eChapters

Curry leaf, Murraya koenigii (Linn.) is one of the most important plants exclusively known for its culinary and medicinal value. Leaves of the plant are widely used for flavouring food in Indian cookery. Leaves are also used in many Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions (Joseph and Peter, 1985). The whole plant including leaves, stems, flower, fruits and roots are used as tonic, stimulant, anti-flatulent, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant (Khan et al., 1997) and anti-carcinogenic (Khanum et al., 2000).

Mites are small arthropods belonging to the sub-class Acari (also known as Acarina) and the class Arachnida. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology. In soil ecosystems, mites are favored by high organic matter content and by moist conditions, wherein they actively engage in the fragmentation and mixing of organic matter (Nyle and Ray, 2009).

Sensitivity-Threshold tests Sensitivity tests are conducted to assess the ability of individuals to detect different tastes, odors and feel the presence of specific factors in.

Formulation & method of bread making Baking is an exact science that requires precise measuring and accuracy. Accuracy is crucial in baking because most baked products are made from the same basic ingredients: flour, liquid, fat, sugar, salt etc. the difference between baked products are often the proportion of each ingredients in the formula. If the proportions are off, you will end up with a different product or an unacceptable product.

Sverdrup’s contribution could not take into account of the western boundary and so could not explain about the circulation what happened along the west coast of the ocean. Thus his circulation, as shown in Fig.8.1c in the chapter 8, is incomplete. This problem was solved by an American Oceanographer, Henry Stommel, in 1948.

Insecticides are one of the key control measures to combat the insect pests for sustainable agricultural production in the world. Synthetic insecticides have been only strategy to control the resurgent and resistant insect population in of high value crops not only in India but also in the world. The advent of synthetic insecticides in the mid-20th century made the control of insect and other arthropod pests easy and much more effective, and such chemicals remain essential in modern agriculture despite their environmental issues.

The word ‘market’ is a derivative of the Latin word _____

a) Marcatus

b) Markus

c) Marcat

d) Martus

2. ‘Marcatus’ is a _____ word.

a) Greek

b) Latin

c) French

d) Spanish

3. The word ‘Marcatus’ means 

1. ____________ aims at elimination of unhealthy and unscrupulous practices, reducing the marketing charges and providing facilities to producer and sellers in the market

a) Regional market

b) Controlled market

c) Regulated market

d) Revised market

2. The market charges are paid by the _____ of agricultural commodities in a regulated market.

a) Buyers

b) Traders

c) Farmers

d) Sellers

3. __________ is a voluntary business organization established by its members to market the farm products jointly to reap the direct benefit out of it.

a) Regulated market

1. In ____________ market, future buying and selling of commodities will take place at current time

a) Forward

b) International

c) Perfect

d) Spot

2. Forward Contracts (Regulation) Act

a) 1952

b) 1962

c) 1958

d) 1963

3. _____________ had also recommended strengthening of existing commodity exchanges and forward markets commission

a) Kuhsro committee

b) Rangarajan committee

c) Forward market committee

d) Kabra committee

India has rich diversity of goat genetic resources and as per 20^th livestock census (2019), there are 148.88 million goats in India. They are mostly found in arid and semi-arid regions of the country and one of the mainstay of dryland agriculture system. Out of 148.88 million, around half of them (75 to 60 million goats) are found in Rajasthan (20.84 m), Uttar Pradesh (14.48 m), Madhya Pradesh (11.06 m), Maharashtra (10.6 m), Tamil Nadu (9.89 m) Karnataka (6.17 m) and Gujarat (4.66 m). Out of total goat population, only 35 % of the goats are of either pure breed or upgraded nature resembling the some of the local breeds. There is huge scope to improve the productivity through use of assisted reproductive tools like artificial insemination and estrus synchronization in field condition to upgrade the non-descript population in relatively shorter period of time as compared to natural services.

Modern Semen Evaluation Methods

1. Fluorescent Microscopic Evaluation
2. In-vitro Fertility Test
3. Enzyme Estimation

1. Fluorescent Microscopic Evaluation

1.1. Acrosomal Integrity (Giemsa method and FITC-PSA assay)

The acrosomal integrity of the spermatozoa was detected using Fluorescence isothiocyanate – Pisum sativum agglutinin (FITC-PSA) staining procedure adopting method of Mendoza et al. (1992). Pisum sativum agglutinin (PSA) when conjugated to Lectin FITC marks the intact acrosome with bright green fluorescence. PSA is an agglutinin from edible pea that binds to glycoconjugates of acrosomal matrix or outer acrosomal membrane. It has affinity for terminal α –D-glucosyl and α-D-mannosyl residues of glycoproteins and it binds specifically to sugar α-mannoside found in acrosomal content.

Goats remain an important and instant source of income as well as livelihood for the majority (70-90 %) of small and marginal farmers in India. Goats are the animals with multiple utility like milk, meat, hide, fibre and manure. They are more tolerant to harsh environment (better resistance to heat stress and drought, better utilization and digestibility of pastures) and give more production per unit investment. Goats are spontaneously ovulating, poly-estrous animals and show seasonal pattern in reproductive activity related to the annual variations of photoperiod. Onset and length of their breeding period throughout the year is dependent on different environmental and physiological factors viz. latitude and climate, feed and fodder availability, breed and breeding system. This in turn affects round the year availability of meat and milk to full fill the market demands. When kids are born out of season, adequate supply of pastures along with good management practices must be ensured in order to minimize kid’s mortality and promote their optimum growth.

Learning outcome

The purpose is to enable the student to develop deeper knowledge understanding capabilities and attitudes in the context of group discussion.

What is the group?

A social group is a unit of two or more person in the reciprocal interaction of communication with each other.

Stages of Group Formation

Bruce Tuckman presented a model of five stages.

Orientation (Forming Stage)

During this stage, group members come together and begin to establish relationships with each other. They also clarify their goals and objectives for the group.

Power Struggle (Storming Stage)

As the group begins to work together, conflicts and differences in opinions may arise. This stage is characterized by power struggles, disagreements, and a lack of cohesion among group members.

Cooperation and Integration (Norming Stage)

In this stage, the group begins to resolve conflicts and work towards a common goal. Members begin to cooperate with each other, establish norms and rules, and develop a sense of unity.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a set of tools and techniques used with households to gather and analyse information on community resources, problems, potential and needs.

Why is PRA used?

Look at how a village or community is now and what it could be.

Look at problems and what’s causing them.

Help families find ways to deal with problems and take advantage of opportunities.

In the present scenario, team formation is the key enabler for getting all sorts of benefit in organizational perspective as well as benefit sharing perspective. So, in any organizational atmosphere team plays a pivotal role in performance of human resources in organization through contributing to the organizational goal. Successful organizations today know that teams make a big difference in achieving strategic goals. Teams that are strong, flexible, and productive can be the competitive edge needed to produce better results, achieve higher quality, lower costs for the organization and the customer. With active involvement, high-performing teams can help promote employees bottom line results, as well as their adaptability, quality, service, and safety. To achieve these objectives, teams have to start doing things differently. Team members and leaders need to communicate more effectively with each other, encourage more involvement, tap into one another’s creativity, overcome the group’s resistance to change, and renew team spirit. But this change can also create difficulty for some who may lack the knowledge, understanding, or a mindset that is conducive to teamwork. Team Building for high performance teams is designed to provide skills and promote high levels of team performance and team member satisfaction. Consequently, team building is required for knowing each other within the organizational team, boosting morale, improving communication and relationships, making the workplace more enjoyable, motivating a team, getting everyone “onto the same page” including goal setting, teaching the team self-regulation strategies, helping participants to learn more about themselves (strengths and weaknesses), identifying and utilizing the strengths of team members, improving team productivity, identifying and developing leadership skills and practicing effective collaboration with team members. Group is a collection of two or more interacting individuals with a stable pattern of relationships among them, who share common goals and who perceive themselves as being a group. Group essentially consists of social interaction, stable structure, common interests, perceive themselves as part of group.

Introduction

As India was struggling to feed her population through “ship-to-mouth” strategy, the agricultural scientists focused on the enhancing the food grain production of India so that the country became self-sufficient. Through tireless efforts our country ushered into Green Revolution which marked the beginning of the era of self-sufficiency for India. The efforts of researchers were seamlessly taken to fields and communicated to masses by the efficient extension professionals of our country. The focus of extension was “Production Led”. But as time passed, India became self-sufficient in major food crops, the farmers started facing problems of marketing their surplus produce. Market gluts, non-remunerative prices, distress sales and emergence of exploitative middle men made farmers all the more helpless. It was at this time when the concept of “Production Led Extension” was thought of being reformed to “Market Led Extension” (MLE). As of today, MLE has helped many farmers market their produce easily and fetch remunerative prices of the produce. Agricultural, livestock, fisheries and all allied sectors have received benefit from this approach of extension.

Monitoring and Evaluation are the two management tools that help in keeping a control on the extension programmes as well as raising the level of performance. Monitoring refers to an organized process of overseeing and checking the activities undertaken in a project, to ascertain whether it is capable of achieving the planned results or not. Conversely, evaluation is a scientific process that gauges the success of the projector programme in meeting the objectives. The primary difference between monitoring and evaluation is that while monitoring is a continuous activity, performed at the functional level of management, evaluation is a periodic activity, performed at the business level.

Introduction

In India, the concept of commercialization of technology from R&D is relatively new in most sectors; especially in agriculture & animal Husbandry. The Government of India has recently announced the “National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) policy (GOI, 2016a). The policy advocates promotion of a holistic and conducive ecosystem for catalyzing the intellectual property for economic, socio-cultural development and protecting public interest. The policy document put forth seven objectives namely i) IPR awareness: outreach and promotion, ii) generation of IPRs, iii) legal and legislative framework, iv) administrative management, v) commercialization of IPR, vi) enforcement and adjudication and vii) human capital development. The policy aims at strengthening the national initiatives such as- Make in India, Skill India, Startup India, Smart Cities, Digital India (GOI, 2016). The flagship program of the Government like Startup India aims at building a strong ecosystem for nurturing innovations and Start-ups in the country (GOI, 2016). Under this, Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) is the action plan envisaged with the focus on promotion of entrepreneurship and innovation in sectors such as manufacturing, agriculture, health and education (GOI, 2016).

Introduction

A population is the set of all objects we wish to study. A sample is part of the population we study to learn about the population. A census may be defined as an enumeration or evaluation of every member of a population. A parameter is any measurement that describes an entire population. A statistic is any measurement computed from a sample of the individual observations made. As per Best (1977), "Research is considered to be more formal, systematic, and intensive process of carrying on a scientific method of analysis."

The indigenous pig has been the basis used for pig production for a long period of time. It is small in size. Improved breeds are now being used for grading up the form the basis for pig production in the rural areas. The majority of the pig population in India is of indigenous breeds though population of crossbred and exotic pigs increased by 12.7 percent from year 2003 to 2012. The exotic breed mainly comprises Hampshire, Large White York Shire, Duroc, Landrace, and Tamworth.

Pig Identification

Animal identification is very important aspect on any livestock farm. Some types of identity are merely temporary, dissipating after a few days. Temporary identification, such as a grease paint stick, can be used to identify certain pigs within a pen, such as when immunisation pigs.

Some forms of identification are more durable. Ear tags are commonly used. Some producers use plastic tags with numbers to help them identify individual pigs. Pigs, on the other hand, are inquisitive creatures who frequently consider a plastic tag on another pig as an intriguing toy. Plastic tags are commonly torn and misplaced as a result. Additionally, when the tag punctures the ear, pigs frequently develop an ear infection. Tiny metal tags may be used, but they are subject to the same long-term loss and infection problems.

The most lasting method of identification used by most manufacturers is ear notching. In this procedure, little notches are carved into the baby pigs’ ears right after birth using a small pair of v-shaped pliers. The notches represent numbers and will accompany the pig for the remainder of its life. Farmers may develop their own ear-notching system, but the universal ear notching system is the most widely used.

The term hybrid or hybrid variety is used to designate F1 populations that are used for commercial plantings. Such F1 populations are obtained by crossing clones, open-pollinated varieties, and inbred lines that are genetically dissimilar. Historically the first attempts to make practical use of fortunate mating system of maize came late in the nineteenth century by W. J. Beal in Michigan, stimulated by Darwin’s work on inbreeding and outcrossing. Beal suggested use of F1 varietal crosses to exploit heterosis for commercial crop. The hybrid seed was to be produced by detasseling alternate rows. It was George Harrison Shull (1909) who first suggested a pure line method of corn breeding based on inbred lines obtained by continued self-fertilization and the use of F1 hybrids between these inbred lines for the production of commercial crop. His proposal was to make use of single crosses (hybrids between two inbred lines) based on the superior performance of the hybrids in various combinations between the inbred lines.

Mutation is defined as a sudden heritable change in gene or in chromosome structure. The process of hereditary change is termed mutation and the individuals affected by the change are called mutants. Besides recombinations, mutations are the cause of genetic variation from which every breeding activity proceeds. By means of mutations, the multiplicity of the types of a population is not only increased by one genotype, but also by large number of further new genotypes due to possibility of subsequent recombinations of mutant with the existing genotypes.

7.1 Introduction

Chinese cabbage appears to be native of China. It is known to have arisen from a cross between Pak choi (Brassica rapa var. chinensis, non-heading Chinese cabbage) from south China and turnip (Brassica rapa var. rapifera) from north China when they were grown together in the city of Young-chou. Artificial crosses between these species have proved this hypothesis. Its chromosome number 2n=20 distinguishes it from cole crops. It is not a member of cole group but regarded as very closely allied crop due to similarity in breeding systems, cultivation practices, season of growing and other features besides being like a member of Brassica vegetables. In general Pe-tsai cabbage, i.e., heading type (B. rapa subsp. pekinensis or B. pekinensis) and pak-choi cabbage, i.e., leafy type (B. rapa subsp. 

10.1 Introduction

Leek is a non-bulb forming tetraploid plant of onion family. It belongs to monocotyledons group like onion and garlic, and has white narrow bulbs with broad leaves and etiolated pseudostem formed by the leaf sheaths. Except large size it looks like green onion. Its cultivation is not commercial in India and grown only in kitchen garden. Recently, its cultivation has been noticed in temperate regions of north India and the Niligiri hills of South India. Leek is cultivated for blanched stems and leaves. It is a hardy biennial plant, consumed as salad and used in flavouring the soups. It has flattened leaf blades rather than the radial, and it is bigger than onion. As compared to onion, it has milder and more delicate flavour. 

18.1 Introduction

It is a rich source of vitamin A as compared to spinach and carrot. It also contains high quantity of ascorbic acid, manganese and iron. A 100 g of leaves supplies as much essential amino acids as 100 g of any non-vegetarian food like meat and fish. Its succulent leaves and stems make nutritious dish after cooking. The herbaceous annual plants are mildly laxative besides other medicinal values. This is annual for leaf production and biennial for seed production. 

19.1 Introduction

Traditionally spinach or vilayati palak is classified as a pot herb. The word ‘spinach’ has been derived from a Spanish word Hispania. However, the Latin meaning of ‘spina’ is spiny fruit and oleracea means herbaceous garden herb. The edible part of spinach is a compact rosette of leaves which is normally consumed as a cooked vegetable. Sometimes, it is also used as salad along with lettuce and other vegetables. Spinach is highly suitable for hydroponics. 

20.1 Introduction

Asparagus is a herbaceous perennial plant with an erect branched stem growing to 1-3 m height and is grown in large areas in countries like USA, Germany, Spain and France, while India’s contribution is meagre. The tender shoots called ‘spears’ are used as vegetable and in preparation of soup. It is also eaten as salad. The canned and frozen spears are also used as processed foods. Once asparagus starts producing, it continues to give economic yield for 10-15 years. The tender shoots contain a white crystalline substance, asparagine, which is used in medicine as diuretic in cardiac dropsy and chronic gout. It has good potential as fresh vegetable.

22.1 Introduction

Rhubarb is a less popular winter vegetable grown in India and originated from colder parts of Asia. It is cultivated for its large, thick leaf stalks or petioles which are used for sauces and pies. The plant is a herbaceous cool season perennial with large fleshy underground rhizome having a fibrous root system. It is sufficiently rich in vitamin C and contains traces of vitamins A and B₂. It is grown in cooler climatic conditions and is resistant to cold and dry conditions. It is propagated by divisions of crown. Rhubarb is a native of the cooler areas of Asia, probably Siberia but it is grown in Europe and England for its large, thick leafstalks or petioles which are used for sauces. 

1. Introduction

Thermal energy is transferred in the form heat from one body to another through conduction, convection and radiation or in combination of these modes. Some of the examples of heat transfer that occur during various agricultural processing is drying and dehydration, sterilization, pasteurization, evaporation, distillation, to name a few.

The basic equation of conservation of heat can be written as:

Rate of heat in + rate of heat generation= rate of heat out+ rate of accumulation of heat

The duck environment usually involves the presence of water bodies (man-made or natural) which may enhance the co-mingling of free-living waterfowl species with the domestic flock promote disease transmission. Besides, environmental conditions also influence disease manifestation in ducks. The most of the viral diseases in ducks are contagious and transmitted very easily among the healthy birds in contact. The infectious viral diseases most commonly seen in domestic waterfowl species includes duck plaque, duck viral hepatitis, avian influenza, musky duck parvo virus infections, duck pox etc. These viral diseases cause great economic loss to the poultry industry due to high mortality and morbidity rate.

The domestic duck is an economically important domestic bird in rural areas. They are productive and are reared around the globe for their egg, meat, feather and fattened livers. The worldwide population of ducks (Anas spp.) is 1.15 billion in 2020 out of which 89 per cent were in Asia. China, Viet Nam, Bangladesh and Indonesia are the largest duck rearing countries in Asia (FAO 2020). Geographical location, subtropical climatic condition, water lodged and low areas of the country are suitable for duck habitat. The advantages of ducks over other poultry species are that they are hardy, have higher disease tolerance and are easy to herd.

Principal Scientist and I/c Head, Division of Social Sciences and Training IIHR, Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore - 560 089, Karnataka

Introduction

The word ‘risk’ derives from the early Italian risicare, which means ‘to dare’. In this sense, risk is a choice rather than a fate (Bernstein, 1996).

It is an inherent trait in humans to take chances. We believe that even though the future is uncertain we can make calculated choices based on our knowledge of past occurrences and the outcomes will be skewed in our favour. 

Principal Scientist and I/c Head, Division of Social Sciences and Training IIHR, Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore – 560 089, Karnataka

What is a funding pitch?

A pitch deck lets you present your business plan to potential investors when new funding is needed to develop the business. You don’t need a pitch deck to attract funding if your business is successful, growing organically and at the right level and scale for the market and your ambitions.

Social media can be defined as any media dedicated to community based input, interaction, content sharing and collaboration. Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Whatsapp, Google Plus, Hike Messenger, Pinterest, Reddit, Instagam, WeChat, Skype, YouTube are some of the social networking sites that have received tremendous response from billions of people all over the world.

Earlier, there were mass media like pamphlets, booklets, newspapers, radio, television, etc. to connect with the masses. These traditional mass medias were mostly based on one way conversation. Various researchers, scientists, policy makers, government and non-government organizations, research institutions utilized these traditional mass media to the fullest but mostly with a limitation of one way communication and farmers have to rely on the information mashed on them. In last decade, the social networking services (SNS) have emerged as a wonderful and powerful social media.

Introduction

The huge nutritious potential of agricultural based byproducts has generated an interest of nutritionist for utilizing them in efficient ways in order to improve the production of animals. In this concern, solid state fermentation (SSF) is a promising and novel technique. The lignocellulosic structural characters of plant residues provide them a solid support and act as substrates for the microbial fermentation to produce certain value added products through SSF. The scope of SSF in the field of animal nutrition is wide, in terms for the production of enzymes, bioactive components, organic acids, vitamins, and feed additives, bio-transforming products, biological degradation and detoxification of agricultural residues/wastes. 

9.1 Introduction

Hydrogen is colourless and odourless gas. Hydrogen is simplest and lightest element and most abundant available element on the earth. It is not primary energy source as it does not exist in free state however it presents in compound with oxygen (water) and carbon, nitrogen and oxygen in living material and fossil fuels (natural gas, coal and biomass). Therefore, hydrogen can be produced from these sources using some external energy. Hydrogen can be burned without generating CO₂ and have clean combustion. but with air it can form very explosive mixture. Hydrogen is considered as an energy carrier. Like energy carrier allows the transport of energy in usable form from one place to another. 

2.1 Introduction

Agro-meteorological advisories relate the past, current and predicted future weather to agricultural activities. Behaviour of weather both in space and time, considerably affect the agricultural production. Year to year variations in crop production are generally depended to the abnormalities in the behaviours of weather. The mission of the Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) of NCMRWF is to maximise farmers’ profits by decreasing losses due to weather calamities and also by increasing the timeliness of operations in the crop field. An ideal AAS bulletin helps to reduce environmental pollution through the optimum use of chemicals in the crop filed. An ideal AAS bulletin should contain farm management information to weather based agricultural operations and available to the farmers in real time.

7.1 Introduction

The occurrence of extreme weather events like drought and flood is increasing in Bihar due to climate change. Bihar receives nearly 80% of annual rainfall during June to September which is quantitatively enough for growing most of the crops. However, aberration in temporal and spatial distribution of rainfall makes the crops vulnerable to drought as well as flood. Rainfall is the most important factor for planning of crop production in rainfed areas. The information on annual, seasonal and weekly rainfall of a region is helpful to design different agricultural operations like field preparation, sowing, irrigation, fertilizer application as well as overall crop planning (Singh et al., 2008). Zone I and zone II of Bihar are receiving too much rainfall which causes flood in this region whereas zone III B is identified as rainfed region which has low, erratic and uncertain rainfall pattern with frequent dry spells during the monsoon season. Hence kharif cropping is tricky operation in this region and sudden crop failures is a common phenomenon due to frequent dry spell or early withdrawal of monsoon. In India many scientists studied on rainfall probability pattern (Suchit et al., 2012) and they concluded that rainfall occurrence is certain at greater than or equal to 80 % probability, while 50% probability is the medium limit of certainty and may involve dry spell risk. Based on these climatic and probability factors, the study was carried out for four different locations situated in different agro climatic zones of Bihar for interlinking the rainfall probability pattern with the crop planning pattern in those regions.

The core concept of empowerment is the idea of power and thought of control. Empowerment is the process of strengthening, encouraging, obtaining opportunities, and mobilizing assets and resources for the welfare of individuals, groups or masses. Over the past two decades, discourse and focus on the concept of empowerment have steadily and relentlessly increased within international development discourse. Empowerment has evolved to develop a more extensive physical and mental well-being, freedom from domestic violence, unpaid work and reproductive health. However, the wealthy body of work has wrangled the thought of empowerment of women.

India has experienced marked changes, both at international and national levels. Technological progress, ICT penetration in rural and urban areas, and changes in current government policies have resulted in changes in the country’s social structure and power relations. The government initiated various programmes like Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), Mahila e-Haat, and Support to Training & Employment Programme (STEP) etc. are there to improve the state of rural women. 

Women have been seen as necessary as a man. The status of the women and the work progress of the women have been seen as a nation’s overall progress. Without the penetration of women in socio-economic and political activities, the country is considered to stagnate. Still, the devaluation of women commences at birth with the preference for male offspring. This continues through childhood conditioning to the submissive and, later on, the subservient role required of them in the marital home.

A woman is the backbone of the family. The Self-reliance of women is the first step in the nation’s development. For generations, women have fought for their existence. Women’s softness and humility have developed new dimensions of self-reliance; as a result, the image of a woman with a veil of weakness has ended.

The position of women in ancient times was excellent. The most significant decline occurred in the status of women during the Mughal period. 

Rural development has always been an important issue in all discussions pertaining to economic development, especially of developing countries, throughout the world. In the developing countries and some formerly communist societies, rural mass comprise a substantial majority of the population. Over 3.5 billion people live in the Asia and Pacific region and some 63% of them in rural areas. Although millions of rural people have escaped poverty as a result of rural development in many Asian countries, a large majority of rural people continue to suffer from persistent poverty. 

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)

This scheme has been merged with NREGS since February 2006 so only most important points are given below.

1. The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) was launched on 25 September, 2001 by merging the on-going schemes of EAS (Employment Assurance Scheme) and the JGSY (Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojna)
2. Objective was to providing additional wage employment and food security, alongside creation of durable community assets in rural areas.
3. The annual outlay was Rs.10, 000 crore which included 50 lakh tones on food grains.
4. The cash component shared between the Centre and the States in the ratio of 75:25.

Origin

The term communication stems from the Latin word “Communis” meaning “common”. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish ‘commonality’ with someone through a message. Communication, then, is a conscious attempt to establish ce, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of message.

Definitions of communication

Models Definitions

In social science research a model is a tentative description of what a social process, say the communication process or a system might be like. It is atool of explanation and analyses, very often in a diagrammatic form, to show how the various elements of a situation being studied relate to each other.

What is a Model?

1.1. Introduction

Food packaging involves enclosing the food product to ensure its safe delivery to end consumer in safe condition. Packaging is one of the integral components of the food industry. In order to maintain the basic nutritional and functional attributes of food material, they must be packaged safely. A faulty package can ruin all the efforts made to develop the food product. Selection of right packaging system and packaging material is essential to arrest the deterioration of food products from physical, chemical and biological factors. 

14.1. Introduction

There is a tremendous need to change the way society produces, and consumes materials to manage the environmental effect in the growing scarcity of resources. To overcome this issue, recycling process could be a great possibility that reduce the uses of natural resources, maximizethe waste utilization and produce least environmental impact. Unfortunately, packaging materials contribute 40% of solid waste in Western Europe, and 33% in US. In fact, packaging waste is likely to increase in transitioning and developing countries. Recycling process consists of collection, sorting, recovery, and management of packaging materials. As per the report of “Eurostat statistics in 2018”,European Union (EU) generates 174.1 kg of packaging waste per inhabitant, Croatia contributes 67.8 kg per inhabitant and Germany produce 227.5 kg per inhabitant.

Introduction

Among the various propagation techniques, plant propagation through tissue culture has gained immense importance over the years and for a few crops it has become the major method of propagation. Plant tissue culture can be defined as the ability to grow and maintain the plant organs viz., embryo, shoot, root, anther, flower and their respective tissue in a culture media. While micropropagation can be defined as the development of a new plant using plant tissue culture techniques. These plants are grown under in-vitro conditions, i.e., culturing the plant in a vessel (e.g., test tube) under a controlled condition. Since, the whole process is a lab-based work, there are chances of contamination, thus, the growing condition needs to be aseptic (growing without microbial contamination).