eChapters

Organic manures

Anand Swarup (1992) stated that application of green manures along with rice husk increased the concentrations of N, P, Zn, Mn and Fe and decreased the Na concentration of rice in a reclaimed sodic soil. Kolambe and Patel (1994) reported that application of organic amendments along with phosphorus increased the uptake of phosphorus at different growth stages of rice.

Talashilkar and Chavan (1997) reported that incorporation of 10 t of Glyricidia ha^-1 and application of 100 per cent RDF recorded the highest total N uptake by rice over three successive years. Mishra and Sharma (1997) found that application of 100 per cent NPK + 10 t FYM ha^-1 resulted in highest total uptake of NPK by rice. Mahapatra etal. (1997) revealed that application of 80 kg N ha^-1 through green manure alone or through combined use of green manure and urea increased the total uptake of N by rice over application of fertilizers alone.

The uptake of Mg by rice plant was highest when fertilizer was applied in combination with vermicompost (Jadhav etal, 1997). Pattanayak etal. (2001) also reported the highest Ca uptake in the treatments that received green manuring of dhaincha. Sriramachandrasekharan (2001) who reported the highest Fe uptake of rice with green manuring of Sesbania aculeata.

Debele et al. (2001) reported that the application of FYM enriched with 10% rock phosphate + gypsum with PSB and PSF @ 500 g inoculums t^-1 of FYM increased the nutrient uptake of maize. The higher nutrient uptake of 227 kg N ha^-1, 59.5 kg P ha^-1 and 227 kg K ha^-1 recorded with the application of enriched FYM @ 2 t ha^-1.

The study of soil organic matter is becoming increasingly important by the day as world agriculture attempts to ensure sustainability of soils, while at the same time striving to enhance food production to feed an ever-burgeoning population. The use of green manures and pasture leys, the return of residues and additions of organic amendments to the soil are often resorted to in an attempt to increase soil organic matter which immensely benefit the physical, chemical and biological make-up of the soil.

Introduction

The term actinomycetes, coined in the late 1800s (actins, meaning ‘ray’ and myces, meaning ‘fungus’) is a misnomer. Because actinomycetes have a considerably smaller aerial mycelium than fungi and can produce a large number of asexual spores called conidia, which give the colonies a ‘powdery or chalky’ look.

The actinomycetes constitute a specialized group of soil bacteria that occur in soils throughout the world. The actinomycetes are prokaryotes confirming cellular structures and functions of true bacteria and their morphological similarity to the fungi (Eukaryotes). Between bacteria and fungi, actinomycetes are a transitional category. On their hyphae, most actinomycetes produce single, pairs, or chains of asexual spores.The diameter of the hyphae varies from 0.5 to 1.0 µm. 

The excessive and imbalanced use of nitrogenous fertilizers in the last few decades to meet the challenges of growing food demand of Worlds population has led to serious consequences of soil and water pollution, leaching of toxic nitrate into ground water and volatilization of nitrogen oxides into the environment. Therefore, judicious management of nitrogen in the environment is very much essential in the development of more productive and sustainable agriculture. Rapid declining of non-renewable energy sources viz. petroleum products, natural gas as well as energy crisis in the recent days, release of several pollutants during production of fertilizer N has also necessitated the development of alternative and/or supplemental technologies to obtain the fertilizer N for crop production.

Concept of uncertainty

Uncertainty refers to a scenario in which a person is unsure of what will happen, i.e. when all possible outcomes of events are unknown, and neither the likelihood nor the outcomes are known. Uncertainty cannot be quantified; however, risk may be quantified using probability principles.

Farming is a financially hazardous profession. Farmers face an ever-changing panorama of possible pricing, yield, and other outcomes that affect their financial returns and overall well-being on a daily basis. Because the effects of decisions or events are frequently unknown until long after they occur, the outcomes may be better or worse than planned. When aggregate crop output or export demand fluctuates dramatically, for example, farm prices can swing dramatically, and farmers may see returns that are significantly below their expectations (Bairwa et al., 2013).

Growth of urban population has become a challenge throughout the world. Presently, many of the cities are featured with high rising buildings, rush of vehicular traffic and networking of industrial establishments. The urban ecological footprints are increasing day-by-day resulting in unfavourable living conditions. The cities require vast area of land to sustain the population for requirement of food, clothing and other requirements. All these items are brought from areas outside the city, may be from far or near. Creating avenue for production of food and other materials in and around the cities will certainly minimize the pressure on land available outside the city areas. The urban sustainability is at threat due to environmental pollution, rising population and intensification of non-green activities. Many cities have natural resources such as water bodies, inherent vegetation, open space, etc.; which can be appropriately utilized for productive purpose. Promotion of urban agriculture in the form of growing crops, planting trees rearing animals and encouraging landscape garden will have long term impact on urban ecosystem. This can prevent environmental degradation, ensure supply of fresh food and improvement in urban life.

India is known to be rich source of medicinal plants since ancient time. Medicinal plants like Aloe vera, Aswagandha, basil, mint, cinnamon, etc. are widely used to cure various ailments and for several health benefits. Some of the common diseases like common cold, headache, stomach problem, skin disease, etc. are treated in home by use of various herbs. Medicinal plants can be grown in the backyard or on the rooftop to meet the household demand. Cultivation practices of some of the medicinal plants are described in this chapter.

Tulsi

Tulsi or basil is considered to be a sacred plant with religious importance. It is grown in homes as an aromatic perennial shrub and used for medicinal purpose. Tulsi possess antimicrobial and antiviral properties with capacity to purify the air. It can be grown up to an altitude of 2000 m above mean sea level. This plant can be grown in pots and in home gardens. The leaves and twigs of the plant are used for medicinal purpose. The fragrant leaves and flowers are used in the form of tincture, tea or decoction for curing cold & cough, stomach disorders, skin diseases, etc. The plant is also rich in antioxidant, vitamin and calcium. There are two types of tulsi viz. green type and purple. It can be planted in the pots or in the beds.

Vegetables are defined as edible herbaceous plants or parts of plants consumed as raw or after cooking and are rich in vitamins and minerals, low in calorific value and neutralize the acid substances produced during digestion of high energy foods. Olericulture is a branch of horticulture that deals with production, storage, processing and marketing of vegetables and has its origin when man started growing vegetables for human consumption. The term Olericulture comes from Latin words holus-holeris = any kind of culinary vegetable, pot herb, and cultura = to cultivate.

Vegetable crops include a large number of plants, mostly annuals and a few perennials, grown for their edible leaves, stem, flower buds, flowers, fruits and roots. Vegetables are integral part of a balanced diet and are considered as “Protective foods” as their consumption prevent several diseases. They have a prominent role in combating malnutrition of animals and human beings.

Okra is predominantly a crop of tropics and subtropics. It occupies fifth position, next to tomato, in area under vegetables in the country with a production of 33.24 lakh metric tonnes from an area of 3.47 lakh hectares (2001-02). The crop is cultivated for its young tender fruits, used in curry and soups after cooking. It is a good source of vitamins A and B, proteins and minerals. It is also an excellent source of iodine and is useful for the treatment of goitre. Fruit is useful against genito-urinary disorders, spermetorrhoea and chronic dysentery. Fruits are also dried or frozen for use during off-season. Dried fruit contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein and is used as refined edible oil. Dry fruit skin and fibres are used in manufacture of paper, card board and fibres. Root and stem are used for clearing cane juice for preparation of jaggary.

Potato is fourth major food crop after rice, wheat and maize in the world. It produces the highest dry matter, well balanced protein and more calories/ unit area and time. Unlike other food crops, potato tubers contain vitamin-C (17 mg/100 g). It provides carbohydrates, minerals, fibre and a number of vitamin-B groups. Potato protein is comparable to that of milk and egg. Unlike European countries, in tropics and sub-tropics, the crop is of short duration and fits well in intensive cropping system. It can be grown in a wide range of climatic and soil conditions and tubers are available throughout the year. Tubers can be left un-harvested in the soil for some time and are also suitable for long distance transport and storage. Several products like chips, flakes, French-fries, finger chips, granule, disc, cubes and flour are made out of potato tubers

Origin and distribution

Potato is a native of tropical South America. Traditionally, it was adapted as a commercial food crop in temperate climate under long day conditions, mainly in Europe. It was introduced to India in 16^th or 17^th Century by Portuguese or the British. 

Perennial vegetables live/survive in field for several years and go on yielding vegetables without much care and attention. They are usually planted on the side of kitchen garden without much interference with tillage operations of other annual crops. Tender leaves, shoots, fruits or tubers of a number of perennial crops are used for vegetable purpose in different agro-climatic conditions. They may be trees or shrubs as in bread fruit, jack fruit, drumstick, etc. or bushes as in colocasia or trailing plants as in yams, chow-chow and ivy gourd.

Temperate perennial vegetables are asparagus, rhubarb, artichoke and seakale. All the above crops have tuberous roots, rhizomes or corm. Above-ground portion may dry up during winter and again sprout during spring. Tuber crops like cassava, elephant foot yam, Colocasia (taro), Dioscorea (greater yam, lesser yam) etc. grown under tropical conditions are also perennials. But for cultivation purpose, they are replanted every year and are treated as annuals.

Growth and development are two important stages in a plant. Plant growth and development are under the control of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Growth is one of the fundamental characteristics of all living things. Even in Plants, the growth is visible but not measurable easily. Development in plants is actually a sum of two processes i.e. growth and differentiation.

Principles involved in plant growth and development: The various principles involved in plant growth and development are discussed below.

1. Totiopotency: Living plant cell has the potential to reproduce all the characteristics of the plant since it possesses all the genetic information.
2. Competence: It is the potential of cells or tissue to develop in a particular direction. Development of competency into a particular kind of cell(s), tissue or organ also may require special signals. These may originate internally within the plant or may originate externally as an environment signal, e.g. Internal change in type of growing point such as vegetative to flowering or initiation of adventitious roots on cuttings may be associated with a shift in the activity of specific hormones, external parameters i.e. application of growth regulators, or environment. It is mainly internal potential of meristem that gradually shifts from a vegetative shoot to one that produces flowers.

Horticultural plants are grown for their diversified produce like fruits, vegetables, flowers, aromatic (essential oils) or medicinal components, spices (oleoresins), etc. if these plants are allowed to grow naturally, they will grow wild with very less potential yield. Therefore, it is essential to train and prune these plants not only to develop the proper framework in manageable shape but also to improve the potential yield in terms of quality and quantity.

Once the sapling is planted, it is essential to maintain the proper framework by cutting certain branches as well as some parts of branches. In the initial period, it is essential to maintain well distribution of flower or fruit bearing parts growing in four directions. Once the plant achieves proper framework after a certain period; then also some of the plant parts, namely branches or certain portions of branches, are removed to achieve potential yield.

1. Introduction

Post harvest storage is a powerful challenge in agriculture, about one third of the fresh fruits and vegetables are discarded because of the deterioration of quality of produce beyond a reasonable standard. (FAO, 2011; OCD, 2014) Any change or damage in the quality of product from harvest till consumption is considered as loss. Post harvest handling practices do not increase the quality of product, rather just slows down the process of deterioration. The quality and shelf life of produce is determined prior to the time of harvest. Various factors such as climate, soil preparation and cultivation, fertigation, pest and disease incidence, crop loads etc influence the quality and flavour aspects of fresh food.

With Judicious Use of Herbicides

Herbicides are the chemicals used for killing or suppressing the growth of weed plants from field / horticulture / plantation crops as well as non-cropped areas/ water bodies etc. The herbicide is said to be an ideal herbicide when it is very safe to the crop on which it is applied and on the other hand, it must control all associated weeds effectively. Also, ideal herbicides should leave no residual effects on the succeeding crop(s). Herbicides are of two types i.e.

1. Selective herbicides and
2. Non-selective herbicides.

A selective herbicide is that which is very safe to crop plants but unsafe to weed plants e.g. atrazine in maize, clodinafop in wheat etc. On the other hand, non-selective herbicides are those which kill all green plants including crop and weed plants which come in their contact e.g. paraquat and glufosinate ammonium.

Introduction

Seasonality in agriculture is a major determinant of poverty, food insecurity and hunger in areas having harvest only once or twice a year. Undiversified livelihoods survive on the crops that the households consume as food and sell for income. The risk being high, a single failed harvest can cause huge losses and can destitute a marginalized household with limited or no savings, increasing their dependence on borrowings leading to indebtedness later on. Punjab being one of the pioneer states in green revolution in country is facing lot of challenges due to monoculture i.e. paddy-wheat as the major crop rotation followed on 92% area of the state. The situation has led to serious repercussions in agriculture sector of the state along with social, financial, and ecological issues. 

troduction

Indian economy depends on agriculture and the agriculture sector in India contributes about17 percent of country’s GDP and provides employment to approximately two third of the population (United Nation Development Programme Fact sheet 2011). India is the second most populous country in the world. With the increasing population, the cultivable land resource is shrinking day by day. To meet the food, fibre, fuel, fodder and other needs of the growing population, the productivity of agricultural land and soil health needs to be improved. Green Revolution ushered through use of modern agriculture technologies such as greater use of synthetic agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient-responsive, high-yielding varieties of crops, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials, etc. undoubtedly has increased production and labour efficiency in the post-independence era and made our countries self-sufficient in food production. 

Introduction

The quest for data and analysis of the economics of zoonoses control is now in its fifth decade: The World Health Organization (WHO) Executive Board having passed a resolution, recommending that a group of experts meet and discuss the subject and commission some pilot studies. (a) The health economics recognised as a sub-discipline of economics (b), the cost–benefit analysis established a notion for long enough to merit the writing of a survey article (c) and the difficulties of putting a monetary value on human life (d) the alternative non-monetary approaches being developed. The development of veterinary or animal health economics, partly spurred on by the gathering of experts initiated by that same WHO resolution. The International Society for Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics held its first meeting marking the formal launching of the fraternity.

Introduction

Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58 per cent of Indian population. Gross Value Added (GVA) by agriculture, forestry and fishing was estimated at Rs. 19.48 lakh crore in FY2020. Growth in GVA in agriculture and allied sectors stood at 4 per cent in FY2020. Share of agriculture and allied sectors in gross value added (GVA) in Indian economy at current prices stood at 17.8 per cent in FY20. Consumer spending in India will return to growth in 2021 post pandemic-led contraction, expanding by as much as 6.6 per cent (Anonymous, 2021). Total food grains production for 2020-21 is set at a record 298.30 million tonnes (MT), comprising 149.92 MT in Kharif season and 148.40 MT during Rabi season. In 2019-20, production was 291.95 MT, against the target of 291.10 MT (Anonymous, 2020b).

Introduction

Agriculture is one of the most important sector of the Indian economy Indian agriculture sector accounts for 18 per cent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and provides employment to 50 per cent of its workforce India is the world’s largest producer of wheat, rice, pulses and spices product and second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world The food grains production for the year 2019-2020 (291 95 million tonnes) as compared to the previous year 2018-2019 (285 21 million tonnes) was higher by 6 74 million tonnes (Anonymous, 2020).

Currently, India is Asia’s largest pesticide manufacturer, and ranks twelfth in the world for pesticide use (Abhilash and Singh, 2009) Conventional agricultural practices have a major impact on the environment Some of the issues related to agriculture are climate change, soil depletion, deforestation, pollution, irrigation problems and waste Excessive use of fertilizers such as urea, nitrogen and pesticides has affected air, water, and soil quality 

Introduction

Organic farming is an inclusive system of producing high-quality products through such processes which have the least impairment on the environment, humans, plants, or animal health. Thus, the term in its essence concentrates on sustainability in the farm management practices and food production system. Chopra et al. (2013) in their study defined organic farming as a management & ecological production system that not only promotes biodiversity but also benefits biological cycles and soil nutrition activities. It focuses on minimal use of pesticides and encourages those farm practices that restore balance, and increase ecological harmony. 

India is an agriculture based country where more than half of the population depends upon agriculture. Agriculture is a primary source of livelihood for about 58% of the population of the country. Indian agriculture sector contributes about 17% of Indian’s gross domestic product (GDP) and provide employment to 50% of the country workforce (DES, 2019). The diverse ecohabitat of the Himalayan region of the country hosts a wide range of plant diversity as well as crop diversity on which native people rely for their food and nutritional security. The hilly regions of the country are potential source of agriculture production having diversified weather conditions comprises of temperate and subtropical climatic conditions and covers about 35% of total geographical area of the country. As far as agriculture is concern, agriculture marketing has been an important aspect of rural population as it provides essential links between farm producers and consumers.

Introduction

Agricultural extension has been developing from past more than 100 years. The term was first used by Universities of Cambridge and Oxford, in the year 1867. Chinese people have been following extension approximately from past 2000 years. There are four generations of agricultural extension in Asia: colonial, diverse top-down, unified top-down and diverse bottom-up extension. Communication takes place mainly in two ways in extension system: paternalism versus participation and persuasion versus education, which aims to change behaviour of rural people. Many approaches have emerged in extension which includes ICT based extension.

Introduction

Cherry (PrunusaviumL.) is considered as one of the most important temperate deciduous fruit and is the season’s first tree fruit to reach the market. Cherries are rich in protein, vitamins, and minerals and have more calories than apple. Most of the present day cherry cultivars are of European origin. The annual world production as of 2012-13 of cultivated cherry fruit is about 2.5 million tonnes. Around 40 per cent of the world production originates from Europe and 13 per cent in the United States. The other important global players during 2012-13 were Turkey (4,80,740 MT), United States (3, 84,646 MT), Iran (200,000 MT) and Italy (1, 04,766 MT) (FAO, 2012). Important sweet cherry cultivars include Bing, Brooks, Tulare, King, Sweetheart, Rainier etc.

Introduction

Agriculture is India is mostly production oriented restricted in huge number of uneven small holdings and plays a key role in the Indian economy. Cultivation of fruits and vegetables has emerged as profitable venture and it is not only providing nutritional security but also provides a substantial employment to rural people as well as open the door for export. India is the second largest producer of vegetables, next only to China, in the world with a production of 40 million tonnes from four million hectares of land area. In India, vegetables are grown in an area 1, 10, 65 thousand hectares with the production of 1, 99,882 thousand metric tonnes. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of vegetable production in the country (14.80 %) followed by West Bengal (14.12 %), Madhya Pradesh (10.30%), Bihar (8.88 %), Maharashtra (8.39 %), Gujarat (7.84 %), Odisha (4.76 %) and Karnataka (4.05 %) (NHB, 2021).

Introduction

“If agriculture goes wrong, nothing else will have a chance to go right in the country”,these words by Dr MS Swaminathan known as the ‘Father of Green Revolution’ in India, itself highlights the importance of agriculture and its allied sectors in Indian economy. India is an agrarian nation with about 140 million farmers and net sown area equals to 42.4% of the total geographical area. Its agriculture sector has always played and will continue to play a major role in its economic growth. As per the First Advance Estimates of National Income, 2021-22 released by National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics & ProgrammeImplementation, the contribution of agriculture and its allied sectors stand at approximately 18.8 % of India’s Gross Value Added (GVA) at current prices during 2021-22, depicting a growth of 3.9%.In addition, agriculture is also the largest employment generating sector in India as approximately 55% of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture and its allied sector activities. It is the main source of income security of rural households in India. Since ancient times, agriculture and livestock keeping are complementary professions that rural households have undertaken for their survival.

Mushrooms are regarded as a macro-fungus with a distinctive fruiting body which can be either epigeous or hypogeous and large enough to be seen with the naked eyes and to be picked by hand (Chang and Miles, 1992). Hundreds of identified species of mushrooms, since time immemorial, have made a significant global contribution to human food and medicine (Marshall and Nair, 2009). Mushrooms have been a part of the human diet and used as both food and medicine for centuries and their importance is well established in many spheres of human life as well as ecosystem functions. They are known to produce enough amount of protein rich quality food which is of high biological value and appropriate for all age groups. Edible mushrooms are recognized not only as delicacy but also as food in human diet. They are consumed not only for their innate ation and taste but also for their important nutritional value. 

Introduction The Indian culinary world may have just recently embraced the concept of edible flowers, but they have been a part of traditional Indian cuisines since the beginning. Flowers have been used in human diets and gourmet preparations for thousands of years (Fernandes et al., 2020). However, due to increased consumer knowledge about the effects of nutrition on human health, there is a growing trend in utilizing flowers for edible purposes (Chatzopoulou et al., 2020). Edible flowers were used as a relish and flavour enhancer in many savoury and sweet meals in ancient Rome and Greece. In China’s ancient texts and classics, the words and phrases regarding edible blossoms were also recorded by Zhao et al. (2017). Edible flowers come in a wide variety of colors and cooking ways in different nations. Flowers, such as Osmanthus fragrans Lour and Flos Sophorae, have been employed as basic ingredients in a range of Chinese cuisines (Cunningham, 2015). The people of Rome used flowers in cooking. They make salads using violets and roses and sauces using lavenders. Flowers from pumpkin and squash plants have long been used as ingredients in the United States. People consume aromatic flower buds and unopened blossoms in El Salvador and Honduras. Blossoms are frequently used to garnish food at aristocratic banquets and feasts across Europe. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flowers are also added to beverages and salads in many parts of the world.

Introduction In latest years, there has been an upsurge in customer situation over using artificial colorants in foods, especially on the subject of healthiness and safety issues (Amchova, Kotolova, & Ruda-Kucerova, 2015). Dietary colorants have been banned or regulated by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and various other national authorities throughout the world because to their confirmed or suspected link to enhanced cancer progression or adverse reactions. For the same motives, various pigments are being investigated and are most effective provisionally authorized at this time. Consequently, the use of natural additives in food production is becoming increasingly popular among food companies (Schwartz, Joachim, & Giusti, 2007). Red C-PE is the most extensively used colour and has various application in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries; however, because they are rare in nature, they must be synthesized. Therefore, the food sector is expressing an increasing interest in the finding, application, and stabilizing of natural red colorants, which are currently in high demand. A growing number of commercial companies are turning to cyanobacteria for colour extraction, including Spirulina sp. for the extraction of Phycoerythrin, Haematococcus sp. for the extraction of astaxanthin pigments, and Dunaliella sp. for the extraction of beta-carotene pigments (Sharma et al., 2021).

Introduction A functional food is a food that provides alimentative beyond their actual nutritional value & are claimed to have an extra function by the addition of new ingredients or more of already present ingredients into it. Functional food have also become a part of our everyday daily diet & are told to offer potential various health benefits other than the widely accepted nutritional effects among them. (Roberfroid MB 2009). Many bioactive active compounds are contained by them like roughage, OS, vitamins, inorganic elements, & bacterium probiotic, having scented whiff, relish & fineness, which sustain the balance & balance of the enteric system. Functional may also be said as artificer‘s foods, NC, restorative foods, curative food, & super food etc because of the roles & functions they perform. (Wlodzimierz Grajek et al., 2008). There are many utilitarian sequels of functional food & beverages with added bug & probiotics on the health of humans which are increasingly promoted & recommended by the nutritionists & other we-being professionals. (Aditya Chaudhary 2019). For a time being, the most salient & over & over again used functional foods amalgam are probiotics & probiotics, or they altogether called as symbiotic‘. he dwell Microbes or foods microbes, which are beneficial for human, are probiotics. (Armachius James &Yousheng Wang 2019).

Introduction Rice cultivation is a means of livelihood for a large number of people from the state of Assam, India (Saikia, 2019). It is related to the cultural aspects in rural Assam where people indulge themselves in traditional as well as modern ways of farming. Like any other north-eastern states in India, rice majorly dominates the Assamese cuisine. It is the primary source of diet in Assam. There are more than 100 varieties that are genetically modified breeds in which indigenous varieties contribute to 20 germplasm (https://www.rkbassam.in/). The different rice varieties of Assam have different culinary applications in both savoury and sweet cuisines. The intermediate and high amylose rice, parboiled or nonparboiled are consumed as staple for major meals while the low amylose rice is mostly consumed as snacks, breakfast cereals and desserts. The major constituent of rice is starch consisting of about 90% of the mass. Thus, the major compositional changes occurring in rice is due to starch. Starch is a polymer of glucose linked by glycosidic bond. It consists of amylose (linked by alpha 1- 4 linear chains) and amylopectin (alpha 1-4 & alpha 1-6 branched chains). On the basis of composition, rice is classified as high amylose (>25%), intermediate amylose (20 -25%), low amylose (7-20%) and waxy or glutinous (1–2%) types (Juliano, 1979).

Objectives • Seminal evaluation and processing • Evaluation of bull fertility on the basis of its seminal characters • To make the Artificial insemination programme successful History Related to Semen Collection • The use of artificial vagina was started by Milovanov for semen collection. Before that method of placing the cotton ball in vagina was used. • AV for Dog was discovered by Amantea in 1914. Milovanov discovered AV for Bull, ram and stallion. Mckenzie discovered AV for boar (1931). • The electroejaculatory method of semen collection was initiated in a bull by Laplaud & Cassou and in ram by Gunn. • Burrows and Quinn (1937) developed the method of abdominal massage and pressure to collect semen in poultry.

Semen is needed to be extended with a suitable medium and cryopreserved without affecting its survivability and fertility for the purpose of inseminating female artificially. Qualities of Ideal Extenders • Semen extender is a nutrient media which provide energy to spermatozoa, protection from osmotic shock, thermal shock and various metabolic wastes for prolonging the life span of sperm cell with maintaining the acceptable fertilizing capacity. A semen extender should have qualities to protect spermatozoa during dilution and cryopreservation. These qualities may be : 1. Preserving sperm cell integrity (membrane, cellular, mitochondrial and acrosomal integrity etc) 2. Maintenance of osmotic pressure (isotonic; 280-300 mOsm/l) similar to seminal plasma 3. Providing nutritive elements as energy source for sperm metabolism (aerobic & anaerobic metabolism)

Introduction Onion is a cool season bulb vegetable of high economic importance. According to Vavilov, Central Asia is the primary centre of origin; maximum species were found in the Mediterranean region in the West to Central Asia in the East. In India, onion was introduced around 600BC and from here it was introduced to the rest of the world. The largest onion-producing states in India include Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for approximately 90% of the nation’s total onion output. The expected share of Maharashtra in 2019-2020 is about 42.53% in onion production with 11363.00 tonnes. Onion has highest export value among vegetables, the total value earned in the year 2019 was ? 2660.79 crores (NHB, 2020). Onion contains about 89% water, 4% sugar, 1% protein, 2% fat. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin B6, folic acid and many other nutrients in trace amounts. Onion bulbs and onion greens are used in various dishes all over the world in cooked, as well as raw form. Red and yellow onions are used in soups because of their sweet taste. White onions are traditionally used in classic Mexican cuisine and also for dehydration purpose. India, Mexico, U.S., Turkey, Pakistan, etc are the major exporters of onion while the major importers of onion are Malaysia, UAE, Canada, Japan, etc.

Introduction Garden Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a small, round, green seed that is commonly eaten as a vegetable. It is a legume, which means it is part of the same family as beans, lentils, and peanuts. Its chromosome number is 2n=14. Peas are typically eaten fresh, frozen, or canned, and are often used in soups, stews, and casseroles. They are a good source of protein, fiber, various vitamins and minerals. Peas can be grown in a garden or farm and it is considered a staple food in many countries. Origin and Distribution Garden peas have a long history of cultivation and have been enjoyed as a food source for centuries. The exact origin of garden peas is believed to be in Central Asia. The distribution of garden peas expanded as they were introduced to different regions and adapted to various climates. They were brought to Europe during ancient times and became popular as a staple crop in many countries. The cultivation of garden peas also spread to Asia, Africa, and the Americas through the process of exploration and colonization. In modern times, garden peas are grown globally in both temperate and cool climates.

Introduction The popular legume crop known as broad beans, or Vicia faba in scientific jargon, is valued for its diversity and nutritional content. Broad beans have a long history that dates back thousands of years, and they have been used extensively in many cuisines and agricultural practises all over the world. With the use of references from reputable sources, this introduction will discuss the traits, cultivation, and health benefits of broad beans. Annual plants in the Fabaceae family, broad beans have a cool growing season. They originate from the Mediterranean region, but due to their resilience to various climatic conditions, they have been grown in numerous locations across the world. With a height of up to one metre, the plants are renowned for their vigorous growth. Large, podded fruits with many seeds or beans are produced by broad bean plants. Broad bean cultivation is a rather simple process

Introduction The Asteraceae family includes Lactuca sativa, better known as lettuce, which is cultivated as a leafy vegetable. Due to its usage in the creation of salad, soup, and vegetable curries, this plant is well-known around the world. Additionally, this herb has fantastic therapeutic qualities. Because of its flavor and excellent nutritional content, lettuce is one of the most popular raw green leafy vegetables and is grown all over the world. It is thought to be a crucial source of phytonutrients. Significant physical and genetic differences define it. The Egyptians were the first people to plant this leafy crop. It is currently manufactured all over the world and used in forensic medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including as pain, inflammation and issues with the stomach, as well as urinary tract infections. Its pharmacological potential, which includes antibacterial, antioxidant, neuroprotective, and hypnotic actions, has been scientifically supported by a number of research.

Introduction The “rhubarb and pie plant,” also known as Rheum rhaponticum L., is a member of the Polygonaceae family. Diploid (2n = 2x = 22), tetraploid (2n = 4x = 44), or hexaploid (2n = 6x = 66) rheum species are the three possible forms. The long, thick leafstalk, often called the petiole, is used to make pies and sauces. The rhubarb stalks’ colour may range from the typically recognized crimson red to pale pink with specks to plain light green. Rhubarb is a perennial plant that thrives in cold climates and is drought and winter tolerant. Edible petioles and leaves are the first springtime shoots to emerge. rhubarb was first cultivated in Italy and introduced to the continent in the year 1608. The earliest recorded use of rhubarb in the United States was in 1778, but by 1806 it had achieved broad acceptance. According to Lindley’s Treasury of Botany, the name comes from the Greek word rheo, meaning “to make one vomit,” because of the root’s laxative properties. It is a good source of carbohydrates (3.8g), protein (0.74 g), fibre (1.75 g) and fat (0.13g) and minerals like calcium (130 mg) and potassium (360 mg) per 100 grams of edible portion. There are numerous rhubarb cultivars contain bioactive substances such as flavonoids, anthraquinones, glycosides, tannins, volatile oils, and saponins.

Introduction For sustainability hill agriculture water conservation issues are of great concern. Water is a generally limiting factor for crop production in hills and further water scarcity is arising at alarming rate due to climate change, declining soil productivity and inefficient management factors. Global warming is also putting the serious impact on the intensity, frequency and distribution of the rainfall. Further hill soils are ecologically fragile with undulated steep soils with low water retentive capacity where irrigation is not available. Moreover scope of supplying water by developing new water resources is limited thus under these conditions there is an urgent need for development of recent advanced agrotechniques to conserve and harvest natural water resources and protect the fragile environment of hills.

Farm economic efficiency of a specific area is an important factor of productivity and growth, where resources are scare and opportunities for developing and adopting better technologies have lately declining. No doubt, conventional farming is risky and farmers are reluctant to invert heavily in crop production. Modest increments in productivity are no longer sufficient to justify the investment of scarce resources as farming sector is small scale and resource poor, but integrated farming system assumes greater importance for sound management of farm resources to enhance the farm productivity, reduce the environmental degradation, improve the quality of life of resource poor farmers and to maintained sustainability. Farming system refers to the farm wherein two or more enterprises are integrated with the farm resources for achieving the fuller utilization, realize maximum profit and stabilize returns.

Introduction Since about 10,000 years ago, men and women have been rearing livestock and producing crops. Information about agricultural practices can be found in documents dating back over 3,000 years from ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. Agricultural extension services have evolved and developed in many parts of the world to address agricultural systems’ unique challenges and requirements. These initiatives aimed to provide farmers with scientific knowledge, technological advancements, and improved farming practices to enhance agricultural productivity.

Introduction The primary mission of extension services is to facilitate desirable changes in human behaviour through educational means. These changes can encompass various aspects, including knowledge, skills, attitudes, understanding, goals,actions, and confidence. Effective communication is the cornerstone of an extension worker’s role. Their responsibility extends beyond merely informing farmers about improved practices; they are tasked with ensuring that the results of research and field trials are practically applied by farmers. Nevertheless, extension workers often encounter perplexing questions in their line of work.

Introduction The term ‘communication’ originates from the Latin word ‘Communis’, means the act of imparting, participating, and transmitting or the notion of making something common or sharing it among individuals. Communication encompasses the multifaceted process of sharing and exchanging ideas, emotions, information, and experiences between two or more individuals. It embodies the act of transmitting thoughts or expressions, serving as a vital conduit for the flow of knowledge and understanding. Essentially, it is aligning a sender and receiver for a specific message or series of messages. Leagans (1961) states that communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and use of messages. Effective communication is not just about issuing orders; it is about fostering comprehension (Suresh, 2003). It beyond imparting knowledge to enabling a profound understands (TNAU, 2012).

Millets or nutri-cereals are the ancient grains which have now regained the interest of the scientific community as the super grains. These exhibit excellent nutritional and technobiofunctional profile apart from exhibiting tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The millets are gluten free and show high in vitro protein digestibility, resistant starch content, antioxidant and prebiotic potential providing health benefits for all age groups ranging from paediatrics to geriatrics. The presence of certain anti-nutritional factors can lower the bioavailability of proteins and minerals. Processing enhances the nutritional and functional properties by increasing the antioxidant content and lowering the antinutrients. Different value added products can be prepared by incorporating millets thereby enhancing the nutritional and functional attributes. It is necessary to bring millets into regular consumption by the food industry in the interest of nutritionally and health-conscious consumer.

1. Introduction Millets, also known as “smart crops” or “miracle grains,” are a group of small-seeded, hardy cereal crops that have been cultivated for millennia. They are used as a staple food in many of the countries particularly located in arid and semi-arid regions. Millets have been overshadowed for quite a long time by commonly consumed cereals like wheat, rice, and maize. Nevertheless, they have made a remarkable comeback in our cuisines owing to the growing awareness and recognition of the numerous benefits at individual and environmental level. These small, drought-resistant grains play a pivotal role in addressing some of the most pressing global issues like food security, malnutrition and climate change.

Introduction A genome marker or a genetic marker is words commonly used to refer to a marker, which is identical to the term “marker.” Genes, genetic variants, or random sequences can all be represented by markers. Markers act as milestones or signposts while creating DNA and genomic maps. Markers are DNA sequences that are frequently identified by their position in a genome. The transmission of traits or the risk of sickness within families can be tracked using markers. It is essential to the continued existence of the species and boosts an organism’s ability to adjust environmental conditions. In conjunction with other evolutionary forces like genetic drift and selection, genetic diversity inside an individual evolves, leading to divergence at the population/ communities, species, as well as higher order taxonomic levels (Askari et al., 2013). Numerous fields, including evolutionary research, resources management and conservation, and genomic improvement programmes, can benefit from the conclusion derived from genetic variety data (Liu and Cordes, 2004).

Introduction Fish oil is the major source of essential Fatty acids (EFA) for humans. Generally, Fish requires three long-chain highly unsaturated Fatty acids (HUFA) for their normal growth and development including reproduction like docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6) (Sargent et al. 1993a, 1995, 1997). Like the terrestrial mammals, DHA, EPA, and ARA are all involved in maintaining the cell membrane structure and function of fish but majorly EPA and DHA are considered. Moreover, the EPA and DHA are the major currency as fatty acid for the synthesis of phospholipids, Prostaglandins, and energy etc. However, the biosynthesis of EFA in fish changes in accordance with the relative bioconversion capacity of the PUFA (Linoleic acid and α-Linolenic acid) as shown in figure 01.

Introduction “Xenobiotics” are “foreign compounds,” which are alien to the organism and removed from their natural environment. Xenobiotics are substances that are either alien to an organism or do not form a natural part of its diet. Compounds including pharmaceuticals, food additives, & environmental toxins are examples of xenobiotics. Normally, these substances are removed from the body by being broken down into compounds and then being expelled through the kidney, bile and lungs. For the pharmaceutical business, enzymes that metabolize xenobiotics are crucial because they are in charge of breaking down medicines. Similarly, xenobiotic transporters influence how long medications remain in the body.

Nanomedicine, an interdisciplinary field at the intersection of nanotechnology and medicine, has emerged as a promising avenue for addressing complex health challenges. One area of significant interest is the application of nanotechnology in maintaining and improving gut health. This chapter provides a concise overview of the current state of research in nanomedicine's role in promoting gastrointestinal well-being.

Nanoparticles, with their unique physicochemical properties, offer novel approaches for targeted drug delivery, imaging, and diagnostics in the gastrointestinal tract. Engineered nanoparticles can navigate the harsh conditions of the digestive system, delivering therapeutic agents precisely to the intended sites within the gut.