eChapters

Rainfall, runoff, evaporation, and other hydrological variables exhibit considerable natural uncertainty and therefore cannot be treated as entirely deterministic phenomena. Statistical and probability methods make it possible to organize observations, describe their variability, identify relationships, estimate extreme events, and predict values associated with selected probabilities. Hydrological data may be analysed daily, weekly, monthly, seasonally, or annually and expressed through averages, maxima, minima, dispersion, skewness, and frequency. This chapter introduces statistical terminology, correlation, regression, probability distributions, plotting positions, goodness-of-fit tests, model-evaluation tools, reliability, standard error, and risk analysis. These techniques are essential for flood-frequency analysis, planning, and hydraulic design.

“Age and Area”: The hypothesis (by Willis) that the older a species is, the wider will be its geographical distribution.

A-Without; lacking.

A.I.: See active ingredient.

A.O.U. Code: A code of nomenclature published in 1885 (revised 1908) by the American Ornithologists’ Union for the standardization of bird nomenclature.

Ab-Away from; off.

Summary

The main greenhouse gases (GHGs) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic GHG that affects the earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310, respectively. CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced greenhouse effect of more than 50%, CH₄ for about 10-15% and N₂O for about 8%. The global atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased since 1750. While CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and N₂O increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb during the same period. Rich countries and large developing countries account for most of global CO₂ emissions (China 23.5%, USA 18.27%, India 5.83%, Russia 5.72%, Japan 4.04% and European Union 13.98%). A new climate agreement called ‘Warsaw International mechanisms (November 2013) on loss and damage’ agreed to help the poor countries to cope with loss and damage from heatwaves, droughts, floods, typhoons, desertification and rising sea levels. The Warsaw agreement also includes a set of decisions to help developing countries to reduce GHG emissions from deforestation and degradation of forests which is backed by pledges of US$280 million financing by the United States, Norway and the United Kingdom. Projections for global average temperature rise is in the range of 1.1-6.4°C; a doubling of CO₂ (from pre-industrial 280 ppm) and average sea level rise is in the range of 0.18-0.59 m (Meehel et al. 2007) and 0.5–2.4 m (Brown et al. 2013). Hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation events will continue to become more frequent. Projected data show that there is an increasing global trend in the rise of average temperature in all countries, regions or sub-zones; a decreasing trend in average precipitation in most sub-tropical areas and an increasing trend of precipitation in most of the tropical and high latitudes.

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), famous as “Black Gold” and also known the “King of Spices” is the most important agricultural commodities of commerce and trade in India. It is the most important, most popular and most widely used spice in the World. Of the total spices traded internationally, black pepper accounts for 34 per cent. South West India is the traditional home of this important spice, particularly the Malabar Coast. Black pepper is also grown in tropical zones such as the Asia Pacific Region, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam and Cambodia. Outside the Asia Pacific region, the crop is distributed in Brazil, Mexico, Guatemala, etc., totaling about 26 countries. It is grown successfully between 20°N and 20°S latitude and from mean sea level to 1500 meters above sea level. World’s black pepper production varies in the range of 2.7 to 3.35 tonnes annually.

Introduction

Chromatography was first employed by Ramsey (1905) to separate mixture of gases and vapours. These first experiments used selective adsorption on, or desorption from, solid absorbents such as active charcoals. The  following year Tswett (1906) obtained discrete coloured bands of plant pigments on a chromatographic column. He coined the term “chromatography” (literally “colour writing”) which is obviously a misnomer when used retrospectively. Contribution of Martin and Synge (1941) in a study for which they were awarded the Nobel prize, and later James and Martin introduced gas-liquid chromatography in 1951 and 1952.

INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh is a very small country of 1,47,570 square kilometer area having a population of 150 millions. The country has only 8.29 million hectare (Bangladesh Krishi Diary, 2003) cultivable land against the huge population. The land area is gradually decreasing because of population growth, industrialization and other infrastructure development. This results in a declining trend of per capita land availability from 0.13 hectare to 0.06 hectare during the last few decades (1960 to 2000) (Food and Agriculture Organisation, Bangladesh Country Profile).

In order to ensure food security of this vast population and with the emergence of “Green Revolution” in 1960s, priority was given to produce more food in terms of grain through intensification of land usage. New crop variety (HYV), chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation were introduced. As a result, immediate objective of more grain (rice) production had increased and Bangladesh had temporarily achieved self sufficiency in food (rice). Bangladesh made steady progress in crop agriculture in the post-independent period. Cropping intensity increased from 148 to 179 per cent and food grain production almost doubled during the period from 1969/70 to 1992/93 (Hoque, 2007).

However, a lot of HYVs, hybrids, which were introduced, required increased amount of chemicals, and over time they took a toll on the fertility of soil, gradually decreasing acreage production despite usage of high doses of chemical fertilizer and pesticides. Moreover, the natural disasters such as floods, droughts, etc., continued to result in fluctuation in production. Wide fluctuations in production led to large instability in food grain prices having serious implications for household food security and the welfare of the people. The attainment of food security and rural economic development, therefore, could no longer rely on the production of rice alone.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. The Agriculture Sector of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe has a total area of 390 580 square kilometers of which one per cent is made up of rivers and lakes, 38 per cent is arable land and the rest is suited for livestock and wildlife production. The country is bordered by South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Mozambique. It is located between latitudes 15,30 and 22,30 degrees south of the Equator and between longitudes 25 and 33,10 degrees east of the Greenwich Meridian (CSO, 2006).

The Agriculture sector forms the backbone of Zimbabwe’s economy and accounts for about 17 per cent of the GDP. Zimbabwe‘s agricultural sector comprises mostly smallholder farmers who include communal, resettlement and small-scale farmers. However, this sector is besieged by a plethora of issues, namely high stocking rates, sub-optimal climate, and deforestation and land degradation. The Land Reform and Resettlement Programme which commenced in 1980 resulted in hundreds of thousands of Zimbabweans being resettled on former white commercial farms, in either Model A1(communally owned) or A2 schemes (large scale commercial farms). Thus the challenge to policy makers was now to ensure that future agricultural production is not compromised by current practices. The new farming sector largely comprises resource poor farmers, academics, corporate leaders, high-level policy makers and traditional farmers. Most of the new farmers lack requisite Agricultural skills and knowledge needed in modern Agricultural practice. Land reform measures led to the exodus of some white farmers in the beginning of the 21st century which crippled the economy depriving it of technological know-how and causing shortages of basic commodities.

The modernization of agriculture therefore, among other intervention strategies, through the use of ICTs can contribute directly to food security at national and household levels, beneficiation of agricultural produce, effective land management and an increase of national wealth.

3.1. INTRODUCTION TO PLANT BREEDING

What is Plant Breeding?: Plant breeding is an art and science which deals with changing genotypes of the plants, to adapt them to the service of human being. (or) The application of genetic and cytogenetics principles in crop improvement are called plant breeding.

Specific objectives of plant breeding: The main objectives of the plant breeding is to improve the characteristics of crop plants which are agronomically and economically desirable

1. Area, Production and Productivity of Horticultural Crops (2013-2014)

9.1 INTRODUCTION

When a new individual arises from a somatic cell without formation of a seed, it is called vegetative propagation. Vegetative propagation occurs naturally (i.e., natural vegetative propagation) in many crops, and profitably exploited in horticulture using either conventional or biotechnological artificial techniques. We shall discuss conventional artificial vegetative propagation in this chapter including cuttings, grafting, budding, layering, suckering, etc. They have been widely used for commercial propagation of fruit trees and ornamental shrubs.

10.1 Introduction

Industrial effluents, which are deteriorate their quality, and push them to the brink of extinction in the process of unplanned discharge, giving rise to the need for suitable conservation strategies for the receiving water body. Unfortunately, over the years, less attention has been given to industrial effluents world over. The degradation of the industrial effluents has altered their functions, affecting the ecological balance. The objectives of carrying out the physico-chemical and biological analyses of water bodies are as follows:

1. Generally, industrial effluent functions directly relate to their physical, chemical and biological integrity. Water quality evaluation for industrial effluent leads to information about their misuse by indicating the pollution status. 1st define water quality objectives as the overall direction and purpose of the industrial effluent and furthermore define goals as milestones to be met during the course of a book. Since the quality of aquatic life depends on the water quality, a thorough assessment of the water quality is an integral part of industrial effluent toxicity evaluation. The assessment of the chemical criteria of the industrial effluent helps in

Introduction

Solid waste management is a worldwide problem and it is becoming more and more complicated day by day due to rise in population, industrialization and changes in our life style. Large quantities of organic wastes are produced from agricultural production and farming systems which include animal manures, sewage biosolids, food wastes, and industrial organic wastes. Globally, these wastes have the potential of increasing soil and water pollution as because they are currently disposed of by land-spreading, incineration, or into landfills. As much as 50%-60% of the total wastes that are disposed into landfills are organic wastes. If these were turned into materials useful in farming system, there would be great savings in primary plant nutrients and metabolic energy.

Vermicomposting has been arising as an innovative eco-technology for the method by which compost or mixed manure of organic origin or conversion of various types of waste is prepared by the use of earthworms. It is a controlled degradation (non-thermophilic, boioxidative process) of the organic wastes for the consumption of earthworms, helps in the recycling of food wastes, reduces the waste bulk density and the final product may contain hormone-like substance which accelerates the plant growth. Vermicompost is humus like, finely granulated and stabilized material which can be used as a soil conditioner to reintegrate the organic matter to the agricultural soils. Industrial wastes remain largely unutilized and often cause environmental problems like ground and surface water pollution, foul odours, occupying vast land areas etc. Non-toxic and organic industrial wastes could be potential raw material for vermitechnology. In the last two decades, vermin-technology has been applied for the management of industrial wastes and sludges and to convert them into vermicompost for land restoration practices. The success of the process depends upon several process parameters like quality of raw material, pH, temperature, moisture, aeration etc., type of vermicomposting system and earthworm species used. Vermicomposting and vermiculture are two interlinked and interdependent processes where vermiculture can be done in the presence of decomposable waste organic matter

3.1 Introduction

The green revolution has no doubt provided great increase in the production of food crops, but has led to a sizeable increase in energy use. With the cost of energy raising constantly and shortage faced in developing countries, the energy conservation given a special importance. It has been estimated that potential for conservation of commercial energy is around 20% in transport, 25% in industrial and 30 percent in agriculture. In a country like India where about 70% of people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Agriculture being the primary sector has got its importance. Mechanisation of agriculture is inevitable for farm productivity. Mechanization of agriculture has two forms job requiring traction work, mobile mechanization need the use of machines for such jobs as pulling and drawing efforts e.g. plowing and tillage operations like harrowing, leveling, rolling, seeding, harvesting and hauling .

4.1 Principles of Economics

• ‘Economics’ word derived from two Greek words, oikos (a house) and

nemein (to manage) means ‘managing an household’

• Microeconomics: Study of the behavior of individual, small, isolated

and disaggregated units.

• Macroeconomics: Study of groups and broad aggregates of the economy.

• Adam Smith wrote the book- “An Enquire into the Nature and Causes of

Wealth of

• Nations” or in short “Wealth of Nations” in 1776.

• Adam Smith is known as father of modern economics.

4.2 Wealth Definition - Adam smith

• Adam smith (1723 - 1790), in his book “An Inquiry into Nature and

Causes of Wealth of Nations” (1776)

4.3 Welfare Definition - Alfred Marshall

• Alfred Marshall (1842 - 1924) wrote a book “Principles of Economics”

(1890)

• Alfred Marshall defined “Political Economy” or Economics is a study

of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of

individual and social action which is most closely connected with the

attainment and with the use of the material requisites of well being”.

4.4 Scarcity Definition - Lionel Robbins

• Lionel Robbins published a book “An Essay on the Nature and

Significance of Economic Science” in 1932.

• Robbins defined, “economics is a science which studies human behaviour

as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative

uses”.

Definition and Scope
Offshore aquaculture, also known as open-ocean aquaculture, is an emerging approach to farming aquatic organisms in exposed, deeper waters further from the coastline than traditional nearshore aquaculture. While a precise definition remains elusive due to variations in regulatory frameworks and geographical contexts, offshore aquaculture is generally characterized by its location in deeper, more energetic waters with stronger currents and increased distance from shore (Holmer, 2010). This distinction from nearshore operations, typically situated in sheltered bays or estuaries, has significant implications for environmental impact, species suitability, and technological requirements.
Key characteristics of offshore aquaculture
• Increased depth and distance from shore: Offshore aquaculture operations are typically situated in waters deeper than 30 meters and at a significant distance from the coast, often beyond the territorial waters of a country (Buck et al., 2018). This exposes the cultured organisms to stronger currents, greater wave action, and a more dynamic environment compared to nearshore farms

The soil–plant relationship is central to crop productivity because soil conditions directly influence root development, water uptake, nutrient availability and plant growth. This chapter focuses particularly on the problems associated with salt-affected soils, including saline, sodic and acid soils. It explains the formation, distribution and characteristics of saline soils and describes the production constraints created by salinity stress. The effects of salinity on plant growth, evaluation of saline soils, reclamation and leaching are discussed together with leaching requirements and crop salt tolerance. Water and nutrient management strategies for saline soils, including the use of biofertilizers, are considered. Sodic soils are examined through their formation, characteristics, exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), followed by reclamation practices and amendment use, particularly gypsum. The chapter also addresses acid soils, their formation, chemical characteristics, nutrient availability, plant-growth constraints and amelioration through liming. Calcareous soils and their management are also included, providing a comprehensive treatment of problematic soils affecting soil–plant interactions

4.1 Introduction
In many surveys, information on an auxiliary (supplementary, ancillary or apriori) variable x, which is highly (positively or negatively)correlated with the variable y under study, is readily available and can be used for improving the sampling design. Stratified sampling and probability proportional to size (p.p.s) schemes are two examples of improved sampling designs, in which the use of data on auxiliary variable has been made. However in both the schemes, it implies that the information on auxiliary variable on individual sampling units is available prior to presentation of sampling design. In case, data on auxiliary variable for individual sampling units are not available but only the aggregate value for all units of auxiliary variable is available, the two schemes can not be used. In such a situation, the aggregate data on auxiliary variable can still be used at the time of estimation of parameters under consideration, provided the data on auxiliary variable for the sampled units can be easily obtained at the time of recording the values of the study variable. Such types of estimation are based on ratio, product, difference and regression methods of estimation.

Abstract

Bioinformatics is a discipline combining biology, mathematics and the technology including computational tools and databases. It is one of the fast growing fields in the scientific community. This chapter is intended to provide an overview of the important databases of bioinformatics used for research in molecular biology, taxonomy, conservation biology, forensics and medicine and for the commercial applications in pharmaceutical industry and agricultural biotechnology. This chapter also describes various internet resources available in the field of Bioinformatics.

Introduction

Bioinformatics has emerged as one of the important scientific disciplines which revolutionized application of life sciences in our day to day life. A simple definition of bioinformatics is: “Bioinformatics is the use of computational techniques for the consolidation and analysis of large scale experimental biological data”. Hence, Bioinformatics has transformed the life science discipline from a purely wet lab-based science to a computationally assisted information science.

Application of bioinformatics in life science has multi facets right from gene discovery to drug design where the knowledge on sequence, structure and function of genes and proteins take the lead. The objectives of biological database generation are to: (i) organize the large scale experimental biological data for further investigation, (ii) make the biological data available globally and (iii) avoid duplication of experiments.

The Context

A series of interventions initiated in mid-1960s that led to the green revolution in cereal production transformed the country from a situation of food def iciency to self sufficiency. The green revolution was however, restricted to productivity improvements in cereals especially wheat and rice in the initial decades, primarily grown in irrigated regions. In subsequent decades, productivity increased in other crops, namely oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, fruits and vegetables. The Green Revolution generally by passed India’s vast rain fed tracts, especially arid zones, hill and mountain ecosystems and coastal regions, thus exacerbating agro-ecological and economic disparities. Although self sufficiency was attained in food grain production, potential of different crop varieties are yet to be attained. The main features of the green revolution were:

• exclusive focus on food grains

• intensive use of water, fertilizer and pesticides to maximize yields from High Yielding Varieties (HYVs)

• practically no focus on sustainability issues

• benefited the resource-rich and large farmers and

• dependent on few technological options focusing on hybrids, changes in plant architecture.

Various studies have demonstrated that the cashew tree responds to the application of mineral nutrients, though the responses are significantly affected by plant age, the genotype utilized, the conditions of cultivation, soil and climate and of the crop management (Barros et al., 1984; Ghosh, 1990; Ximenes, 1995; Bezerra et al., 1999; Crisóstomo et al., 2005). The crop develops well under semi-arid conditions, in which the problems associated with water availability and salt excess in the root environment are common. These two factors interfere with the acquisition of nutrients, in that the levels of nutrients in the plants are affected both by direct effects on absorption and transportation processes and by indirect effects associated with a reduction of growth of the various plant organs including the root system. The effect of salinity on plant nutrition depends on the types of salts that predominate in the cultivation environment which can result in a deficiency of essential nutrients and an excess of toxic ions. These changes under salt stress are accompanied by a loss of structural and functional integrity of the cellular membranes, a reduction in activity of various vital enzymes, and a diminished capacity of the roots to absorb nutrients (Zhu, 2001). On the other hand, water deficit reduces the extraction of nutrients from the soil, limiting the solubilization of nutrients in the root environment and altering the morphology of the root system (Kramer and Boyer, 1995). It should be added that the effects of excess salt and water deficit depend on various factors, including the species under study and the stage of development at which the plants are submitted to these.

Introduction
Ghee is the pure clarified butter fat prepared chiefly from cream and/or desi butter (Makhan) to which no colouring matter is added.  Ghee manufacture has great significance and relevance to Indian masses and the dairy industry. Ghee is a very popular product since ancient time and has greater demand during festival and other ceremonial functions where use of ghee in food has been considered to delicacy due to its pleasing flavour and aroma. There are sufficient recorded evidence to prove that the manufacture of ghee originated from India and has been used extensively for religious and dietary purposes since Vedic times. Presently about 28% of total milk production is utilized for manufacture of about 1 million tones of ghee per annum. It is the traditional product with an established market. Cow ghee is golden yellow in colour, and is attributed unique therapeutic value.  The colour of buffalo ghee is greenish yellow due to presence of pigments called billirubin and billiverdin. Ghee is characterized by its pleasant, cooked and rich flavour. The preferred texture is of larger uniform size from grains having non-greasy consistency.

4.1 Introduction

Insecticides, biocontrol agents and resistant varieties are the three important pest management tactics in vogue across the globe. Though several biocontrol agents have been recorded on major pests of economically important crops, mass multiplication techniques for most of them are yet to be perfected, and in several instances, the inundative releases of natural enemies are costlier than chemical insecticides. Moreover, unlike perennial crop ecosystems, the annual crop ecosystems like rice, cotton, sugarcane, pulses, etc. are frequently disturbed and hence, inoculative releases of biocontrol agents are often impractical. Above all, in spite of sustained effort from dedicated plant breeders across the globe, the resistant varieties with outstanding yield potential are very limited in numbers. Genetic engineering of crop plants though paved the way for introducing insecticidal genes more precisely and efficiently, the poorly understood ecological and sociological implications of genetically engineered crops in their target environment resist their strong footing in the pest management programmes in most of the crops especially of food crops. In this backdrop, insecticidal interference is inevitable to manage the insect pests, and they are the only weapon whenever the pest population crosses the economic threshold level.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is the third important beverage crop grown for its seeds known as beans, used mainly in chocolate industry. It is the source of cocoa butter and cocoa mass.

Fresh vegetables are essential part of a healthy diet as it is an important source of vitamins, minerals and fibers. The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably, though generally they contain little protein, fat and varying proportions of vitamins such as Vitamin A, Vitamin K and Vitamin B6, pro-vitamins, dietary minerals and carbohydrates (Woodruff, 1995; Whitaker, 2001). Vegetables contain multifarious other phytochemicals, some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anti-carcinogenic properties (Steinmetz and Potter, 1996; Gruda, 2005). A balanced diet should contain 250 - 325 g of vegetables and the average human requirement for vegetable is 285 g per person per day (Attavar, 2000). This perception of nutrition makes vegetables as a valued farm output.

Microbial inoculants in agriculture, horticulture and forestry can be defined as preparations containing strains of microorganisms which can augment the microbiological process such as nitrogen fixation, phosphate mobilization, excretion of growth promoting substances, decomposition of organic wastes, biocontrol of insect pests and diseases etc. Thus they become an important component of sustainable agriculture. Microbial inoculants are based on renewable sources available in soil and nature and are low cost input and eco-friendly. These inoculants carrying the microorganisms when applied to soil/plant promote plant growth and productivity.

12.1 Introduction
 
The design of the experiment includes (i) planning of the experiment (ii) obtaining the relevant information from it regarding the statistical hypothesis under study and (iii) making a statistical analysis of the data. Design of experiment may be defined as the logical construction of the experiment in which the degree of the uncertainty with which the inference is drawn may be well defined. It may also be redefined as the choice of treatments, the method of assigning treatments to experimental units and arrangement of experimental units in varies patterns to suit the requirement of particular problems, are combined known as the design of experiment.

The forest manager aims at producing maximum forest produce of desired quality from the unit forest area in a shortest possible period at a reasonable cost. There is a wide gap between production and requirement from forests. Increasing population and improved standard of living increases demand for forest products. Achieving this in a natural forest is more arduous job. Actual growing stocks in natural stand are poor in terms of vigour, size and quality. The regeneration from these poor stands will produce inferior quality trees. Hence management of forest is inevitable for its improvement.

Electron microscopy is a specialized branch of science, which uses the electron microscope as a tool. The electron microscope is an instrument which magnify smallest object thousands times. The magnification is not only requirement to see the smallest otherwise invisible object but the details of the object are most important. The details of the object are depending upon the resolving power of the microscope, which is known as the resolution of the microscope. This resolution or power of the microscope is depends upon the wavelength of the illuminating source. The smallest the wavelength of the illuminating sources is the best resolution of the microscope. Electron microscopes use electrons as an illumination source to take advantage of the very short wavelengths attainable in electron beam, which permit a considerable improvement in resolution over the light microscope.

Of the various microorganisms present in and around roots, VAM fungi occupy unique ecological position as they are partly inside and partly outside the host. Their internal phase encounters competition and antagonism from other beneficial symbiotic microbes while their external phase faces competition and antagonism from beneficial non-symbiotic microbes present around the roots. Since they have an ensured source of nutrients from the host, they have comparatively better conditions for their growth and may exert greater effect on plants with other symbiotic and non-symbiotic microbes in and around their roots. It has been pointed out that investigations are needed on the interactions between VAM fungi and these beneficial microbes, and their effect on growth and productivity in plants. A bulk of information has been collected related to this aspect; however, authentic generalization has not been possible as yet. Following description gives an account of the work done by Indian mycorrhizasts on the interactions between VAM fungi and other beneficial symbiotic/non-symbiotic microbes in and around the roots.

1. Tuber crops Starches

Tropical root and tuber crops are rich sources of starch (Ghosh et al., 1988; Chadha and Nair, 1994; Moorthy, 1994) besides many vitamins, minerals etc (Table 1). In addition to food applications, they have important industrial uses; especially, cassava in view of the considerable starch content. Cereals form the major source of commercial starches in most developed countries, but cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and to a lesser extent, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) tubers are used for starch extraction in India, Brazil, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines and China.

Abstract

Osmotic dehydration is gaining popularity due to several energy and product quality related advantages it offers. It has huge potential as a complementary process step prior to operations such as air-drying, microwave drying, freezing, frying etc, if not an alternative one, in the food process chain. It can be easily integrated with other processing steps in order to improve the overall efficiency of a given food process. Application of additional driving force either prior to or during osmotic dehydration can enhance the mass transfer rates in the osmotic dehydration. Role of mathematical modelling both in osmotic dehydration and rehydration have been discussed. Current limitations for the adaptation of osmotic dehydration in the food processing industry and possible solutions are also discussed in detail.

SYNOPSIS

Nature produces plants with healing properties. Hundreds of phytochemicals and antioxidants have been identified in various food plants. Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are several plant species which are cultivated for food, and many have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plant’s initial growth, including many healthful fats, such as Omega fats. In fact, the majority of foods consumed by human beings are seed-based foods.

SYNOPSIS

Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. In addition to essential vitamins, minerals, and fibers, plant foods contain phytochemicals and antioxidants, which actively provide protection against diseases. Several studies carried out all over the world have demonstrated the protective values of fruits. Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants have evolved fruits that are attractive as a food source to animals, so that animals will eat the fruits and excrete the seeds some distance away.

Of the various weather elements affecting crops, temperature and rainfall are perhaps the most important. It is the reason for the development of special flora and fauna in different climatic zones of the world as seen in the tropical, temperate and frigid zones. The tropical regions get abundant solar heat and the vegetation is high while it is low in the temperate regions. The vegetation is very little in the frigid zones. Similarly, natural vegetation is at its poor growth in the Arid Climates and better in the Humid Tropics. Xerophytes are confined to the Arid Climates where low rainfall is seen, while hydrophytes are confined to the Humid Tropics. Mesophytes are intermediate in their water requirement. Most of the crops are included in this group. If the crops are selected for cultivation on the basis of the optimum climatic requirements, it is likely that crop production can be maximised under rainfed as well as irrigated conditions. For example, coconut is grown in vast areas across the East and West Coasts of the Country in different agroclimatic zones and known as a coastal tree. It gives reasonably better yield in terms of quantity and quality in the Humid Tropics under rainfed conditions. However, the coconut yield scenario is totally different when the crop is cultivated in Semi-arid Tropics under irrigation. Therefore, it is a complex phenomenon to understand the influence of weather and climate on crops under rainfed and irrigated conditions in various climatic zones. The production potential of crops under field conditions could be explained through crop-wise agroclimatic zonation, whether the crop is well-suited with minimum inputs for maximising yields under rainfed conditions, but not under irrigated conditions due to crop manipulation. Many attempts were made to explain the climatic boundaries for various crops based on agroclimatic indices under rainfed conditions.

6.1  Write True/False

Q.1    A procedure to make an inference about the unknown values of parameters of one or more than one distribution in which the sample size say n is a ramdom variable, is known as “Sequential procedure.”
Q.2    The principal feature of sequential procedure is a ‘Sampling Scheme’ which provides a rule under which one decides at each stage of sampling whether to stop or continue the sampling work.

The rootstocks are known to have a profound effect on the vigour, productivity, precocity, fruit quality and tree longevity of scion varieties grafted or budded onto them. They also influence the susceptibility of scion trees to various diseases and pests. It is well recognised that optimum performance of scion varieties depends on the proper selection of rootstocks for a given set of agro-climatic conditions. To achieve success in orcharding, always select a right type of rootstock for the particular fruit or variety. In addition, it is important to raise the stock seedlings in a proper manner so that there is good germination and the stock seedlings are ready for budding/grafting in the shortest possible time. Rootstock seeds of desired fruits and varieties must be ensured from reliable sources.

Presently, potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the world’s third most important crop, after wheat and rice. Tubers of the potato plant have been used as a primary nutritional staple and a carbohydrate source in many diets and as the basis for a variety of processed products throughout the world. Owing to climate change, potato production is expected to fall in the coming decades, predictions asserting that global potato yields will decrease by 9–18% in most parts of the world. Availability of new varieties less sensitive to these environmental cues is thus crucial to overcome the negative effects of global warming. Of various developmental phases, tuberization is the most sensitive stage in potato limiting its climate associated geographical distribution and actual yield.  Hence, understanding the tuberization process becomes even more important in the face of changing global climate. The induction of tuber formation is a key developmental transition for the production of potatoes.  Understanding the regulation of tuber induction is essential to devise strategies to improve tuber yield and quality.

Onion is one of the most important commercial vegetable crops grown all over India. Onions are bulbous, biennial, herbaceous and are typically grown as annual, which give off a distinctive and pungent odour when the tissues are crushed. Characteristic pungency and flavour in onion are due to a volatile sulphur compound, allyl-propyl disulphide. This organo sulphur compound has potential for anticarcinogenic secondary metabolites. Pungency varies with cultivar, growing condition, stage of maturity and storage conditions.

It is such a unique vegetable, used throughout the year in the form of salad or condiment or for cooking with other vegetables. Onions are used for flavour, aroma and taste in preparation of vegetables and used in the form of dehydrated, freezing, canning and pickling. Onion salt is prepared by dehydration and used in flavouring.

Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), commonly known as prickly pear, belongs to the family Cactaceae. In local parlence, cactus is called nagphani or danda thohar. In Tamil Nadu, it is commonly known as chapathi balli. The word “cactus” derived through Latin from the ancient Greek kaktos, a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant (Johnson et al., 1972) which may have been the Cynara cardunculus (Sonnante et al., 2007). It is a storehouse of virtues that have been commercially unexploited so far in India. In addition, certain genera, such as Optuntia and Nopalea have economically useful plant parts. Different parts of the cactus can be used as fruit and vegetable for human consumption, fodder for cattle, and raw material for various industries to prepare plywood, soap, dyes, adhesives and glue, pharmaceutical products for treating blood sugar and various other disorders, and cosmetics such as shampoo, cream, and body lotions, etc. (Barbera et al., 1995 and  Pimienta, 1994). Similarly, the tender young pads of Optunia and Nopalea species, known as nopalitos, are extensively used as a fresh green vegetable in Mexico and Texas. Even its seeds can be used as flavouring agents. Use of cactus pear as a waterproof paint for homes is also reported.

Ever since the dawn of civilization, dependence on plants has been indispensable for human survival. Transformation from food gathering to settled agriculture necessitated domestication of plant species useful for mankind leading to co-evolution of plants and man in absolute harmony with nature. Natural disasters like famines, floods, epidemics have often led people to search new plant species for human consumption. Out of an estimated total of 80,000 plants of possible economic use, about 30,000 plants have been found to be edible in nature and approximately 7,000 plants have been cultivated by mankind at one time or the other, of which only 158 plants are widely used for food (Wilson, 1992). Among these, 30 crops provide 90% of the world’s food and only 10 crops supply 75% of the world’s food budget. Out of the above only three crops, rice, wheat and maize provide 60% of the world’s total food requirement (Paroda, 2000). This dangerously narrow level of food base may imperil the existence of mankind during a time of impending crisis in unforeseen times in the future.

Growth of horticulture is the cornerstone for augmenting employment opportunities in agriculture sector both directly and indirectly. Of late, there is a marked shift in the cropping pattern towards diversification into high value commercial crops in the country. To make horticulture viable and profitable, the thrust should be on improving the resource use efficiency, so that the relative profitability could be enhanced. Success in horticulture is more technology driven compared to other crops. The time bound removal of quantitative curbs on imports and other barriers to access domestic market under WTO, of which India is a signatory, will require Indian Horticultural produce / products to become competitive both in the domestic and international markets. This would call for use of Hi-tech horticulture technologies. The term Hi-Tech Horticulture was coined in recent years. There are no standard definitions for this. The Department of Agriculture and Co-operation,GOI in 1999 defined Hi-tech Horticulture as “any technology which is modern, less environment dependent, capital intensive and has the capacity to improve the productivity and quality of horticultural crops”.

To an immunologist, the presence of embryo inside the mother’s uterus is perhaps one of the most surprising things. Pregnancy is a unique event in which a genetically and immunologically foreign foetus usually survives to full term without apparent rejection by the mother’s immune system. Thus, Pregnancy represents the unique physiological phenomenon of the symbiosis of two semi-allogeneic individuals: the mother and her fetus. Such symbiosis requires a sophisticated immunological regulation to avoid rejection-like reactions and to control the invasion of foreign foetal tissue into the maternal deciduas. A very fine tuning of cellular interactions at the interface of both individuals is indispensible for successful implantation and pregnancy.

Over the past decade, more information has been gathered to provide insight into the complex immunological mechanisms that allow the foetus to grow and survive in most cases.

1. Introduction

 Mushrooms have been part of man’s diet for centuries (Rajarathnam and Shashirekha, 2003). Mushrooms grow on wide range of agro-residues, biodegrade and biotransform them into edible fruiting bodies (Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1988a; 1988b; 1990; Zakia Bano and Rajarathnam, 1988; Zakia Bano et al., 1993; Rajarathnam et al., 1998). Their post-harvest life is very ephemeral at room temperature (Rajarathnam et al., 1983) due to delicate flavor (Rajarathnam et al., 1990) and high moisture content, with a range of chemical constituents (Zakia Bano and Rajarathnam, 1986; 1982; 1988; Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1990; Rajarathnam et al., 1983; 1992). Since, they contain large quantities of water and therefore suffer considerable weight loss during transportation and storage, causes serious economic losses, due to reductions in weight and quality (Gray, 1970). When the supply of water, organic substances and minerals are cut off at harvest, the fresh mushroom enters a deterioration or perishable phase. Cap opening and stem elongation are the usual symptoms of senescence constituting visible evidence of deterioration. At room temperature, the shelf-life of mushrooms cannot be for more than 24 h (Rajarathnam et al., 1983). During this period, there are considerable changes in color, texture and taste. In addition, water is continuously being lost as a result of transpiration and respiration. Additional loss occurs from surface cracks and bruises that develop during growth and handling (Salunkhe et al, 1991). Fresh mushrooms are white or light buff, with no dark marks on either the cap or stem. The veil is closed and the gills are not visible. The upper surface of the caps should be strongly convex and stems should be plump rather than elongated. Mushrooms are grown on compost, usually in mushroom houses where the temperature and humidity can be controlled. Eventually after harvest, the mushrooms can never be able to withstand any increase in temperature and decrease in relative humidity. Mushrooms are commercially preferred at the immature stage characterized by closed caps, invisible lamellae, round stipe and light color. Agaricus development is classified into various stages (Table 1). Thus, the concept of physiology of fresh mushrooms being very complicated, bears a great impact on the delicate problem of extending the storage life. The various means and methods studied and adopted by various researchers to aim at extended storage life of fresh produce, underlined by its physical, chemical and biochemical properties and also development of value added products are critically evaluated.

1. Introduction

As dealt in earlier chapters, fruits and vegetables represent the most essential of horticultural component for acreage of production, yield, nutritional and nutraceutical values, of definite taste, texture, flavor and colour, involving defined health and medicinal benefits. Every year and over the course of every ten years, significant quantum of research data accumulates on the various facets of fruit and vegetable technologies, and also trends in production, processing and marketing, may also tend to change. At every stage, more thinking has gone to improve the technology, product quality and cost economics to suit wider markets, both domestic and foreign. It is a continuous endeavor to record newer and newer problems emerging and to set the strategies to solve them. Several relevant references, fitting to the various aspects representing the cross section of the fruit and vegetable technologies are dealt here, to conclude the subject and spell out the future.
Consumer demand for healthy convenience meals with ‘near fresh’ properties challenges researchers and industry to develop new or improved conservation procedures for processed products. Development of a dehydration process based on electromagnetic energy (EME) may bring about a major breakthrough with respect to retention of product quality and improved rehydration characteristics (Nijhuis et. al., 1996). Economic potential and current limitations of fruit and vegetable processing in India included improvements in preliminary treatment (harvesting, washing/cooling) precooling (including refrigerated transport/storage) and processing of juices and pulps. Establishment of a National Horticulture Board has aided to provide market information and so aid growers to get remunerative prices (Anon, 1993). The use of food irradiation as a quarantine method for treatment of food and agriculture commodities was organized by the joint Food and Agriculture Organization/International Atomic Energy Agency Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on 27-31 Aug., 1990. (FAO,1992). This has been experimented with various commodities, particularly for export trade of fruits like mango, as stipulated by the importing country like U.S.A.

Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), commonly known as prickly pear, belongs to the family Cactaceae. In local parlence, cactus is called nagphani or danda thohar. In Tamil Nadu, it is commonly known as chapathi balli. The word “cactus” derived through Latin from the ancient Greek kaktos, a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant (Johnson et al., 1972) which may have been the Cynara cardunculus (Sonnante et al., 2007). It is a storehouse of virtues that have been commercially unexploited so far in India. In addition, certain genera, such as Optuntia and Nopalea have economically useful plant parts. Different parts of the cactus can be used as fruit and vegetable for human consumption, fodder for cattle, and raw material for various industries to prepare plywood, soap, dyes, adhesives and glue, pharmaceutical products for treating blood sugar and various other disorders, and cosmetics such as shampoo, cream, and body lotions, etc. (Barbera et al., 1995 and Pimienta, 1994). Similarly, the tender young pads of Optunia and Nopalea species, known as nopalitos, are extensively used as a fresh green vegetable in Mexico and Texas. Even its seeds can be used as flavouring agents. Use of cactus pear as a waterproof paint for homes is also reported.

Cacti in pots may be placed outside in the summer to ornament gardens or patios, and then kept under cover during the winter (Anderson, 1999). Less drought-resistant epiphytes, such as epiphyllum hybrids, Schlumbergera also called Thanksgiving or Christmas cactus and Hatiora called the Easter cactus, are widely cultivated as houseplants. Cacti may also be planted outdoors in regions with suitable climates. Concern for water conservation in arid regions has led to the promotion of xeriscaping.

A. First Aid
1. Abscess
What to Do

    ·    Abscesses should be examined by a veterinarian as soon as possible and within 24 hours.
 
    ·    Fluid may normally drain from the site of an abscess. An abscess does not drain through the tube, but rather around the latex tubing. Therefore, it is important for you to clean the area around the drain twice daily with warm water.

    ·    Apply a hot compress to the affected site at least two times daily for 3 to 5 days after the animal leaves the hospital. Wet a clean washcloth with very warm water and place it directly over the affected site, and then apply gentle pressure ideally for 5 to 10 minutes.

Crop yields are affected by a combination of abiotic stresses, biotic stresses, and nutritional factors but abiotic stresses (drought, heat, cold or salinity) are the major factors that prevent crops from realizing their full yield potential (Edmeades, 2009). In traditional approach, breeders grow and cross varieties and then evaluate how the progenies vary in their ability to deal with stresses. The best-adapted plants are then selected for growing in fields exposed to stresses. Biotechnologists have taken advantage of recent advances in biotechnology and functional genomics to genetically engineer crops which can give better yield in adverse conditions than the unmodified ones (Manavalan et al., 2009; Umezawa et al., 2006). Drought, extreme temperatures (high or low), high salinity and cold are the major abiotic stresses that affect plant growth and result in significant yield losses. Although plants have evolved a wide spectrum of programs for adaptation to changing environment, the current understanding of the mechanisms associated with the ability of crops to maintain yield under abiotic stress are poorly understood (Witcombe et al., 2008; Munns et al., 2008; Bartels et al., 2005). New advances in ‘omic’ technologies are providing opportunities for identification of transcriptional, translational and post-translational mechanisms and signaling pathways that regulate the plant response. This chapter describers several examples of how modern crop technologies may be applied to broaden crop tolerance of various abiotic stresses and to increase total biomass.

Abstract: Dry land ecosystems cover about 41% of the earth’s land surface including hyper arid region. There is a considerable difference between them, in which arid region covers 7% of global lands. These are barely productive and provide a meager existence to small populations, usually nomadic with little settlements as in Thar desert. In addition to hyper arid, other types are arid, semi and dry-subhumid, which are in danger of becoming desertified. Environmental conditions are harsh affecting agriculture production. People of Indian arid zone are well acquainted about agroforestry- an age old practice in India, but maintaining only a few trees on farmlands does not serve the growing demand of fodder, fueldwood and food. Adoption of alternate land use systems like alley cropping, lay farming, tree farming, dryland horticulture etc. may intensify crop production and sustain the rural livelihoods. The selection of tree/shrub species may be based on the tolerance towards drought, salitnity/alkalinity prevailing in the region. Based on arrangements and combinations of trees/shrubs with associated crops, agroforestry are categorized into: agri-silviculture, agri-horticulture, agripasture, silvipasture, hortipasture and silviherbal. Common trees are P. cinreraria, T. undulata, Salvadora oleoides, Acacia nilotica, A. tortilis, Ailanthus excelsa, Zizyphus nummularia, Z, mauritiana etc.