indicates that there is location to location variation, gender discrimination, and seasonal variability across the terrain of social-cultural distribution. To make India stronger and swashbuckling we need to refocus on women health, child care and removal of economic discrimination. With acute hunger, mapping, problem of chronic hunger as well, chronic hunger hasbeen reflected through seasonal sickness, broken health and psycho-somatic downfall. Sometimes, poverty has not been the only factor for malnutrition. The other factors for malnutrition can be our wrong belief system, superstition, wrong food habit, and unscientific cooking process. With this background the objectives of the studyhave been spelt out.

The world is facing unprecedented challenges in ensuring global food security, and climate change is exacerbating these challenges. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events are altering the dynamics of crop diseases, making them more unpredictable and difficult to manage. The consequences are dire: crop diseases can lead to significant yield losses, reduced food quality, and economic hardship for farmers. Therefore, it is imperative that we develop and implement effective strategies for managing crop diseases in the face of climate change. Weather wisdom is a critical component of these strategies. By understanding and interpreting weather patterns and their impact on crop diseases, farmers can make informed decisions about crop management, disease monitoring, and control. This approach is essential for climate-smart agriculture (CSA), which aims to promote agricultural practices that can help farmers adapt to climate change while improving agricultural productivity and sustainability. By leveraging weather wisdom, farmers can reduce crop losses, improve food quality, and enhance their resilience to climate change. This book, “Weather Wisdom for Crop Disease Management: A Requisite for Climate-Smart Agriculture,” provides a comprehensive overview of the role of weather wisdom in crop disease management. The book brings together the latest research and knowledge on the impact of weather patterns on crop diseases, as well as practical strategies for leveraging weather wisdom to manage crop diseases. The book is designed to serve as a resource for farmers, extension agents, researchers, and policymakers who are interested in promoting climate-resilient crop disease management practices.
1.1 Role of Weather in Disease Managemènt
Weather plays a crucial role in the occurrence and spread of crop diseases. The development and dissemination of plant pathogens are significantly influenced by weather conditions such as temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation (Fig 1.1). A climate change may alter the life cycle, survival, virulence and even genetics of a plant pathogen. Favorable environmental conditions are always a prerequisite for a pathogen to establish pathogenicity. Temperature is a critical factor in the development of crop diseases. Optimal temperatures vary among different pathogens, and temperatures that are either

Experimentation is fundamental to scientific investigation because it provides a systematic basis for studying natural and controlled systems and drawing conclusions from observations. In forestry and horticulture, experiments are often affected by developmental, environmental, genetic, sampling, and experimental variations. This chapter introduces the principles required for planning, conducting, analysing, and interpreting such experiments. It explains comparative experiments, the need for experimentation, experimental units, sampling units, plots, blocks, treatments, factors, levels, and sources of variation. Particular emphasis is given to the basic principles of experimental design—randomisation, replication, and local control—which help improve validity, precision, and coverage of experimental results.

This chapter introduces soil testing as an essential component of scientific nutrient and land management. It traces the establishment and expansion of soil-testing laboratories in India and explains their role in assessing soil fertility, productivity and physical, chemical and biological conditions. Soil testing helps determine suitable fertilizer and amendment requirements while preventing the excessive or unbalanced application of nutrients. The chapter emphasizes that fertilizer recommendations must reflect differences among soils and fields. It also introduces representative soil sampling as the foundation of dependable laboratory results and outlines important precautions concerning equipment calibration, clean glassware, contamination prevention and safe laboratory practices.

Entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) viz., Heterorhabditis, Neosteinernema and Steinernema have been recovered from many regions of the world. They selectively infect many insects and a few other arthropods but do not adversely affect mammals or plants. They are actually vectors of pathogenic bacteria, cause relatively rapid death of the host (24 – 48 h) and show considerable potential in biological control of insect pests in the integrated pest management systems.

EPNs are similar to insect parasitoids in that the immature form develops at the expense of one host individual; they are ecologically similar to both parasitoids and arthropod predators because the host individually killed. However, these nematodes differ from predators and parasitoids in two ways: (1) the nematode is mutualistically associated with a bacterial pathogen which actually kills the host, and (2) the pathogenicity of the bacterium has a great influence on the efficacy of the system (Ehler, 1990). The purpose of this chapter is to introduce EPN as biocontrol agents in this refresher course and to provide an overview of some current issues in biological control of insects with particular emphasis on their relevance to the use of EPNs.

Biological control is defined as the action of natural enemies which maintains a host population at levels lower than would occur in the absence of the enemies. Natural enemies will include parasitoids, predators, nematodes, microbial pathogens and their gene products. Entomologists generally divide biological control into two categories: (1) natural biological control which is effected by native or coevolved natural enemies in the native home (origin) of a given insect and (2) applied biological control which due to human intervention. Applied biological control is further divided into classical biological control (introduction of exotic natural enemies) and augmentative biological control (enhancement of natural enemies already in place).

In insects nervous system is highly developed and serves to coordinate the activities of its various systems. Units of this system are known as neurons. Which carry information in the form of electrical impulses from external and internal sensilla (Sensory cells) to appropriate effectors e.g., glands, muscles and glail cells. Nervous system of insects may be divided into three parts.

1. Central nervous system
2. Sympathetic or visceral nervous system
3. Peripheral nervous system.

Definition

Paracelsus saying– Nothing is devoid of poison it is the dose that differentiate between a drug and a poison.

? Poison- Any chemical substance either naturally present or Man made produces deleterious effect on the health of living organism are termed as Poisons.

? Toxicology term derived from Greek Word Toxicon which means Poison.

Definitions

? Toxicology: It is the science or study of poisons on biologic systems, including their properties, actions and effects. Also their detection and identification, the treatment and prevention of the conditions produced by them.

? Toxicant: Any poisonous agent/ Professional Term used for Poison.

? Xenobiotic: Derived from Greek Word Xenos means – alien or foreign.

? Xenobiotics are those substances which are foreign to the body and are biologically active but do not take part in the process of energy production.

India’s agrarian culture and economy is undergoing drastic changes. In this progressive path of agricultural resurrection, a comprehensive multidimensional understanding of agricultural development is of great importance. In the present context of Kerala, where the local administrative bodies are vested with more powers to plan and execute need based agricultural development activities, a clear understanding of the concept of agricultural development among the major stakeholders shall serve as a firm base for development.

An invasive species is an organism that causes ecological or economic harm in a new environment where it is not native. Invasive species are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and animals, reducing biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats. This can result in huge economic impacts and fundamental disruptions of coastal and Great Lakes ecosystems. Invasive species threaten and can alter our natural environment and habitats and disrupt essential ecosystem functions. Invasive plants specifically displace native vegetation through competition for water, nutrients, and space. Once established, invasive species can reduce soil productivity. The negative effects of invasive alien species on biodiversity can be intensified by climate change, habitat destruction and pollution. Isolated ecosystems such as islands are particularly affected. Loss of biodiversity will have major consequences on human well-being.

6.1. Speed Detection of Pests in China for Phytosanitary Programme

Phytosanitary procedures such as pest detection and identification rely on technology. With the rapid development of science, it is necessary for national plant protection organizations to keep informed and to make diagnoses more sensitive and accurate. Previous general pest detection methods frequently have limitations for the diagnosis of quarantine pests. In the past ten years, China has conducted considerable research into how to improve its diagnostic measures and methods.

6.1.1. General Pest Detection Measures and Methods

Traditional determination of morphology by microscope is used mostly to detect fungi and adult insects. The morphological method may be used, for example, in the separate identification of wheat dwarf bunt (Tilletia controversa), wheat karnal bunt (T. indica) and wheat common bunt (T. tritici). On the other hand, it is hard to detect seed-borne pests using the morphological method.

Isolation culture is also used to detect fungi and bacteria in China. It is an effective method for detecting seed-borne disease or systemic infection. However, it takes a long time (more than 1-2 weeks). Inoculating the indicated plant (a healthy plant that is a host for the suspected pest organism) is used mainly to identify viruses. This was the principal and time-consuming detection method used before immunological and molecular biological methods were developed. Because viruses are very important kinds of quarantine pests of young plants, effective and rapid methods for detection were urgently needed.

Concept of Inventory

‘Inventory’ may be defined as ‘usable but idle resource’. If resource is some physical and tangible object such as materials, then it is generally termed as stock. Thus stock or inventory are synonymous terms though inventory has wider implications. Broadly speaking, the problem of inventory management is one of maintaining, for a given financial investment, an adequate supply of something to meet an expected demand pattern. This could be raw materials work in progress finished products or the spares and other indirect materials. Inventory can be one of the indicators of the management effectiveness on the materials management front. Inventory turnover ratio (annual demand/average inventory) is an index of business performance. A soundly managed organization will have higher inventory turnover ratio and vice-versa. Inventory management deals with the determination of optimal policies and procedures for procurement of commodities. Since it is quite difficult to imagine a real work situation in which the required material will be made available at the point of use instantaneously, hence maintaining, inventories becomes almost necessary. Thus inventories could be visualized as ‘necessary evil’.

5.1 Introduction

Considering the richness of floristic diversity of India represented by 47,513 plant species, of which around are 9,500 reported to be of ethnobotanical botanical significance and around 7,500 - 8900 of ethnomedicinal importance (Anonymous, 1994; Pareek et al., 2005). It has been estimated that of these, around 5,000 plant species have been investigated in some detail in search for potential sources of wellness or health or medicinal drugs to cure various human ailments and diseases. As discussed in the previous sections, the Indian literature on medicinal aromatic plants formally documents information on about 2,500 medicinal and aromatic plants under various traditional systems with sufficient details. In addition, indigenous traditional knowledge exists for another 4,000-4,500 medicinal plant species based on long time experience/observations and their use by various tribes and communities and the individual clan or families in cure of specific ailments. However, this knowledge predominantly exists in oral traditions, which are under danger because of the threat to these traditional orthodox societies and loss of the dialect or languages in which they exist.

2.1 Introduction

India is known for its richness in bio-resources including floristic diversity and the associated cultural diversity that evolved over time and holds a vast amount of indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) assembled over millenniums. The ability to convert this knowledge into wealth of products for social good through the process of innovation based on validation of available information holds great promise. In-depth studies using the modern technologies and further examination of potential sources will determine the future of India in the 21st century, commonly referred to as the century of scientific knowledge and technological expertise/advancements that belongs to Asia/India. In this regard, five technologies namely, biochemistry, biotechnology, herbal technology, information technology, and nanotechnology are going to be the most powerful elements that are crucial for ensuring prosperity, security, and welfare of the people of the nations and the globe at large. Production of an inventory of the medicinal aromatic plants with the associated knowledge evolved and documented over millenniums under different Indian traditional medicinal systems shall be the key in promoting and strengthening their exploitation and use under various herbal medicinal systems and/or under an integrated innovative combination of these with modern medicinal systems.

7.1 Introduction

The occurrence of different medicinal and aromatic plant species is often associated with a specific ecology and thereby, to a biogeographical or phytogeographical region of the Indian Subcontinent. The Indian Subcontinent is a confluence of at least two biogeographical realms, i.e., Palearctic or Palaearctic (Himalayas) and Oriental (Sino Indian- mainland India to much of insular the Southeast Asia). The most acknowledged classification of biogeographical zones was proposed by Udvardy (1975), which recognized 12 biogeographical provinces in India falling in these two realms. Based on varied climate, terrain, and faunistic information, Roger and Panwar (1988) tried to distinguish India into 10 distinct bio-geographical regions. Their classification did account for distribution of the plant-communities because they provided information about key components to identify the probable habitat for the presence of animals. An attempt for phytogeographical zonation, based on type of vegetation by Gadgil and Meher Homji (1990), distinguished 16 phytogeographical zones. Rodgers et al. (2002) further revised their biogeographical maps using geographical information system (GIS) techniques. They distinguished 10 biogeographical zones and 26 biotic provinces.

4.1 Introduction

The adverse effect of non-vegetarian diet, particularly red meat, on human health and on environment due to destruction/clearing of forest for raising more pasture and to increase the industrial production of grains for animal feed have led to greater greenhouse gas emissions, and environmental pollution due to extensive use of inorganic fertilizers, fungicides, pesticides. Clearing of forest has also caused extinction of plant species. For these reasons, greater interest has been generated in vegetarian diet based on the direct consumption of whole grains, legumes, nuts, fruits, and vegetables that are easily assimilated by the human body, nutritionally more efficient, and have least impact on the environment. In fact, the healthfulness of vegetarian diets has been found to be strongly correlated with sustainability of agriculture because of easy affordability of plant-based foods. Vegetarian people have been often referred to as vegan and pescatarian (including fish and other seafood). Most pescatarians include dairy and eggs as well. Similarly, allopathic medicines, which are synthetic inorganic concentrated drugs, have adverse effect on non-targeted organs, besides being expensive.

6.1 Introduction

The World Health Organization (WHO) compiled a list of 20,000 medicinal plants used in different parts of the world. An estimated 15,000 medicinal plant species, forming about 21% of the total plant species used for medicinal purposes in the world, fall in the endangered category (Schippmann et al., 2006). In India, medicinal plant species used under different traditional systems to a large extent are still gathered and collected from the wild in from of roots, bark, wood, stem and even the whole plant causing severe destruction of their habitat, resulting in loss of species/populations and erosion of genetic diversity. The remaining few are cultivated as crop plants, but marginally because of lack of assured market and can be safely termed as commercially under utilized and are also under threat. Therefore, despite India being rich in plants species with medicinal properties, genetic diversity within the species and the associated traditional knowledge regarding their use, the lack of awareness regarding the loss of species and genetic diversity due to destructive harvesting from the wild and many other factors, such as infrastructure development, iintroduction of exotic species is causing depletion of genetic diversity or loss of indigenous MAPs.

3.1 Introduction

India is rich in biological diversity as revealed by its floristic diversity comprising 17,926 species of angiosperm, based on which it has been considered one among the 17 mega-biodiverse countries of the world. Also, it is the centre of some of the oldest civilizations of world, starting with Vedic civilization. Using modern day scientific tools and technology backed up with shashtra pramaana, Vedic civilization has been calculated to be as old as 25000 years (Oak, 2018). Because of its rich ecological and biological diversity, Indian Subcontinent has inhabited a large amount of ethnic diversity, consisting of both the indigenous races and those moved from other parts of the world as settlers looking for greener pastures for better living. The major ethnic races are Caucasoid (Aryan), Dravidians, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australoid. Anthropological Survey of India has identified 461 tribal communities (Xaxa, 1999), belonging to 227 ethnic groups (Pushpangadan et al., 2018) spread over 5000 forest villages. According to the 2001 census of India, the country has 122 major languages and 1599 other languages. Figures from different sources vary, primarily due to differences in definition of the term’s “language” and “dialect”. The largest of the language families represented, in terms of speakers, is the Indo-Aryan language family followed by the Dravidian language family.

ABSTRACT

Due to complex hydrogeological conditions it becomes very difficult to prospect the ground water resources especially in drought prone areas where the water table is very deep. The interpretation of geoelectrical sounding curves also becomes ambiguous. A semi empirical method namely theinverse slope method [Shankar Narayan and Ramanujachari, NGRI] is widely used since it is simple to operate without standard curves etc and it gives fairly good results. In some Government organizations like PWD [Ground Water Department] and TWAD Board of Tamilnadu, this inverse slope method is widely used for ground water exploration. Based on this methodology, ample of bore well points have been recommended in complicated hard rock terrains and the success rate is found to be encouraging. The study area, Kavalpatti, of Palani taluk in Dindigul district is a crystalline rock terrain, where geological, hydrogeological and geoelectrical investigations have been carried out to explore the ground water potential zone for agricultural purpose. The bore well drilled to a depth of 32 m has yielded 370 lpm. The interpreted geoelectrical section has been correlated with the litholog of bore well. Some bore well statistics [bore well points recommended based on this method] has been furnished, which reveals that this methodology is encouraging.

Nereistoxin (NTX) was originated from a marine annelid worm Lumbriconereis heteropoda and its analogue pesticides (table 51) including cartap, bensultap, thiocyclam and thiobensultap have been commonly used in agriculture, because of their low toxicity and high insecticidal activity.

• General considerations

 • First hand information and constitution of a team

 • Gathering the disease information from records and the owner

 • Animal data

 • Previous illness

 • Present disease

 • Proforma for animal examination report

 • Observation of team

• Logical clinical examination of animals

 • Disease investigation kit

ABSTRACT

Arunachal Pradesh in Northeastern India covers a major portion of the Eastern Himalayas and is well-known for its rich biological and cultural diversity. The indigenous communities of the state living in close vicinity of forests depend upon wild plant-resources for meeting their various needs like medicine, food, fodder, fuel, etc. The present paper deals with documentation of plant species used by Monpa and Adi community residing in vast ecological range starting from subtropical to alpine ecosystems. A total of 346 species belonging to 215 genera and 102 families used by the two communities as wild vegetables (97 species), wild fruits (39), dye and color (13), spices and condiments (51), hunting and piscicide (40), paper pulp and fiber yielding plants (5) and medicinal use were reported (165). This study highlights the rich diversity of indigenous knowledge among the local communities in utilizing the diverse plant resources around them for their sustenance. Documentation of this knowledge is of utmost importance for identification of useful plant species for value addition, promotion as well as to formulate strategies for their sustainable utilization and conservation. This would also enhance the livelihood of the indigenous communities contribute to biodiversity conservation in these fragile mountain ecosystems.

Abstract

Traditional knowledge on plants and their uses by tribal indigenous culture is helpful in the conservation of biodiversity. During 2017-2018, ethnobotanical investigations of the plants growing in Neelum Valley in District Bandipora (a part of Kashmir Himalaya) were carried out to collect information regarding different usages of the plants species growing in the region through questionnaire and interviews. Floristically, a total of 57 species belonging to 54 genera and 38 families were investigated to be used as medicine, food, fodder, timber, fuel wood, vegetable/edible fruit, resin yield and herbal tea purposes. On the basis of the floristic analysis of the study area, the leading family recorded was Asteraceae with (11%) species co-dominated by Rosaceae (9%). In terms of habit forms, herbaceous (70%) growth form is the most dominant. The most frequently used plant parts are leaves (26%) followed by whole plant (23%) and roots (19%). The plant documented cured different categories of diseases, the most common diseases such as diarrhea, fever, digestive problems, urinary troubles, rheumatism, eye diseases, skin diseases and wounds. Based on investigated knowledge, the data are discussed under sub-head as single, double and multi-diseases curing plants. The present study can provide a baseline data for future researchers, policy makers, common public, land managers, and the other stakeholders to develop scientifically-informed strategies for conservation of natural resources and sustainable use of plant resources in hotspot regions like Himalayas and other similar biodiversity rich sites.