eChapters

1. Who is often referred to as the father of organic farming?

a) J.I. Rodale

c) Rudolf Steiner

b) Sir Albert Howard

 d) Rachel Carson

2. Which organization is responsible for setting and regulating organic farming standards in the United States?

a) United Nations (UN)

 b) World Health Organization (WHO)

 c) United States Department of Agriculture (USDa)

 d) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

13.1 Introduction

The fish’s distinguishing features are its fins. The fins constitute the major propulsive organs in fishes. These are either folds of skin or projections from the body surface. The fins lack coelom but are supported by muscles and fin rays (lepidotrichia). These supporting rays may be bony, cartilaginous, fibrous or horny. The diversity in the fin system is due to its adaptive responsiveness. A great variety of fins is observed in fishes. However, they are primarily of two types:

14.1 Introduction

The integument is an envelope to separate and protect a fish from its environment; it also provides the means through which most contacts with the outer world are made (Fig. 14.1, 14.2 and 14.3). It is a large organ and is continuous with the linings of all body openings, and also covers the fins. The fish integument is dotted with various kinds of unicellular and multicellular glands along with abundant mucus-secreting glands. Poison glands of many cartilaginous fishes and some bony fishes are frequently associated with spines on the fins, tails, and gill covers. Photophores, light-emitting organs found especially in deep-sea forms, maybe modified mucous glands.

18.1 Introduction

The digestive system of fish shows remarkable diversity in its morphology and function, related to both taxonomy and different feeding habits (Abdulhadi, 2005). Fish eat a wide variety of foods. Some feed on plants, others on small fish, and the remainder are omnivorous. The digestive system is drastically altered as a result of different feeding habits. In response to feeding habits, the structural plan of the buccal cavity, pharynx, and rest of the gut has changed.

36.1 Introduction

Migration refers to the long-distance movement of fish from one location to another in search of food or breeding. It involves a temporary or permanent absence from one’s home range and the establishment of a residence in another. It is one of the most remarkable and fascinating characteristics of fish. It is the mass movement of fish from one body of water to another. It entails longer-duration movements of schools of fish than those seen during normal daily activities.

Introduction

The ‘cutting edge’ of any development is the projects. No matter how well planned, a poorly executed project will waste valuable resources. India has pioneered many poverty-reduction programmes in agriculture, rural development, health and family welfare, education, women’s and children’s development, drinking water, and other fields. According to an analysis of these initiatives, monitoring and suitable mid-course corrective measures are crucial to accomplishing project objectives.

Introduction

The total geographical area for farming is 328.7 million hectares whereas, only 139.4 million hectares are a net sown area in India (NHB). India is known as an agricultural powerhouse where small and marginal farmers are at the centre of the Indian rural economy. States like Punjab and Haryana have 80% of the net sown area whereas, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Manipur have only 10% of the net sown area. With the population increasing every year, innovative farming method should be used to feed the large population, utilising vertical space to make the most limited space and time.

Introduction

The ongoing need to create effective agricultural systems that can meet a farmer’s needs is driven by the demand for food, feed, fodder, and natural resources. More than 86 percent of Indian farm families, compromising marginal and small farmers, live in risky, diversified production conditions. There is limited room for horizontal growth of land for agriculture due to the increasing population and declining land per capita. Small and marginal farmers, who make up 84.97 percent of all operational holdings and operating 44.31 percent of the area, need a powerful tool to ensure income, livelihood security, nutritional security and employment in a sustainable manner.

Introduction

Beekeeping is a vital component of agriculture and rural development programmes in various Asian countries. The great role of beekeeping in supplying nutritional, economic and ecological safety to rural areas of Asia cannot be ignored, as it has always been associated with their cultural and natural traditions. Beekeeping is a landless activity and does not compete with any other resource-intensive elements of farming systems. Beekeeping is an additional income-generating activity at the household level.

Introduction

Integrated farming systems (IFS) generate a large amount of organic waste matters. In general, these residues should can be reprocessed appropriately within agri-business systems to fulfil the nutritional and energy demands in the enterprises (IFS) in order to increase productivity. To reduce the heavy consignment of organic waste matter from the Integrated farming systems, The Multi Resource Vermicompost (MRV) was defined by the IFS as an organic fertiliser made from waste produced in crop production, farm animals, agriculture, and vegetation through bio-oxidative degradation processes facilitated by earthworms and microorganisms in the soil.

Introduction

The banana (Musa parasidiaca) belongs to the Monocotyledons class, the Zingiberales order, and the Musaceae family. It is indigenous to Southeast Asia. They thrive in tropical and subtropical climates and are widely grown in countries such as India, China, the Philippines, Ecuador, Brazil, Uganda, Colombia, and Indonesia. A banana’s average length is 7 to 9 inches, and its diameter is 2 to 3 inches. Bananas are frequently planted during the rainy or monsoon season, when the soil is moist and the young plants can absorb enough water. In tropical and subtropical climates where they are commonly grown, the planting season typically runs from April to June. Planting may take place in September or October in areas with a dry season, following the rainy season.

Introduction

Carica papaya is a tree-like herb that grows 2 to 10 meters tall and is often unbranched, cylindrical & hollow stem Fruits are large, cylindrical, with fleshy orange pulp. Numerous, small, black, round seed with gelatinous aril. Papaya leaves have historically been used to treat thrombocytopenia brought on by a dengue infection. (Chinnappan et. al. 2016; Sharma et. al. 2019). Papaya fruits have healing capabilities against cancer, antimicrobial anti-malarial, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immune-boosting, blood sugar-lowering, wound healing, gastro-protective, and capable of curing fever, asthma, jaundice, irregular menstruation, and beriberi. The pharmaceutical and wellness industries have seen a steady rise in demand for papaya as a result of researchers’ recent discovery of their therapeutic potential.

Introduction

Brinjal (Solanum melongena), is a self-pollinated plant also known as eggplant, is an easily cultivated plant belonging to the Solanaceae family.Brinjal ishigh productive vegetable and easily grown everywhere.It is also known as poor’s man vegetable. Brinjal is cultivated widelyand grown as a vegetable crop in any environment. Brinjal grown large amount in India, Pakistan, Chinaand United States. The origin of the brinjal is India. In Brinjaleconomic parts are fruit. It is a high nutritional valuable food.The brinjal fruit and whole plant use as a medicine in some area. It is cultivated everypart of India except high attitude, all the year around. Depending upon consumer’s preference and yield, different types of cultivars are cultivated.Somewild spp of brinjal are fond in northeast states of India and Malaysia. Solanum insanum, a wild cultivar of the plant, mainlyobserved in the dry and hilly region of west Bengal.Some yellow color brinjal varieties are found in Malaya.

Introduction

Chili peppers, also spelled chile or chilli, are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for their pungency. Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a spice to add "heat" to dishes.

Botanical Name : Capsicum annum

Family : Solanaceae

Chromosome Number (2n) : 24

Diseases of Chilli

 1. Powdery Mildew

The disease was first reported from Morocco in 1937.

Introduction

Members of the family Brassicaceae, sometimes known as Cruciferae, include cruciferous vegetables, such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, brussels sprouts, mustard plant, and other related green leafy vegetables. This family comprises several genera, species, and cultivars that are cultivated for food production. While some are shrubs, herbaceous plants make up the great bulk. The leaves are simple (though sometimes deeply incised), without stipules, and grouped in rosettes or alternately on stems. The terminal inflorescences are devoid of bracts. Four longer free stamens and two shorter free stamens are present on. blossoms, as well as four free petals and sepals that alternate.

Introduction The betel vine, scientifically identified as Piper betle L., belongs to the Piperaceae family, which encompasses plants such as pepper and kava. Paan leaves, widely cultivated in countries like Thailand, Philippines, India, Malaysia, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and various Southeast Asian nations, are commonly used as a popular mouth freshener after meals. This traditional practice is predominantly observed in South Asia and among specific Asian diaspora communities worldwide, where betel leaves are commonly chewed as part of a betel quid or paan, often combined with areca nut or tobacco.

In the cultural traditions of Odisha, offering a bundle of betel leaves symbolizes respect and marks the beginning of auspicious events. Taxonomically, betelvine falls under the genus Piper in the Division Magnoliophyta, Class Magnoliopsida, Order Piperales, and Family Piperaceae.

Introduction

Roses, widely cultivated as cut flowers in greenhouses, as entire plants in nurseries, or within home gardens, encounter common issues across these diverse growing environments, including black spot, Botrytis blight, downy mildew, powdery mildew, and rust. Specific challenges like downy mildew and rose rosette gained prominence in the 2010s. The susceptibility of roses to various diseases varies by geographical region; for instance, rose replant disease is a concern in Europe but not in North America. Greenhouses and tropical climates, as seen in Central and South America, face heightened issues with powdery mildew, downy mildew, rust, and Botrytis blight. Disease management proves costly and can constrain rose production, prompting innovations like the adoption of hydroponics in Colombia, leading to improved pest control, enhanced rose quality, and increased productivity.

1. Introduction

The materials widely used for food contact applications include paper and coated-paper products, cellulose products, cellophane, metals, ceramics, glass, rubber, plastics, and miscellaneous materials such as wood, fabric, etc. Most of these materials have been in vogue for several years. Among them plastics are widely used in the food industry as they offer many advantages due to their high cost-to-benefit ratio. However, food safety issues in terms of migration of additives is a cause of concern. Plastics contain a number of additives either deliberately added during their manufacture or inevitable due to technical requirement.

India is primarily an agriculture based economy, which implies, agriculture dominates the nation’s economic landscape. In the course of socioeconomic growth, agriculture is crucial. Around 58 per cent of the population in India relies only on agriculture for their livelihood. India is enriched with various agricultural and horticultural crops with diversified agro-climatic conditions and different soil types. India is one of the leading producing countries of cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables etc. India is also have a prominent scope in allied sectors of agriculture includes livestock, poultry, forestry, sericulture etc. Among such crops, Moringa is the selected crop for this research study. Moringa (Moringa oleifera), which is popularly known as ‘Drumstick’ belongs to the family Moringaceae. Moringa is basically a native crop of India. This crop has its own therapeutic properties with greater nutritional content. Especially in South Indian cuisine, moringa pod is a highly regarded vegetable because of its distinctive flavour and fragrance.

Introduction

Agroforestry denotes a sustainable land and crop management system that strives to increase yields on a continuing basis, by combining the production of woody forestry crops (including fruit and other tree crops) with arable or field crops and/or animals, simultaneously or sequentially, on the same unit of land and applying management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local population. In Jammu and Kashmir, agroforestry systems have been practiced since centuries and passed from generation to generation. These systems were built on the foundation of protecting and planting trees. These systems in the past have made the hill people self- sufficient and well- nourished.

Introduction

Soil has been advocated since the inception of nurseries as the storehouse of almost all the essential plant nutrients. Besides, it is treated as a living entity as it harbours diverse types of innumerable beneficial microorganisms, especially the beneficial genera of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae etc. In 1885, the German botanist, Albert Frank, introduced the Greek word ‘mycorrhiza’, which literally means ‘fungus root’. These fungi form a beneficial symbiotic association with the roots of higher plants and perform the functions of root hair. This symbiotic association has been reported to promote plant growth and health by playing the role of biofertiliser and bioprotectant, respectively.

Introduction

Data Analysis is an approach to analyse data sets to summarise their main characteristics and extract valid information. The importance of hypothesis is generally recognised more in the studies which aim to make predictions about some outcome. As it is not possible to work on the whole population, each group is represented only by a sample of observations and if another sample is drawn, the numerical values would change. This variation between different samples drawn from the same population cannot be eliminated or reduced fully. One is supposed to draw inferences in the presence of the sampling f luctuations. Statistical tools and techniques are applied to check whether the observed differences are real significant differences or non- significant ones.

The prevalence of skin diseases in dogs is high throughout the world. Skin diseases are one of the main clinical complaint with which dogs and cats are presented at clinics. Skin diseases are numerous and have wide range of underlying etiology ranging from non-specific cause, infections (bacterial, viral, fungal. yeast), hormonal, nutritional to immunological causes. Most of the skin diseases are clinically manifested with focal or diffuse alopecia, itching, papules, pustules, erythema, scaling, scabs, lumps, unpleasant smell, rashes, urticarial plaques, dandruff, hot spots or excessive licking (Figure62) making the straight forward diagnosis a difficult task especially in dogs and cats with chronic dermatological disease.

What are Pesticides?

Pesticides are essential tools for controlling harmful and invasive pests in agriculture, forestry, and the landscape. Pesticides are any substances used to prevent, eliminate, repel, attract, or diminish pest organisms. Pesticides that are well-known include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides. Growth regulators, plant defoliants, surface disinfectants, and several swimming pool chemicals are among the others. Insecticides include pesticides (effective against insects), herbicides (effective against certain plants), rodenticides (effective against rats), bactericides (effective against bacteria), fungicides (effective against fungi) and larvicides (effective against larvae).

India, hitherto reliant on foreign help, is now one of the world’s top producers of food and exporters worldwide. With 330.53 Million Tonnes of foodgrain output predicted for 2022–2023, our nation is a far cry from the 1950s and 1960s. We still behind other developed nations, notwithstanding our gains in production. It is acknowledged that a number of issues prevent Indian agriculture from reaching its full potential. Small land holdings, insufficient irrigation, a lack of technological assistance, and difficult financing access are a few of these. Crop health, however, is a significant obstacle to Indian agriculture that frequently goes unnoticed.

Insect collection is a source of recreation for many people and maybe a hobby for those who are interested in studying insects. Methods of collection and preservation of insects are the pre-requisite to studying the insects and their various internal and external organs. After collection, it becomes imperative to keep and preserve the insect specimens intact and safe for a longer time to further study the characters or to develop the insect collection museum. Let‘s have a look and do the different types methods of collection, and devices used for the collection and preservation of insects including immature stages in this practical session.

Collection

 The purposes of insect collection are:

To know the occurrence of a particular insect in a particular locality.

Taxonomic study of insects.

Identification of insects.

To study the bionomics and rearing of insects for various entomological experiments.

To develop the insect repository etc.

Immunoblotting or Western blotting is a technique employed to observe proteins separated through gel electrophoresis. After the proteins migrate from the gel to a nitrocellulose or PVDF membrane due to an electrical current, the membrane is exposed to antibodies tailored for the desired target. Subsequently, secondary antibodies and detection reagents are utilized to visualize the proteins of interest on the membrane.

1. Preparation of tissue homogenate

The initial phase of sample preparation involves extracting proteins from their origin. Typically, proteins are extracted from cells or tissues through a process called lysis. This procedure disrupts the cell membrane to separate proteins from the insoluble components of the cell. Different lysis buffers are available for sample preparation in Western blotting and they differ in the potency of their detergents used to liberate soluble proteins.

3.1 Introduction

Women are the backbone of the family. God gave her all the power to give birth, raise the children, do all the household chores, and balance the professional work. But we forget that women are also human beings, not machines. They can’t work 24x7 they also need rest as well as proper nutrition. Women in ancient India were very powerful in terms of decision-making, political opinion, education, etc, but later on, the situation of women deteriorated. In the middle era, the situation was at its worst: women were being treated badly by the men in their own families. Currently, the situation is turning better. Women are being treated equally now times but it is not the best scenario we can have. There is still much scope in this field where equal wedges and a good environment can be provided to the women.

4.1 Indian Rural Women Embracing the Changes

Rural areas are chiefly characterized by a strong reliance on primary industries such as agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining (MacTavish, 2020). When examined by occupation, the agricultural sector frequently acts as the foundation of rural economies, employing a sizable percentage of workers in farming, livestock raising, and crop production (Cagliarini & Rush, 2011). Unlike urban areas, rural regions offer fewer non-agricultural employment opportunities, leading to a greater emphasis on self-employment, small-scale enterprises, and seasonal work patterns. Limited access to formal employment prompts reliance on informal sectors such as casual labour and subsistence farming.

9.1 Introduction

In the 21st century, mass media plays an important role in disseminating quick information among many people and making communication easy. Today, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a significant role in daily life. ICT is the abbreviation for Information Technology (IT), which offers the ability to access information using telecommunication. It is primarily dependent on communication technologies. This incorporates computer system, sound video show and Internet. Information and communication technology is used in the majority of fields, for example, Agriculture, Education, Medicine, Defence, E-administration, E-Commerce, Banking, Transport, and so forth. ICT is assuming an essential job.

14.1 Introduction

As discussed above, the development discourse on women nationally and internationally moved from Women in Development (WID) to Gender and Development (GAD) and Women's Empowerment. This was reflected in the Government Plans and Policy Documents throughout the past six decades. Since independence, many schemes have been launched for the emancipation of women in the country.

The social welfare method was superseded by the development strategy in the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-1979). This acknowledged the contribution and productive role of women. With its emphasis on work, education, and health, the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-1985) marks a turning point in the history of women's growth. The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-1990) prioritized projects aimed at improving women's status.

17.1 Introduction

In an era where digital technologies permeate every facet of our lives, the discourse surrounding data privacy and security has never been more pertinent. However, within this discourse lies a critical blind spot the intersectionality of gender and technology. As we navigate the complexities of safeguarding personal data and ensuring online security, it is important to recognise and address the differential impacts experienced by individuals based on their gender identities. The combination of gender dynamics with data privacy and security unveils a multifaceted landscape characterised by unique challenges and opportunities. This intersectionality necessitates an examination that goes beyond conventional approaches, requiring a critical lens that acknowledges the diverse experiences and power dynamics at play.

Food Safety

The term “safe food” has different standards to different consumers rather than just being the food handled and prepared through proper cleaning, washing and cooking. Safe food means food prepared on clean and sanitized surfaces with equipment, utensils and dishes that also are cleaned and sanitized. Nowadays consumers are extra conscious about the safety and quality of food and for that reason food safety issues have changed, so have society’s methods for making food as safe as possible. Accordingly, “food safety” means assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its intended use (FSSAI 2017).

Introduction

Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Drying and dehydration both can be defined as the process of removing moisture from the foods. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process, wherein heating medium or internal heat generation helps in evaporation of free water molecules from the product. Drying means removal of moisture of food upto a predetermined level where as in dehydration, complete removal of moisture upto bone dry weight of food material. Dehydrated foods have less than 2.5 % moisture content (dry basis) where as dried foods have dry basis moisture content more than 2.5 %. Drying operation consumes energy from 0.38 to 0.63 GJ/ton of food grain. Removal of water from foods using thermal energy thus makes it an energy intensive process. Modes of heat Transfer in various Driers are given in Table 1.Developments in dryer and methods, dryer selection based on form of raw material and typical residence time for various dryer are are given in Table 2,3 and 4, respectively.

Introduction

Fermentation is playing an important role in the human life and is evident from the fact that food can be both spoiled and made by fermentation. A wide range of the fermented food products are consumed by the consumers in their daily routine. It is one for the oldest and ancient method of food preservation. It may have been a mere accident when people first experienced the taste of fermented food. Fermentation became popular with the dawn of civilization because it not only preserved food but also gave it a variety of tastes, forms, and other sensory sensations. Fermentation, along with salting, cooking, smoking, and sun drying, is one of the earliest ancient traditions developed by cultures all around the world to extend the possible storage time of foods. Slowly, people have realized the nutritional and therapeutic value of fermented foods and drinks, and this has made fermented foods even more popular. Bread, beer, wine, and cheese originated long before Christ. Although modern food technology has contributed to the present day high standard of quality and hygiene of fermented foods, the principles of the age-old processes have hardly changed. In industrialized societies, a variety of fermented foods are very popular with consumers because of their attractive flavor and their nutritional value. During food fermentations, the controlled action of selected micro-organisms is used to alter the texture of foods, preserve foods by production of acids or alcohol, or to produce subtle f lavours and aromas which increase the quality and value of raw materials. After drying, fermentation is the world’s oldest food preservation method.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R factor: It is a group of genes present in some bacteria that provide a basis for resistance to antibiotics and can be transferred from cell to cell by conjugation.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production which wine is siphoned off or bottom of the vat) and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Rad: It is the unit of radiation dose being equivalent to the absorption of 100 erg/g of irradiated material.

Values denote the subjective significance or preferences accorded to objects, concepts, or experiences within an individual’s cognitive framework. The concept of value encompasses entities or outcomes that are desired or selected by individuals. Social values, as expounded by Green (1964), represent enduring cognitive and affective constructs pertaining to objects, ideas, or individuals within a societal context. These values are often abstract in nature and may operate at a subconscious level, embodying implicit assumptions regarding what is deemed morally and socially significant. As articulated by Young (1959), social values encapsulate abstract and subconscious beliefs regarding notions of righteousness and importance within a communal framework.

Social institutions encompass a cohesive array of norms that uphold fundamental societal values. It refers to a structured system of social relationships that encapsulates shared values and protocols, fulfilling specific societal requirements. According to Horton, it embodies common values and procedures, addressing the fundamental needs of a society. These institutions are formal cultural frameworks designed to satisfy essential social needs and establish organized patterns of human behavior in the execution of core societal functions

Social institutions emerge from societal interactions to address fundamental needs such as stability, law enforcement, and the delineation of authority and decision-making roles. Each organization operates within established sets of rules, traditions, and customs, collectively termed as institutions. These institutional frameworks consist of recognized procedures and norms that are accepted by society, regulating interactions and relationships between individuals and groups.

9.1 Introduction

Cluster bean is grown in India to a lesser extent than other beans. It is a commercial crop of arid and semi-arid regions. It is grown for its green pods that are used as vegetable and dry seeds. It is also grown as forage and green manure crop. Among leguminous crops it is comparatively hardier, drought resistant and cultivated on a large scale as a forage crop in dry regions because of its deep tap root system which enables it to recover from water stress. Some of the cultivars are used for extraction of gum called as guargum. The gum obtained from this crop is like a mucilaginous substance called galactomannan that is used in various industries particularly textiles, cosmetics, explosives and paper. Due to its colloidal nature, the gum acts as a stabilizer and thickener in food products,viz., ice cream, bakery mixes and salad dressings. The seeds of clusterbean contain about 30-33% gum in the endosperm. The gum in the seeds are galactomannan polysaccharides. The discovery of the galactomannan gum in the endosperm during 1948, led to its importance as an industrial crop. Today it is one of the significant foreign exchange earners of the country. Fresh pods contain 82.5% water, 9.9% carbohydrate, 3.7% protein, 0.2% fat, 2.3% fibre and 1.4% mineral matter. Cyamopsis senegalensis is the ancestor of guar. The largest growing state is Rajasthan (82%). Young plants of cluster bean contain hydrocyanic acid which causes toxicity to animals. It is an amide (asparagine and glutamine) producing legumes.

11.1 Introduction

The term ‘Dolichos’ derived from Greek language means long pod and ‘lablab’, an Arabic term, means production of sound by dried seeds in the pods. In India, it is grown all over the country but compact large acreage for commercial production is uncommon. It is grown for whole pod. Fresh seeds and dry seeds are used as pulse grain. It is used as pod vegetable, feed and green manure crop. It is very popular in villages as well as cities where less area is available for cultivation. The young tender leaves are used in salads and the relatively old leaves are cooked as potherb like spinach. Its fresh green pods contain 86% moisture, 3.8% protein, 6.7% carbohydrate, 0.7% fat, 0.9% mineral matter, Vitamin A 312 IU. It is good source of Vitamin B, Vitamin C, proteins, minerals and dietary fibres. Trypsin inhibitor and several anti-nutritional factors such as tannins and phytates are present in mature and dark coloured seeds. On heating it is broken down into toxic cyanogenic glucoside which is soluble in boiling water. Therefore, it is necessary to boil the mature seeds in water before consumption. Sem is of two types.(A) Dolichos purpureus var. typicus (Graden Type) is with soft, edible pod wall having less fibre. (B) Dolichos purpureus var. lignosus(Field bean) that is grown for fresh dry seed as pulse, pod wall has high fibre content and has characteristic aroma. Hyacinth bean is a perennial herbaceous plant often grown as an annual and pole types are photosensitive.

12.1 Introduction

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of the most important legume vegetables grown for its tender green pods for fresh consumption, processing and dry seeds. The pods are slender, 10-25 cm long, straight or slightly curved with prominent beak. Seeds are kidney shaped, elongated and white, red, purple or blackish in colour or mottled. The vegetable is in great demand in cities and is grown both commercially and in home gardens. Its major area is confined to hills, where it is grown for green pods. Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh are the main states where it is being cultivated on large scale. Dry bean seeds are an excellent source of cheap protein and many cultivars contain 22-23 % protein. Hundred grams of edible fresh pods contain 91.4 % water, 1.7 % protein, 0.1 % fat, 0.5 % mineral matters, 4.5 % carbohydrates, 50 mg Ca, 28 mg P and 1.7 mg Fe. Its 100 g dry seeds contain 9.6 % water, 24.9 % protein, 0.8 % fat, 3.2 % mineral matters, 60.1 % carbohydrates, 60 mg Ca, 433 mg P and 2.4 mg Fe. In India, it is mostly grown for fresh consumption, while in USA it is grown for processing in large quantities. Dried beans are rich in protein and closely compared with meat. Phaseolus oborigineus is the progenitor of French bean. They are capable of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen with the aid of bacteria found in the nodules on the roots of the plants. Four cultivated species are seen under the genus Phaseolus, i.e., Phaseolus vulgaris—common red kidney bean, Phaseolus coccineus—scarlet runner bean, Phaseolus lanatus— Lima bean, Phaseolus acutifolius var. latifolius— Moth bean or Tapery bean. All the species are self-pollinated except lima bean which is often cross-pollinated and Phaseolus coccineus is generally cross-pollinated and long day plant.

19.1 Introduction

Roselle is a perennial shrub but grown as an annual. In the seventeenth century, the vegetable types were introduced to India and the United States of America. It is locally known as Mesta or Meshta in the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the important fibre crops, which stands next to jute in production. In India, mesta is grown in larger parts covering areas from Karnataka to Tripura including Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Meghalaya. However, Andhra Pradesh has maximum area under mesta in the country. In many tropical regions, it is a popular vegetable, which is cultivated for its leaves, stems, seeds and calyces. Tender young leaves are eaten as a vegetable and the red calyces surrounding the fruit can be used to prepare non-alcoholic beverages and as colouring reagent for jelly, jam, and beverages. The stem is utilised for extraction of fibre. The plant stalks are used in making paper pulp, structural boards, as a blend for wood pulp and thatching huts. The leaves are a source of mucilage used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Culinary cultivars are many branched, bushy and generally 1-2 m tall.

Introduction

Electrical Engineering generally uses a consistent, structured approach to the solving of various practical problems. An acceptable problem-solving approach and method can be defined, although variations can be seen in specific problems. Problems need to be approached methodically, applying an algorithm by which engineer arrives at an acceptable solution.

Problem-Solving Process in Engineering: (i) Define the engineering problem (ii) Create a mathematical model (iii) Develop a computational method for solving the problem (iv) Implement the computational method (v) Test and assess the solution.

Introduction

A generator is subjected to electrical stresses imposed on the insulation of the machine, mechanical forces acting on the various parts of the machine, and temperature rise. These are the main factors which make protection necessary for the generator or alternator. Even when properly used, a machine in its perfect running condition does not only maintain its specified rated performance for many years, but it does also repeatedly withstand certain excess of overload.

Preventive measures must be taken against overloads and abnormal conditions of the machine so that it can serve safely. Even ensuring an efficient design, construction, operation, and preventive means of protection – the risk of a fault cannot be completely eliminated from any machine. The devices used in generator protection, ensure that when a fault arises, it is eliminated as quickly as possible.

Introduction

Strategy in the global context requires a thorough understanding of the external environment, including economic, political, cultural, and technological factors that could impact an organization's operations. Organizations must also understand their internal strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to develop effective strategies that align with their goals. A global strategy involves developing a standardized approach to business activities that can be applied across different countries and cultures, while also adapting to local Market Conditions. Companies that operate globally must consider the differences in legal and regulatory environments, cultural norms, and consumer preferences when developing their strategies. Global strategy requires collaboration across different regions and functions within an organization to achieve a shared vision and common goals. The use of technology and data analytics is crucial in developing and executing global strategies, as it can help organizations identify new market opportunities, monitor changes in the external environment, and make informed decisions. Companies achieving success in formulating and executing global strategies must demonstrate agility and rapid adaptability to external environmental shifts. Additionally, they should maintain a steadfast commitment to continuous improvement and innovation to maintain a competitive edge.

Introduction

External environmental analysis is a critical process that organizations undertake to assess and understand the various factors and forces that exist outside their immediate operational boundaries.

It involves examining the external environment in which a business operates to identify opportunities, threats, and potential influences that may impact its performance and strategic decisions.

External environmental analysis is the systematic evaluation of factors outside an organization's control that can significantly impact its operations, strategies, and overall success.

Purpose The aim of conducting an external environmental analysis is to acquire a deeper understanding of the opportunities and threats that exist within the external environment. By comprehending these elements, organizations can make informed choices and craft efficacious strategies to adjust and prosper in an ever-evolving business environment.

Factors to Analyze: Highlight the main factors that organizations typically analyze during external environmental analysis. These encompass the Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal (PESTEL) factors.. Additionally, industry-specific factors such as competition, customer behavior, and market trends should also be considered.

Tools and Techniques: Briefly mention some common tools and techniques used in external environmental analysis. These methodologies may involve SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis, the application of Porter's Five Forces framework, scenario planning, trend analysis, and market research.

Introduction to Internal Environment Analysis

Internal environment analysis is a critical component of strategic management that focuses on evaluating an organization's internal factors and resources. It involves assessing the internal strengths and weaknesses to gain insights into the organization's capabilities and competitive advantage. Here are some key points to highlight when discussing the introduction to internal environment analysis:

Internal environment analysis refers to the process of examining and evaluating an organization's internal factors, including its resources, capabilities, and core competencies. It helps identify strengths and weaknesses that can influence the organization's performance and competitiveness.

Purpose: The primary purpose of internal environment analysis is to understand the organization's internal dynamics and uncover key areas where it has a competitive advantage or faces challenges. It enables organizations to identify their core competencies and allocate resources effectively to achieve strategic goals.

Introduction to Corporate Governance

Corporate governance encompasses the framework of rules, practices, and processes that guide the direction, control, and management of a company. It involves the interactions among various stakeholders, including shareholders, management, the board of directors, employees, customers, suppliers, and the community. Successful corporate governance is vital for a company's long term success and sustainability. It helps establish a framework for responsible decision-making, accountability, and transparency, which enhances investor confidence and protects the interests of stakeholders.

Introduction

Evapotranspiration is a vital process in the Earth’s water cycle, and it involves two main processes—evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation refers to the conversion of water from its liquid state to its gaseous state, which occurs primarily from the surface of bodies of water, wet vegetation, and soils. This process requires energy, which is typically provided by direct solar radiation and ambient air temperature. Transpiration, on the other hand, is the process by which plants release water vapor through small openings in their leaves called stomata. This process is essential for plant growth and function as it helps regulate the plant’s temperature and allows for nutrient uptake and water transport. Like evaporation, transpiration also requires energy, with factors like vapor pressure gradient and wind speed influencing the rate at which water is released.

To accurately measure evapotranspiration, it is necessary to consider a range of factors such as temperature, radiation, wind speed, and humidity. Plant parameters, such as the presence of a cuticle or the size and number of stomata, can also greatly influence the transpiration rate. Other factors that may impact evapotranspiration include the season, time of day, and soil properties such as water holding capacity and root depth. Evapotranspiration is a complex concept that has been studied by various scientists and organizations over time. Three main evapotranspiration (ET) concepts have been developed: Reference ET, ET under standard conditions, and ET under nonstandard conditions. The goal of determining potential or reference evapotranspiration is to exclude crop-specific variations from the evapotranspiration process. The potential evapotranspiration concept, introduced in the late 1940s and 50s by Penman, assumes constant crop conditions and defines it as “the amount of water transpired in a given time by a short green crop, completely shading the ground, of uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil profile.” ETo, which is a climatic parameter, represents the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a certain location and time of the year and is computed from weather data. It does not take into account crop characteristics or soil conditions, and the only factors affecting it are climatic parameters. The range of ETo varies from 1–2 mm/day in humid and subhumid temperate regions to 6–9 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid temperate regions and from 2–3 in cool humid and subhumid tropics to 6–8 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid tropics. Actual ET is the amount of water on a large area of grass that is actively growing and covering the entire soil surface it actually uses. The amount of water that is actually evacuated from a surface as a result of the processes E and T is known as ETa. Crop water needs can be calculated by the following equation.

Introduction

Droughts are considered to be a significant environmental disaster and have captured the attention of various experts, including environmentalists, ecologists, hydrologists, meteorologists, geologists, and agricultural scientists. These natural calamities are known to occur in almost all climatic zones, regardless of whether they are high- or low-rainfall areas. Generally a decrease in the amount of precipitation received over an extended period such as a season or a year, is the primary cause of droughts. However, other factors such as high temperatures, strong winds, low relative humidity, and characteristics of rainfall (e.g., intensity, duration, onset, and termination) also play a crucial role in their occurrence. It’s important to distinguish a drought from aridity, which is a permanent feature of a climate and is limited to low rainfall areas (Wilhite, 1992). A drought is a temporary phenomenon and can last from a few months to several years. Some people often mistake droughts for heat waves, but Chang and Wallace (1987) highlighted the fundamental difference between these two events. A heat wave typically lasts for a week, while a drought can extend for several months or even years. When a heat wave and a drought coincide, it can lead to dire socio-economic consequences.