eChapters

Introduction

Famous French postmodern philosopher Jean Baudrillard commented on information once. “Information can tell us everything. It has all the answers. But they are answers to questions we have not asked, and which doubtless don’t even arise.” This seemingly paradox observation fits contemporary Internet age perfectly. Internet is a vast repository of information of all kinds and is bursting on its seams. The seeker needs to search with monumental grit and determination to have a full handle on the range of information available for any particular search. A search string for GIS returns more than 1185000 results, in a mere 0.26 seconds. Recommending a comprehensive resource list is not possible as new material gets continually added by way of additions and updates. However for a beginner the list given below will be handy. The flip side is GIS has innumerable resources and a broad range of content. Software vendors, organizations, individuals, universities and companies have provided a wealth of information. The readers are exhorted to make use of the materials to improve their understanding of the subject.

IPGRI founded in 1974 is the world’s largest international institute dedicated solely to the conservation and use of plant genetic resources. It is located at Rome in Italy. The institute is funded by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIR) which is an informal association of 45 public and private sector donors. CGIAR supports a network of 16 International Agricultural Research Centres. The Group was established in 1971. It is cosponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

Biodiversity is the foundation stone of human survival on the earth. Very appropriately, the theme of the World Food Day celebration, 16 October, 2004 was “Biodiversity for Food Security” Biological diversity is fundamental to agriculture and food production. Scientists have identified so far about 1.4 million of the plant and animal species that exist on earth. A rich variety of cultivated plants and animals serves as the foundation for agricultural biodiversity. Yet people depend on just 14 mammal and bird species for 90 % of their food supply from animals. Just four plant species, namely, wheat, maize, rice and potato provide half of our energy from plants (FAO, 2004).

India is located between 8^°- 38^° N and 68^°- 97^ºE and exhibits extreme variation in altitude — from sea level to heights above vegetational limits in the Himalayas (ca 4500 m), and climate — from monsoon- tropical in south to temperate and alpine in the north-western Himalayas and extremely arid to semi-arid in the north-western plains. It is floristically extremely rich with about 33 percent of its botanical wealth (over 15,000 species of higher plants) being endemic. There are about 141 endemic genera distributed over 47 families. Further, of the 4,900 endemic species, larger percentage is localised in the Himalayas (about 2,532 species) than in other regions, namely, the peninsular tract (1,788 species), and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (185 species). It is also estimated that floristic richness is maximum in the north-eastern region, which holds about 50 percent of India’s total species diversity, i.e., more than 7,000 species, and is considered as the cradle of flowering plants. Of 990 species of orchids, 700 species occur in this region (Nayar, 1989). This, thus, makes the Indian region botanically unique and interesting (Arora, 1991).

Certified seed must meet certain seed standards in order to ensure an adequate level of seed purity along with the reasonable level of seed germination so that the farmer gets a good stand of the crop conforming to the varietal description. The components of the seed standard are as follows :
     The minimum percentage of pure seed 
     The maximum permissible limit for inert matter 
     Other crops seeds  
     Weed seeds 
     The maximum permissible limit for objectionable weeds 
     The maximum permissible limits of seeds of other distinguishable varieties (ODV) 
     Maximum permissible limits of seeds infected by seed bone diseases 
These standards are ensured in the seed crop by strictly adhering to field standards and careful harvesting, threshing, seed drying and then brining the same to the seed processing /seed conditioning plants. The Indian minimum seed standards for different crops are given in Tables 24.1-24.3 (Agarwal, 1995).

Seed certification is a legal programme to maintain and make available to the public high quality seeds and planting material of genetically distinct crop varieties. Under seed production programme, quality seed is produced by govt. farms research stations, progressive farmers and seed producers using careful quality control, pedigreed plant stock, field inspections during the growing season and seed inspections after the harvest. Certification is an officially recognized method for maintaining varietal identity of the seed. In India certification is carried out by State Seed Certification Agencies.

Intellectual Property Right, IPR is a general term covering patents, registered design, trademarks, copyrights, layout design of integrated circuits, trade secrets, geographical indicators and competitive practices in contractual license.

Abstract

Endophytes are microorganisms  that live inside the living plant tissues for at least part of their life without causing any apparent disease symptoms in the host. In general  they  can be divided into two main types namely, obligate and facultative endophytes. Facultative endophytes are capable to survive in the soil, on the plant surface, inside the plants as well as on artificial nutrients and can be cultured away from their host. Endophytes which inhabit inside plant tissues throughout their lifespan are called as obligate endophytes. Natural products produced by endophytic microbes are found to be antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer, antioxidants, antidiabetic and immunosuppressant. Therefore, endophytes form an untapped source of novel natural compounds for application in agriculture, medicine and industry.

Abstract

The medicinal plant, Nithyakalyani, Catharanthusroseus is valued for its alkaloid and the content varied, among root (0.14 to 1.43%), stem (0.48%), fruit (0.4%), seed (0.18%) and pericaup (1.14%). The biofertilizer consortium development includes Catharanthusroseus. Azosppirillumlipoferum CAZS-4, Azotobaterchroococcum CAZB-1, Bacillusmegaterium CPB-18 and Pseudomonasflourescens CPF-14. The relative chemotactic response (RCR) of the strains to anionic fraction is more than that of cationic and neutral fractions. The consortium treated plants possessed 1.120 mg g^-1 of ajmalicine on 180 DAS, and the antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD) (13.240 U mg of protein hr-1), peroxide (POX) (11.240 U mg of protein hr-1) and catalase (CAT) (9.000 U mg of protein hr^-1) values were higher on 150 DAS. The consortium increased the biomass production by 50-75 per cent with proportionate increase in the mineral nutrient content. Biofertilizer consortium is the most effective organic input for biomass production.

Chemicals in the form of insecticides ,fungicides and herbicides are extensively used in large numbers in agricultural production. Commercial production of some crops would be impossible if chemicals are not used. Small quantities of chemical residues often remain in such crops and the harvested grains and other products. The residues of pesticides  have been observed in small quantities (ppm level) in soil, water, agricultural produce  and even in animal tissues and their products like meat and  milk. They finally reach the consumer, namely, man (and even animals). Even the environment  is  now-a-days polluted with pesticides and other chemicals harmful to the humans. In view of the importance and seriousness of the problem the residues need to be estimated in the food and non-food products to assess their safety. Analytical details of a few pesticide residue procedures are presented below. Specialized texts may be consulted for  more extensive information.

Male sterility is a situation where the male reproductive parts of a plant are either absent, aborted, or non-functional; and therefore, they fail to participate in the process of natural sexual reproduction. This situation generally arises due to some developmental defect that occurs at any stage of microsporogenesis (process of development or release of pollen grains) in the plants. Since male sterility is the manifestation of abnormal growth and development and can occur at any point of time, the action of genes controlling male sterility is also be variable and inconsistent across the genotypes. Based on the type of malfunctioning of androecium, the male sterility systems have been classified as structural (absence or deformity of anthers), sporogenous (defective microsporogenesis), and functional (failure of mature pollen to germinate). In addition, on the basis of genetic control mechanism of the male sterility, it has also been classified as genetic, cytoplasmic, and cytoplasmic nuclear (or genetic) male sterility. With respect to utilization of male sterility in crop breeding, it is essential that individuals with altered male fertility keep their female fertility intact. The fertilization of such plants takes place with pollen grains from other plant that is transferred with the help of external agencies such as wind, insects, or human beings.

Summary

Tropical forests are declining sharply and continuously growing demand of wood leads to removal of trees from their natural habitats. Clonal propagation of superior trees is must for further exploration and conservation of these genetic resource. Tissue culture technique offers rapid and large scale propagation of desired traits. However, micropropagation of adult trees is difficult; many problems are associated like- maturity, contamination, phenolic leaching, season, variants, long life cycle, etc. Shoot bud culture is the easiest and successful tissue culture technique for the toughest material to clone- mature trees. The chapter deals with the bud culture method of heartwoods and associated problems at different stages – explant establishment, shoot multiplication, rooting and acclimatization. Also the possible solutions of the problems are discussed on the basis of previous reports.

Summary
 
Although the concept of IPM, with emphasis on minimum use of pesticides: is well established and widely practiced in India, pest population still continue to be unabated, often reaching to alarming levels .Development of non chemical methods of pest control  as component of IPM tactics is a priority area of research today. Development of multiple resistance in larval stages against recommended insecticides ,spoiling of crop ecosystem with toxic chemicals and consequences of health hazards is the best alternative to control the pest in adult stage before they reproduce. Use of light trap is one such potential methods of control for the species known to be positively phototropic in adult stage. Rice is one of the most important cereal crop grown in different parts of world , serving as staple diet for millions of people . The losses due to insect pests in rice are very high and the pesticidal use in this crop is second highest after cotton in world .The positive feature of using light trap as IPM tool for survey ,monitoring , detection and control tool is that most of the insect pest species of rice are phototropic in nature and collected in sufficient numbers in light trap .Therefore use of light trap for imparting eco-integrity  by minimizing indiscriminate use of chemicals ,reduction of pest management cost and enhancement of farm income can be very useful for achieving the ultimate goal of sustainability in rice cultivation. 

Summary

Nanotechnology, the science of nanoscale structures has been applied in various fields including in biomedical sciences. Nanotechnology is being increasingly used to create materials and devices so as to interact with the body at sub-cellular scales with a high degree of specificity. Nanotechnology is used in the fight against cancer, cardiac and neurodegenerative disorders, infection and other diseases. This chapter provides an overview of some of the applications of nanotechnology in the field of biomedical sciences particularly with a focus on tissue engineering and medical diagnostics.

The primary purpose in plant breeding is to develop better varieties. In order to realize the potential benefit from an improved variety, it should be distributed widely and sufficient seed must be produced so that the variety can be grown on farms in the areas to which it is adopted.  Otherwise much of the breeders work would be wasted.

Variety is a synonym of cultivar and has been defined in the International Code for the Nomenclature for cultivated plants (Anon 1980.) in article 10. ‘’The international term cultivar denotes as assemblage of cultivated plants which is clearly distinguished by any characteristics (morphological, physiological, cytological, chemical or others) and which, When reproduced (sexually or asexually) retains its distinguishing characters”. Indian Seeds Act, under its sub-section 16 of section 2 defined variety as “a sub-division of a kind identifiable by growth, yield, plant, fruit, seed or other characteristic”. Both definitions emphasize that variety should be distinguishable from others and capable of retaining its distinguishable features under multiplication. Therefore production of genetically pure and otherwise good quality pedigree seed is an exacting task requiring high technical skills and comparatively more financial investment. During seed production strict attention must be given to the maintenance of genetic purity and other qualities of seeds in order to exploit the full dividends sought to be obtained by introduction of new superior crop plant varieties.

Two decades after India’s independence, during the 1960s, the formal seed sector in India was dominated by the Public sector. It was in 1961 that the National Seeds Corporation (NSC) was established under the Ministry of Agriculture and was at the centre of seed production of breeders, foundation and certified seeds and their quality control. In furtherance of their control in the seeds sector, the National Seeds Project (NSP) was undertaken by the Indian Government in 1967 along with the assistance of the World Bank. In the sixties, the traditional crop breeding and seed production programmes were significantly transformed and modernized with initiation of hybrid development programme in maize, sorghum and pearl millet and introduction, breeding and release of semi dwarf high yielding varieties of wheat and rice.  Indian Seeds Act was enacted in 1966 ensuring official release of varieties and their quality seed production

ABSTRACT

Concomitant with paradigm shift from agrarian and brick and mortar economy to knowledge and service based economy, India needs to adhere to the international conventions for the benefit of enriching its knowledgebase with which economic development and social welfare could be achieved. Although geoscientific research has been at the forefront and contributed immensely to our country’s economic development, number of applications for patents, copyrights, etc., on geoscientific concepts, databases, innovations, designs or processes has been negligible when compared with other branches of science. This paper intends drawing the attention of geoscientists on this lacuna and provides information on fundamental aspects of IPR that may be of help to geoscientists whose innovations are waiting to be filed for patents or copyright.

Abstract

Intellectual property right (IPR) is the most serious, new branch of law and a legal right conferred by federal government in accordance with International conventions and treaties. IPR protects some of the finer manifestations of human achievement. IPR safeguards the application of ideas and information that are of commercial value. The exploitable ideas become more sophisticated and hope for a successful economic future depends increasingly upon the superior corpus of new knowledge and fashionable conceits.  Copyright law is one of the effective tools of IPR. Copyright law provides an incentive to creative activity of author and permits the society to benefit from those inventions. However, the technological advancement has made violation of copyright very easy and regulation very difficult. This paper aims at familiarizing  copyright laws and the powers enshrined in copyright laws.

Introduction

Nature has been performing wonderful feats for millions of years. All organisms from microbes to humans are powered by highly evolved molecular and cellular machines that operate at nano scale. The capability to manipulate, control, assemble, functionalise, produce and manufacture things at atomic precision provides an opportunity to understand this new and exciting field of science. Nanotechnology is application of science to control the properties and structure of matter at nanometric scale.

Introduction

Biological systems are complex and are full of mysteries. Understanding function in relation to structure is crucial in many biological systems. A microscope is used to magnify, resolve and visualize a substance that is impossible to see by naked eyes and plays a vital role in various biological studies. We can visualize macroscopic organisms like animals, plants, and insects by the unaided eye but not bacteria, viruses or individual proteins. Biological structures have sizes variable over such a wide range that is not possible for a single microscopic technique to analyze all of them. Therefore, different types of microscopes with varying magnification and resolving abilities were developed to unveil the structural complexities of biomolecules (Fig. 1). Over the last 100 years, several types of microscopes have been designed and used in various fields. The microscopes work on different principles, and have a broad range of applications.

Introduction

Plant diseases are one of the causes of concern in agriculture and horticulture industry. Estimated global crop loss due to plant diseases exceeds hundred billion US$ worldwide (Orke et al. 1994; Narayanasamy, 2010). Plant diseases are caused by microorganism such as fungi, bacteria, viral, viroids and phytoplasma. Most of the plant pathogens are transmitted through seed or planting material, which can spread secondarily through vectors and lead to severe loss to the crop. Among plant diseases, viral diseases cause serious crop losses and affect the quality of products, while the use of virus- free seeds and planting stocks results in a substantial increase in agricultural crop production (Waterworth & Hadidi, 1998; Strange& Scott, 2005).

Introduction
 
Nanotoxicity is a serious concern to be addressed sooner than later as nano-based processes and products in various fields are being extensively exploited. Nanotoxicology is the science of engineered nanodevices and nanostructures that deals with their effects in living organisms (Oberdorster et al., 2005). The unique property of nanoparticles is in its very large surface area to mass ratio, which is considered to be a boon to create novel products. But this distinctive property also challenges the way we identify, understand and address potential risks caused by nanoparticles (Rajkishore et al., 2011). It is sufficient to alert us to the fact that some engineered nanoparticles do indeed behave differently to their more conventional counterparts and may present new and unusual risks. Kahru and Dubourguier (2010) assessed the existing literature on nanotoxicity to main food chain levels (bacteria, algae, crustaceans, ciliates, fish, yeasts and nematodes) and classified the NPs of Ag and ZnO as “extremely toxic”, C60 fullerenes and CuO NP as “very toxic”, SWCNTs and MWCNTs as “toxic” and TiO₂ NP as “harmful”. 

Introduction

The characterization of the potential health impact of engineered materials produced through nanotechnology is an emerging issue of considerable discussion and debate. The current focus on nanotoxicity fails to assess the risk in different local environments and populations. People in developing countries may be more prone to adverse effects of nanoparticles because of underlying health conditions and malnutrition. Moreover, genetic susceptibility to toxic effects varies in diverse ethnic groups and geographical areas. The scientific community needs to identify these information gaps before developing regulations and standard methodologies for nanotoxicity assessment.

Introduction

Engineered nanoparticles are a group of products that are defined by their size, ranging from 1 to 100 nm. Due to the smaller size, the physio-chemical properties of nano particles become very different from those of the same material in a larger form. Total production of nano-materials is expected to increase considerably in the near future. Nanotoxicology is yet another emerging field of science dealing with the effects of nano-devices and engineered nano-particles on living organisms. It has been observed that the materials in nano-dimensions react totally different in comparison to their existence in micro or macro sizes.

Summary
 
This chapter explores different approaches to manage water in rain-fed and irrigated agricultural systems. The first methods support the retention of water and reduce soil erosion. These methods include mulching – the application of a surface coating over the soil – which is usually organic mater. This reduces the damage to soil caused by rain and wind and reduces water loss to evaporation and helps with infiltration. The other methods explored are bunding and terracing.  These approaches are about stopping the flow of water across land to increase the amount of water infiltration into the soil and to reduce or prevent soil run off.  These approaches are labour intensive. A less labour -intensive approach is contour ploughing. This approach is about encouraging farmers and tractor drivers to plough across sloping fields not up and down them. The second group of technologies refers to the introduction of water through irrigation methods.

Since a method to cultivate VAM fungi in pure culture is not available as yet, clean and high quality VAM inoculum production is not possible. However, VAM technology is gradually getting a place in agriculture as well as reclamation and afforestation programmes. The inoculum currently being used includes infested fields soils, sievings from such soils, soil and roots of greenhouse plants, or pot culture inoculum derived from surface disinfected spores of a single VAM fungus on a host plant grown in a sterilized growth medium. Attempts are being made to manipulate VAM fungi, rooting media, hosts and fertilizers in order to secure superior quality of inoculum by these methods on a large scale. In addition, other techniques like tissue culture, hydroponic system etc. are also being attempted to cultivate VAM fungi in pure culture. The Indian mycorrhizasts have also attempted to devise and develop improved methods for production and storage of commercial VAM inoculum. The following description gives an account of Indian work related to production and storage of consistently high quality disease free VAM inoculum.

Introduction

Mankind has been utilizing different animal species from the dawn of civilization for a variety of purposes viz., production of milk, meat, wool, egg and leather. Apart from these, various animal species are also used for draught power, companionship, entertainment, research experimentation, sports, security etc. Livestock sector plays a crucial role in rural economy and livelihood. As per report of the working group on animal husbandry and dairying, 11th five year plan: 2007-12, the livestock sector employs eight percent of the countries labour force, including many small and marginal farmers, women and landless agricultural workers. Milk production alone involves more than 30 million small producers, each raising one or two cows or buffaloes. The organic fertilizer produced by the sector is an important input to crop production and dung from livestock is widely used as fuel in rural areas. Livestock also serves as an insurance substitute, especially for poor rural households; it can easily be sold during time of distress.

The livestock play a significant role in generating gainful employment in rural areas, particularly among the landless and marginal farmers. The Jammu region of state of Jammu and Kashmir possesses a huge livestock population which is maintained under different management systems. The region has a vast diversity in agro-climatic conditions (comprising low altitude, middle altitude and high altitude), and animal husbandry and pasture management practices. Despite having huge livestock, the production potentials are very low. There are various factors related with low production and among them parasitic diseases rank very high.

Introduction

Indian agriculture was contributing 70% to total GDP of the country at pre-independent time, but it decreased drastically year by year and contributed 66.8% in 1960, 55.6% in 1994, 27.1% in 1997 and now a days, it reached only to 25% in 2001. With the advancement of civilization our population is increased, whereas, the cultivable lands is decreased side by side, thus, on an average income of agriculture is decreased.

Gujarat is the leading state to concern with the productivity, production and the area of the some crops like Groundnut, Castor, Cotton, etc. in India. The major part of the state is surrounded by sea coast border, which is 1600 km. Gujarat is popular for production of oilseed crops like groundnut, cotton ; horticultural crops like mango, chiku, coconut, banana, papaya, citrus; spices crops like chili, cumin, funnel etc.

Mulching

The technique of covering the soil with plastic films or natural crop left over (residues) for soil and water conservations is called mulching.

This technique was practiced by farmers using dry leaves straw, trash, stones etc to conserve water. Presently plastic film have come into use for the purpose of mulching due to inherent advantages.

Cacti

Cacti belong to the family Cactaceae comprising of 130 genera and 2000 species and bear a complex organ, a cushion like structure spirally arranged over the stem called ‘areoles’ from which spines, hairs, flowers and shoots develop. In tribe, Pereskieae, the plants are leafy bushes or shrubby and characterized by areoles on the stem and by the typical flower borne in clusters, e.g. Maihuenia, Pereskia and Rhodocactus.

ABSTRACT

Rural youths represent both a challenge to and an opportunity for reducing rural poverty. To overcome this challenge and seize the opportunity concerted efforts are needed to generate decent employment opportunities. A complementary set of awareness generation, entrepreneurship development, enabling policy, capacity building and technical support activities need to be designed for creating an enabling environment that meets the multi-dimensional needs of rural youths. Sustainable poverty reduction and rural economic development can only be achieved when national enabling environments facilitates and empower young people to achieve their full potential. Agriculture being the core of rural activity, potentiality of farming sector to create employment opportunity both in primary as well as in secondary agriculture needs to be highlighted with proven success before the rural youths. Enabling environment in all aspect needs to be created to motivate the educated youths to live in villages and launch a new agricultural movement based on integrated application of science and social wisdom. The untapped demographic dividend will become our greatest strength when the aspiration turns into reality.

It is agony of the situation that even after attaining food security after a wonderful revolution, we are at a verge of complex combination of several crisis. This notably includes lack of nutritional security, deteriorating genetic base, loss of biological-diversity etc. Therefore at the 66^th session of general assembly of the United Nation 2014 was formally declared to be the “International Year of Family Farming” to reposition family farming at the centre of discussion to address multiple problems existing in agriculture (www.fao.org/family-farming-214/home/what-is-famly-farming/en/).

Family is the basic unit of the society. A self reliant and prosperous society needs self sustaining families which in turn require equitable and creative participation by all members of the family. Family farming is the backbone of agriculture where a rural youth effuse and rejuvenate this backbone through effective participation and obeisance of the tradition through which indigenous technical knowledge is transferred.

ABSTRACT

Economic growth of a country depends upon the skills of its people and the application of knowledge, inherited or acquired by them. Optimum utilization of human resources undoubtedly leads to considerable degree of economic development of a country. There are over one billion youth (aged 15 – 24) in the world today. Eighty five (85) per cent of these youth live in the developing world, where 99 per cent of population growth is occurring. Around 50 per cent of the population in developing countries live in rural areas. Some 61.5 per cent of youth live in Asia. Many youth are unable to reach their potential because of poverty and associated hunger and poor health. Also, education and training is often of poor quality and is irrelevant and inappropriate for the needs of rural youth and of the labour market. So although many youth today are more educated than their parent’s generation, they often do not possess employable skills. Even when good education and training are available and youth have been well trained, obstacles still exist, such as social customs (for example, caste and traditional values), lack of support mechanisms and lack of access to capital. Corruption is also a problem, as are structural impediments (institutional and governmental). Also, because youth numbers are growing faster than the rate of job creation, too few decent employment opportunities are available for the number of youth seeking them. The result is that a large number of youth are unemployed or underemployed. Not only do these youth lack income, they lack a means of gaining respect and a sense of belonging in their communities. Inability to find decent employment means youth often find employment in the informal sector, with poor working conditions and pay. Rural youth will often look to urban areas for employment and move to cities that adversely affect the household farming in India.

ABSTRACT

Income generating activities are considered as those initiatives that affect the economic aspects of rural youth’s lives through the use of economic tools such as credit and subsidy. If the youth in farming is not economically free and self-earning, he has to depend on others or migrate to the urban cities in search of jobs. Agriculture, self-employment and wage employment are the basic tools to fulfill the desire of economic independence. In the past, agriculture was placed on the top position as an income generation option and self-employment and wage employment to rural youth was the 2^nd and 3^rd priority respectively. Income generating activities such as dairy activities, goat and sheep rearing, poultry unit, bamboo products making, pickle making, leaf plate making, keeping powertiller, husking mill cum wheat grinding machine, tractor etc. Further, there are various self employment and wage employment opportunities through rural development programmes like Prime Minister Rojgar Yojana (PMRY), Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY), Pradhan Manthri Gram SadakYojana(PMGSY), Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Training of Rural Youth for Self -Employment (TRYSEM) etc. These are the best programmes especially for the upliftment of the rural youth to enhancing their income level. Some of these programmes are now helping rural youths to become more and more independent and free from economic dependence.

INTRODUCTION

According to the World Bank, youth present an opportunity for a sustainedeffort to participate in nation’s development process because they possess greaterenergy and potential and have the capacity to drive positive change. Stimulating growthof employment in the agricultural sector remains paramount priority in countries with alarge agricultural sector, as improvements in agricultural productivity can generatemore and better jobs in most developing countries (World Bank, 2008). Youth who possess non-farm skills are 1.4 times more likely to move out ofagriculture. Their age has significant role in favor of shifting out of agriculture, becauseoccupational mobility was higher among younger farmers (Sharma and Bhaduri, 2012). India has the largest youth population in the world. About 70 per cent of India’spopulation is below the age of 35 years, making India the youngest nation in the World. According to some estimates, the proportion of population under 25 years in India is 51per cent. Some experts refer to this large proportion of youth as “demographicdividend” because greater proportion of the population is young and in the workingage-group which can lead to economic growth. However, out of the youth population of460 million, only 333 million youth in India are literate and unemployment rate ishighest (10.6 per cent) among youth (CIA World Factbook, 2012).

ABSTRACT

This study critically examined the access of women farmers to Information and Communications Technology (ICTs) as against their male counterparts. The study was conducted Kapasiaupazila of Gazipur district. A total of 120 respondentswere selected using proportionate random sampling technique and interviewed through structured questionnaires. Data collected were subjected to descriptivestatistics, Chi-square and rank test. The results indicated that the women folk, despite their dominancein agricultural activities, were dominated in terms of access to and full participation in the use of ICTs. In terms of access to agricultural information through ICTs, it was evident that, people in the study area capture the advantages of increased number of ICTs to access information related to their farming business. Most of respondents valued ICTs as easy, fast and convenient way of communicating agricultural information and also allow more contacts among the farmers for family farming along with increase income of the family people in the community. Chi-square analysis on the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of the respondentswith their access to ICTs showed that age, education and innovativeness have significant relationship with therespondents’ access to ICTs. Kruskal Wallis rank test showed that there was a significant difference inthe gender access to and the uses of ICTs (P d” 0.005) with the male dominating the female gender. Chi-squareanalysis revealed that age and educational background and innovativeness of the respondents had significantrelationships with their access to ICTs (P d” 0.005). On the other hand religious/cultural barriers, language barriers and cost of possessing and accessing ICTs were the main reasons for gender disparity in gaining access to ICTs.

ABSTRACT

The main function of extension is to bring a desirable change in human behavior. The extension workers, thus are essentially educators and their most important job is to communicate useful and practical research findings to the farmers in such a way that they understand, accept and adopt. In order to achieve this objective, the extension agencies are disseminating new technologies through different means including mass media like radio, T. V, and print media. Considering the wide areas of coverage, exposure and frequent use by people, the mass media such as television, newspaper and radio play an important role in the transfer of technology. Mass media are increasingly becoming a veritable instrument and tool for transforming agriculture. Hence, mass media play a vital role in agricultural extension. There is a gap between the agricultural researchers and the farmers. A lot of findings from the research institutions and laboratories are not used by the farmers, either because of the information did not reach them, or the received information was not implemented by them. To overcome this problem, mass media play a vital role in diffusing scientific knowledge among the mass. This is used to link researchers and extension workers and collecting the feedback from farming communities. Further, agricultural technology information acquired by farmers through mass media. Generally, the agricultural technology information includes techniques of applying fertilizer, insecticides and fungicides to crops, improved methods of cultivation and conservation techniques of planting, maintenance, harvesting and storage of crops. There are also new technologies of animal husbandry as well as processing and marketing various agricultural products. Hence, mass media is the most effective means of reaching people with new ideas and persuading them to utilize these innovations. The appropriate use can create knowledge and catalyze behavioral change among farming communities for better family farming.

ABSTRACT

Documenting the traditional knowledge system for technology development considers as the first step towards a sustainable agriculture. A study was undertaken in some villages of operational area of KVK, Nalanda district to investigate and document the traditional knowledge system of dairy farmers in the area of Breeding, Feeding, Health care and Management. The findings revealed the materials and practices related to animal husbandry from the study area. The majors among them were like use of Eucalyptus leaves in controlling Haemorrhagic septicemia (Gala ghotu), allowing animal to remain stand in mud for few hours, spread out tobacco leaf power on the infected part of FMD disease, applying brine solution on the animal’s buttock for the treatment of mastitis, feeding banana stem juice in order to controlling diarrohea in dairy animals. Papaya fruits fed to the cattle increases fertility in them, spraying of chhoa for controlling termites, incorporation of tobacco leaf, betel leaf and curry leaf enhances the shelf life of ghee at least by 2 months, use of Eucalyptus leaves in controlling Pneumonia in cattle.

ABSTRACT

Dairy farming plays a significant role in rural economy. It provides more avenues for increasing rural incomes and sustaining livelihood. Milk and other dairy products are a major source of protein and calcium for vast vegetarian population of India and demand is likely to double within a decade. Many of the educated youth in rural areas are going back to dairy farming as a natural choice with passion, getting involved deeply, continuously learning and innovating in the process. However these young and intuitive farmers face many challenges especially with regard to technical input and availability of green fodder round the year. In order to address these problems, this study was conducted in Muktsar district of Punjab. The young farmers selected belong to age group ranging from 24-35 years. Seventy percent of the respondents were graduates, among them 25 percent being technocrats. About 65 percent had medium family size (5 members). Eighty five percent of respondents had small land holding ranging from 5-8 acres. For majority of the respondents’ dairy was the primary occupation. Sixty percent of the respondents had obtained 45 day artificial insemination (AI) training from Dairy Development Board, Punjab and themselves did AI on their farm. Many (75 percent) had herd size of 35-40 animals. Majority of the farmers had hired labour for milking and daily care of animals with family members involved in management of the farm. Most of them (65 percent) believed in preparing their own silage and breed improvement. The study revealed that many educated youth in dairy farming were of progressive and scientific temper with entrepreneurship potential but were facing many impediments like low milk yield (4.5 – 6.5 kg/ animal/day), poor breed up gradation, green fodder shortage, a large number of services per conception (3 in majority cases) with artificial insemination (AI), low competence of veterinary service providers in remote rural areas in addition to high veterinary costs, difficulty in marketing milk from crossbred dairy cows due to low preference. It was felt that if sincere and sustained efforts were made by all the stakeholders involved, dairy farming had the potential for all round socio-economic development of rural areas.

ABSTRACT

Bangladesh is a land of rivers, wet lands and tributaries across her deltaic plains in which aquaculture is a potential arena to meet dietary needs of protein. The main objective of this study was to bring out the dominating factors on adoption of modern aquaculture technologies by the fish farmers. The study was conducted in Kahaloo and Sherpurupazilas of Bogra district. Respondent fish farmers were selected using proportionate random sampling technique. Quantitative data were collected using predesigned interview schedule during August to September 2011. Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents viz. ‘use of information sources’ ‘innovativeness’, ‘social participation’, ‘commercialization’ and hindrances of adoption i.e. ‘lack of technical knowledge’, ‘unavailability of credits in time’, ‘lack of quality fish fry’, ‘comparatively low market price’, ‘fish fry price is high’, ‘unavailability of quality fish feed’, ‘adulteration of fertilizers’ were the major dominating factors on adoption of modern aquaculture technologies. ‘formulated feed is costly’, ‘high production cost’

Introduction

Data Mining is a complex subject that describes a type of database application used to search large amounts of data for patterns using specific tools. Advanced statistical methods and tools such as classification, association rule mining and cluster analysis search large volumes of data for previously unknown relationships within the data. Data Mining can be used to decipher trends in a wide variety of fields such as computer science, the marketing and advertising of goods, services or products, artificial intelligence research, biological sciences and high-level government intelligence. Data mining is a logical process that is used to search through large amounts of information in order to find important data.

Evolution of Computer technology and advent of database concept have provided enormous opportunities to the  scientist, researchers and managers of diverse field  to create, manipulate integrate, link and analyse their data in order to generate information and knowledge. The research projects involving exploration, survey and collection of data, generally create database to maintain and analyze the data.  Almost in every sphere of life and industry this database concept/technology is used in one form or other.  Scientists and researchers of life sciences realized the importance of the database and used this technology to develop databases of different types/groups of living organisms. The database technology has eased the difficulty in designing, developing and maintaining the complex information systems.

Antigen-antibody interaction is very specific one in which an antibody recognizes an antigen through complementarities of shapes on paratope and epitope.  It is like lock and key, as occurs in case of enzyme-substrate reaction. It does not involve covalent linkage rather a spatial complementarity occurs between antigen and antibody. For example, when antibodies, raised against m-amino benzene sulphonate, are tested for their ability to bind with ortho-, meta- and para-isomers of the hapten, the antibodies show highest strength with meta than ortho- isomer.  Antibodies show poor reactivity with para isomer. This is because though chemically all these molecules are same but structurally they are different.

All blood cells arise from a basic cell called the hematopoietic stem cell. Stem cells are undifferentiated embryonic cells.They are self renewing and their population by cell division. Stem cells have the ability to develop into any type of blood cell. The formation of blood cells begins in the embryonic yolk sac during the first week of development. Every mature cell is derived from the same type of stem cell. In contrast to an unipotent cell which differentiates into a single cell type, a hematopoietic stem cell is multipotent or pluripotent. In the mammalian embryo, the blood corpuscles are normally formed in yolk sac, liver, spleen and thymus gland.

The immune system protects the body from harmful substances by recognizing and responding to antigens. Antigens are the protein molecules which are present on bacteria, virus, fungi or some other microorganisms.Some toxins can also be antigens. These antigens are recognized by immune system. The destruction of antigens by producing antibody is called antibody-mediated immune response. As antibodies are present in the body fluids i.e. humors,this type of response is called humoral immune response.

Immunity is defined as the resistance to infection. This is carried out by the process of identification and removal of non-self material. In contrast to this, our body has to maintain immune tolerance to our own cells and tissues and develop the ability to distinguish these self-antigensfrom non-self (foreign) antigens. Tolerance means unresponsiveness of the immune system to an antigen. Immune tolerance is the process by which the immune system does not destroy an antigen. Tolerance can be either natural or induced.

Transplantation refers to the implantation of a tissue or organ from one site  to another site in an individual or from one individual to another.It involves implanting of organs or grafting of tissues to repair defects and to stimulate regeneration. Auto-transplantation or autoplasty of the skin, cartilage, bone, muscle, tendon, nerve and fatty tissue is used in plastic and cosmetic surgery. The replacement of a diseased organ by a transplant of a healthy tissue is called transplantation.

Abstract

Genetic resource or germplasm are considered to the be the major building block of new varieties. However, on account of excessive pressures of development, deforestation and increasing  population, the valuable resources are fast eroding and a number of type have already been lost. If this trend is not checked the losses will continue. The germplasm has a pivotal role in the development of the fruit industry, hence, it is very important to, conserve, characterize and utilize the existing genetic resources as genetic resources are the common heritage of mankind and must therefore be made available to those who need them and must be suitably conserved to fulfill today’s and tomorrow’s demand through a systematic and well defined co-operative exchange network.

Abstract

Himachal Pradesh is spread over the altitudinal range varying from 352-6975 m amsl. Horticulture in upper reaches and cereals in valley areas form the major components of land use. Temperate fruits amongst the different fruits grown in the state occupy a major share  with respect to area (68%) and production (90%). About 92 per cent of the total geographical area of the state is directly and indirectly influenced by fruits farming through changes in socio-economic structure. This paper has been prepared to highlight the socio-economic issues, technological issues, growth in the states economy and efficiency of the social indicators. This study shows that majority of the total population (80%) in the state has been affected positively by the apple farming business. The role of women has been considered equally important due to strong interaction between orchard and household management activities majority of the orchardists have been found to be marginal and small covering about 47.1per cent of the total area. Amongst all the temperate fruits grown, apple growers enjoy comparatively a better performance with respect to socio- economic indicators. A tremendous increase in area and production under apple has been found during the previous years.