eChapters

Milk lipids or milk fats exist as an emulsion of small spherical droplets called milk fat globules. These globules are very small in size but very large in number. The diameter of the milk fat globules ranges between 0.1 and 22 µm and the number varies between 1.5 and 3.0 billion globules/mL. The average size of milk fat globules ranges from 2 to 5 µm. The average fat globule size in cow and buffalo milk are 3.4 and 4.5 µm, respectively. The surface of the milk fat globules is coated with an adsorbed layer of material known as the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). MFGM contains phospholipids and proteins in a complex form. MFGM has two main functions (a) fat globule stabilization and (b) preservation of the fat globule’s identity.

General Composition

Triacylglycerols (triglycerides) represent 97–98% of the total lipids in the milk of most species. The diglycerides probably represent incompletely synthesized lipids in most cases. Although phospholipids represent less than 1% of total lipids, they play an important role in being present mainly in the MFGM and other membranous material in milk. The principal phospholipids are phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and sphingomyelin. Trace amounts of other polar lipids, including ceramides, cerebrosides, and gangliosides, are also present. Phospholipids represent a considerable percentage of the total lipid of buttermilk and skim milk reflecting the presence of proportionately larger amounts of membrane material in these products.

The primary constituents of milk are water, fat, protein, sugar (lactose), minerals, vitamins, and enzymes. Milk is a thin emulsion made up of two phases: A continuous aqueous colloidal phase and a dispersed phase of oil or fat. It is an opaque white liquid containing fat in an emulsion, protein, and a few minerals in a colloidal suspension, and lactose along with soluble proteins and a few minerals in a true solution. The physical characteristics of milk are comparable to those of water, but they are altered by the degree of dispersion of the colloidal and emulsified components as well as the presence of different solutes, such as salts, lactose, and protein, in the continuous phase.

Physical Appearance, Color and Optical Properties

Fat globules and casein micelles scatter light, giving the appearance of turbid and opaque milk. The way that molecules scatter light has an impact on optical characteristics. When the wavelength of light and the particle’s magnitude coincide, light scattering happens. Consequently, light with shorter wavelengths is scattered by smaller particles and vice versa. Because casein micelles scatter blue light more than red light at shorter wavelengths, skim milk appears slightly blue. Cow’s milk has a creamy color because of beta- carotene, a carotenoid precursor to vitamin A. The greenish tinge in whey is due to the presence of riboflavin. Turbid and opaque due to scattering of light mainly by protein micelles and fat globules.

Clinical Symptoms • External haemorrhages

• Pale gills • Ascites

• Destruction of tissues in the kidney, spleen, and liver

• Excessive mucus secretion

• Skin hemorrhages with edema of the tissues

• Skin ulceration around the mouth and base of the fins

Causative Agent: Rhabdovirus

Host (Common sp.)

• Common carp

• Koi carp

• Crucian carp

• Silver carp

• Bighead carp

• Grass carp

• Goldfish

Clinical Symptoms

• White/brown cotton-like foci on the surface of the skin and/or gills

• Peritonitis

• Extensive haemorrhage • Necrosis

• Adhesions

Introduction Ultrasonography is well-established technique in human sciences, particularly for diagnosis of pre-natal defects of fetus. In veterinary sciences, this technique is emerging an important tool. This tool is being employed in the small animal practices, particularly bitches for diagnosis of various reproductive disorders and estimation of gestational status. In the past, veterinarians had limited assistance for assessing reproductive status of this animal. Pregnancy diagnosis in a bitch was possible either with the use of X-rays or transabdominal palpation, but that too at an advanced stage of gestation. These methods could provide information either about presence of pups in vitro, or their number, but assessment of fetal viability was not accurately predicted with these traditional methods. With the use of X-rays, there was always risk of harmful effects on the health of mother and fetus. As far as reproductive disorders are concerned, most of them remained either undiagnosed due to the lack of proper access to the internal organs or were diagnosed with a guess. Diagnostic ultrasound is a valuable alternative imaging system that can provide more accurate information about the canine pregnancy and reproductive disorders in comparison to traditional methods.

The Liver

The liver is a large and an irregular organ of the body, which extends from the sixth to the eleventh intercostal space. It extends much more caudally on the right side as compared to the left side. Its most caudal part is the caudate lobe whose small portion is visualized encircling the right kidney dorsally at the eleventh intercostal space. The liver of a dog is divided into various lobes namely the left lateral, left medial, quadrate, right medial, right lateral and the caudate lobes which are not identifiable ultrasonographically, except when f luid is present in the abdomen. Otherwise, the position of the different liver lobes can only be approximated. The gallbladder is located to the right of the midline between the quadrate and the right medial lobes of the liver.

Proper preparation of the animal is important to obtain images of abdominal orgnas including that of liver. It is better to keep animal off fed for at east six hours prior to ultrasound scanning. This will avoid interference of gases and solid contents of the gastrointestinal tract. If stomach is taken as landmark of scanning then enough fluid should be given prior to scanning to get good images of stomach. The liver can be easily visualized on one side of stomach. One should be liberal in applying good amount of gel over transducer and body for better image of liver.

Ultrasonography of the GI tract presents problems and challenges for the sonographer. Sonography of the GI viscera was once throught to be impossible because of artifacts created by gas within the lumen but with the technical advancement in the ultrasonography now the problem has been solved. If the animal is kept of feed and adlib water is given to the dog with I/v fluid than ultrasonography becomes helpful in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal tract disorders. Other conditions such as esophageal carcinomas can also been diagnosed by ultrasonographic endoscopy. in human beings.

The normal ultrasonography of the liver, kidney, stomach & spleen in dogs has been standardized and its use in evaluation of pathological lesions has been reported but ultrasonographic evaluation of oesophagus & intestine, both in normal animals and diseased conditions is yet to be established. Therefore normal ultrasonography of the oesophagus & small intestine in dogs and the importance of diagnostic capability of ultrasonography in diagnosis of pathology of these organs have been compiled.

4.1.1 Vertical row planting pattern

1. Square system: In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square whatever may be the planting distance. This is the most commonly followed system and is very easy to layout. The central place between four trees may be advantageously used to raise short lived filler trees. This system permits inter cropping and cultivation in two directions.

2. Rectangular system: In this system, trees are planted on each corner of a rectangle. As the distance between any two rows is more than the distance between any two trees in a row, there is no equal distribution of space per tree. The wider alley spaces available between rows of trees permit easy intercultural operations and even the use of mechanical operations.

4.1.2 Alternate row planting pattern

3. Hexagonal system

• In this method, the trees are planted in each comer of an equilateral triangle.

• This way six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in the centre.

• Therefore, this system is also called as 'septule' as a seventh tree is accommodated in the centre of hexagon.

• This system provides equal spacing but it is difficult to layout.

• The perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows is equal to the product of 0.866 x the distance between any two trees.

• This system accommodates 15% more trees than the square system. The limitations of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation is not so easily done as in the square system.

6.1 Scenario in precision farming

• India’s population is around 1366 million by 2020 which requires food grain production of 350 million tones.

• Considering the current food grain production levels, India needs to raise food grain production levels by not less than 4.00 per cent per year. As the availability of land has decreased, application of fertilizers and pesticides become necessary to increase food production.Indiscriminate use of inputs coupled with improper management practices over a long period has resulted in decline in soil productivity.

• Agriculture production system is outcome of interaction of various agro inputs. Therefore, judicious management of these inputs is necessary for the sustainability of these inputs.

• In our agriculture systems, spatial variability over the landscape is ignored and fertilizers, herbicide, pesticides, fungicides etc. are applied at uniform rate over the whole field.

• It has been recognized that crops and soils are not uniform within a given field. The management of in-field variability in soil fertility and crop conditions for improving crop production and minimizing the environmental impact is the crux of precision farming.

• Definitions • It is defined as the application of technologies and principles to manage spatial and temporal variability associated with all aspects of agricultural production (Pierce and Nowak, 1999).

• It is an integrated information and production-based farming system that is designed to increase long term, site specific and whole farm production efficiency, productivity and profitability while minimizing unintended impacts on environment.

8.1 What is stress?

• Physics:Mechanical force per unit area applied to an object.

• Biology:Stress is any adverse environmental factor or condition that affects normal metabolic or physiological processes. It may be :

• Biotic stress (living) • Abiotic stress (non-living) 8.2 Abiotic stress

• Abiotic stress is defined as:“The negative impact of non-living factors on the living organisms in a specific environment”

• Only 10% of the world arable land may be categorized as free from stress.

8.2.1 Type of abiotic stress

8.2.1.1 Temperature stress

• Temperature is one of the most important components of climate. It plays vital role in the production of horticultural crops.

• The different activities of plant like growth and development, respiration, photosynthesis, transpiration, uptake of nutrients and water and reproduction (Such as pollen viability, blossom fertilization fruit set etc.), carbohydrate and growth regulators balance, rate of maturation and senescence, and quality, yield and shelf life of the edible products.

• The above function of the plant should be well when the temperature at the optimum range.During high temperature plant does not perform proper functions of growth, where in low temperature physiological activities of the plant are stopped.

INTRODUCTION

Species of the Clupeiformes (Teleostei), commonly known as herrings, shads, menhadens, sardines, anchovies, and their relatives, are a major component of forage fishes in coastal ecosystems and dominate worldwide forage fish landings (Tacon and Metian, 2009a; FAO, 2020). Clupeiformes are globally distributed fishes with having nearly 419 marine, freshwater, and diadromous species (Bloom and Egan, 2018) and they are filter-feeding fishes that form large schools having a diverse group of trophic guilds and habitats (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Additional to providing ecological and economic support, clupeiforms contribute to global food security given their abundance, easy access, and exceptionally high nutrient content (FAO, 2018). In some human communities, clupeiforms comprise the major or the sole protein source (Alder et al., 2008; Mohanty et al., 2019). Historically, clupeiform presence has been associated with persistent human settlement, growth, and survival (Thornton et al., 2010; Levin et al., 2016).

Clupeiform fishes are ecologically diverse and span all aquatic habitats, including coastal and open marine environments, oceanic islands, estuaries, and freshwater rivers and lakes (Whitehead, 1985; Lavoue et al., 2013). Species can be restricted to marine, estuarine, or fresh waters, or they can be euryhaline, where a subset exhibit diadromy (Whitehead, 1985). Strictly marine clupeiforms (33.7% of all species) are distributed in every ocean, except for the Southern Ocean (Whitehead, 1985), while strictly freshwater species (17.8% of all species) are found on every continent except for Antarctica (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Major threats to clupeiforms are similar to those found for other groups of fishes (e.g., Roberts and Hawkins, 1999; Reynolds et al., 2005), with overexploitation as the leading threat for all clupeiforms in all habitats. While overexploitation may be the most prolific threat by impacting the highest number of clupeiforms, pollution may be the most detrimental, as it affects greater numbers of CR species. When compared to other economically and ecologically important fish groups globally assessed using the IUCN Red List methodology, clupeiforms have the lowest estimated percentage of threatened and NT species overall. Using the midpoint of species evaluated as elevated concern, roughly 11% are currently at high risk compared to approximately 22% of tunas and billfishes (Collette et al., 2011), 19% of sparids (Comeros Raynal et al., 2016), and 19% of groupers (Sadovy de Mitcheson et al., 2020).

Study done in India on various aspects of marine copepods are those of Krishnaswamy (1952), Kartha (1959), Ummerkutty (1960, 1966), Ganapathi et al. (1961), Kasturirangan (1963), Saraswathy (1966), Abraham (1970), Silas and Pillai (1973), Sarladevi (1979), Sarkar et al. (1985), Madhupratap and Haridas (1986), Wells and Rao (1987), Gajbhiye et al. (1991), Madhupratap (1999), Kesarkar and Anil (2010), Ramanibai and Shanthi (2011), Srichandan et al. (2014). Jayabarathi et al. (2015), Nishida et al. (2015), Arunpandi et al. (2017), Loka et al. (2017), Deepika et al. (2019), Kaviyarasan et al. (2019), Khandagale et al. (2022), Nawaz et al. (2023), Thangaraj and Vijayanand (2023).

Copepods are planktonic crustaceans, which occur in marine, fresh as well as brackish waters. They represent about 80% of the zooplankton in the ocean. There are more than 210 families, 2400 genera and 24000 species identified in this group. Planktonic copepods are considered to be the most abundant metazoans on earth.

The name 'copepod' is derived from the Greek words meaning 'animals with oar shaped foot' i.e., ‘kope’ means oar and ‘podos’ means foot (Stottrup,2003). Copepods are important secondary producers and primary consumers and ultimately contribute significantly to the food chain in large ecosystems.

Copepods are very hardly planktonic forms which can withstand most of the unfavourable conditions and can produce diapause eggs and resting eggs to survive in these conditions. Most of the copepods can adjust wide range of salinity and temperature levels. Due to its hardy nature, copepods can be easily introduced into all types of water bodies.

Copepods forms important food for many aquatic animals especially fishes. Certain fishes and fish larvae were evolutionary adapted to feed on copepods. Copepods have been found to be nutritionally superior to almost all other live feeds.

INTRODUCTION

Phenolic compounds in the wastewater are harmful pollutants which originate as byproducts from several industries like pulp and paper mills, coaking plants, petroleum refineries, tanning industries, phenolic resin manufacturing units etc. Phenolic compounds impart colour and odour to water and are toxic even at a very low level of concentration. The various processes for the removal of phenolics from the wastewater can be grouped into two broad categories. In one category are those processes like microbiological degradation, chemical treatment, incineration etc. which aim at destroying the phenolics, while the other category has processes involving the recovery of phenolics e.g. solvent extraction, activated carbon treatment, uptake by porous polymeric adsorbents etc. Among these various methods polymeric adsorbents are very promising for the removal of phenolic compounds due to following reasons. The efficiency of removal of phenolics by porous polymeric adsorbents and their subsequent elution from the polymer matrix is exceptionally good. The requirement equipment is very simple and the operation is usually trouble free. The operation can be carried out at ambient temperature and the space requirements are comparatively small. Very stringent specifications regarding the quality of the effluent can be met by the use of polymeric adsorbents.

INTRODUCTION

Generation of solid wastes has a universal problem which are facing by most of the countries in present scenario. These wastes are generated due to several human accomplishments as well as natural disaster. It is estimated that in India nearly 700 million tons of organic wastes is generated annually included leaves, husk, sawdust, steam bark, flowers etc. Vermicomposting is a simple biotechnological process of composting, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicompost is nutritionally rich natural organic fertilizer, which releases nutrients relatively slowly in the soil and improves quality of the plants along with physical and biological properties of soil. It has a more beneficial impact on plants than soil.

During vermicomposting, earthworms eat and grind substrates, convening with anaerobic micro flora to increase the surface area for microbial colonization and enzymatic action. Screening of locally available earthworm species and their suitability for vermicomposting during summer and winter seasons is very much required for effective recycling of available bio-waste for production of quality organic manure – vermicompost. Earthworm’s vermicompost is proving to be highly nutritive ‘organic fertilizer’ and more powerful ‘growth promoter’ over the conventional composts and a ‘protective’ farm input (increasing the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, restoring and improving its natural fertility) against the ‘destructive’ chemical fertilizers which has destroyed the soil properties and decreased its natural fertility over the years.

Vermicompost is rich in NKP (nitrogen 2-3%, potassium 1.85-2.25% and phosphorus 1.55-2.25%), micronutrients, beneficial soil microbes and also contain ‘plant growth hormones and enzymes’. It is scientifically proving as ‘miracle growth promoter and also plant protector’ from pests and diseases. Vermicompost retains nutrients for long time but the conventional compost fails to deliver the required amount of macro and micronutrients including the vital NKP to plants.

Lice
Class: Insecta
Subclass: Pterygota 
Division: Exopterygota
Order: Mallophaga (Biting louse) and order Siphunculata or Anoplura 
(sucking louse)
General characters of lice
1. Lice are permanent obligatory ecto-parasites of animals and birds. 
2. They are very host and site specific. 
3. Lice are dorsoventrally flattened, wingless creatures. 
4. Body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen. 
5. Eyes are reduced or absent in certain species. Compound eyes are absent.
6. Antennae are short. 

Lab coat: A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

Labelling: It means any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label, accompanies the food or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its sale or disposal. After packaging, labels are required on the finished products intended for distribution and sale. Labelling can reflect on the quality of the product. It must be clear and informative. Information includes Name of the Manufacturer, Date of Manufacture, Net Weight, Gross Weight, Best before etc. Proper storage is needed for maintenance of the quality. Storage must be done only at recommended temperature, relative humidity, light and air / oxygen and carbon dioxide conditions etc. to maintain the quality of the food product. Label may include tag, brand, and pictorial or descriptive matter, written, printed, embossed, graphic, perforated, stencilled or stamped impressions. It is attached to container, cover, lid, or crown of a food package (Plate 384).

Laboratory: A place equipped for experimental study in a science or for testing and analysis. Broadly, it is a place providing opportunity for experimentation, observation, or practice in a field of study.

Lacquer: It is a colloidal dispersion of a solution of cellulose derivative, resin and plasticizer in solvent and diluents, where in all these constituents dried in air by evaporation of solvents, thus yielding a transparent, hard and water proof film.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study. It is untrained panel of sensory evaluation.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 10-9. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959.

NaNO2 : Pink colour of cured meat is preserved by NaNO2 . It is effective against Cl. Botulinosm

Nanogram: It is one billionth of a gram.

Nano-materials: Nano material have been defined as having one or more dimensions measuring 100 nm or less, or having at least one dimension at this scale which affects the materials behavior and properties (Plate 438).

Objective Methods: Objective Methods are used for evaluation of food quality. These are based on recognized standard scientific tests to any sample of the product without regard to its previous history. They represent the modern idea in quality control (QC) because the human element has been excluded. This method divided into three groups like physical, chemical and microbiological. The devices are used in this evaluation.

Obligate aerobes: These microbes grow only in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate anaerobes: These microbes do no grow in the presence of oxygen (Plate 450).

Obligate parasite: Obligate parasites is host specific and grows on living host only and attach limited range of host and are very difficult or impossible to grow on artificial culture/media.

Obligate thermophile: These microorganisms grow at a temperature between 38-80oC.

Oenology: Treatments used to prevent spoilage of wine is called oenology. It is synonym to that of enology.

Offal: It is the viscera and trimmings of a butchered animal removed in dressing of meat. It is by-product of slaughtering process.

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat (Plate 648).

Wastage: Wastage is a term that cannot be precisely defined by even moral value / judgment and defined on the context / situation on which it is used.

Waste water: Water that has been used in a manufacturing process and goes waste is called waste water.

Water: Water (H2 O) is a clear transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid; neutral in reaction; boils at 100oC, freezes at 0oC and has maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4oC. It exists as snow, ponds, lake, rivers, seas, oceans etc., also occur as rain and is there in the form of moisture in atmosphere. Pure water is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Water is an essential part of the body structure as a carrier of nutrients and regulator of a number of body functions. Fruit and vegetables contain > 80% water and sometime upto 95% water e.g. cucumber, lettuce, marrow, lettuce, melon. The starchy tubers and seeds, for example yam, cassava and cork, contain less water, but even > 50%. So water content must be optimum at the harvesting time. The human body comprises of about 65 % water, while that of fruits and vegetables 80-90% water.

Introduction

The backbone of economic growth are financial systems, which act as the channels for managing risks, facilitating investments, and allocating resources within an economy. Financial systems, which consist of a wide range of organizations, markets, and tools, are essential for coordinating the movement of capital between surplus (savers) and deficit (borrowers) units. They basically provide risk management, resource allocation, payment facilitation, and intermediation, among other crucial responsibilities. This complex network of interconnected roles makes sure that money is effectively allocated to its most profitable uses and offers safeguards against risk and smooth transactions. It supports sustainable growth and development by acting as the lifeblood of the economy.

A wide range of elements, such as macroeconomic conditions, regulatory frameworks, and technological breakthroughs, influence the evolution and dynamics of financial systems. Financial systems have changed significantly over time because of new difficulties and shifting environments. Resilience, creativity, and adaptation have been characteristics of the growth of finance, from the rise of modern banking institutions to the introduction of modern f inancial technology solutions. It is essential to solving urgent global issues including climate change, inequality, and sustainable development in addition to fostering economic growth and societal improvement. Financial institutions and stakeholders are using their resources to leverage sustainable finance practices, impact investment, and green finance efforts to create positive social and environmental consequences. It can be a strong tool for bringing about positive change and creating a more sustainable and equitable future.

The Ramayana written by sage Valmiki is one of the great epics of the Sanskrit language. It is most religiously regarded and popular book in Hinduism. The book is believed to be complied between 300 B.C.E. – 200 AD. However, the original story could be as old 500 B.C.E. (Goldman, 1984). There are many other versions of the epic in various regional languages found in India and South Asia (Raghunathan, 1981; Arya,1998; Dutt, 2004; Mukherjee, 2015; Sharma and Arya, 2022).

As per literature references, the name ‘Ramanaya’ is composed of two words, ‘Rama’ and ‘Aya?a’. Rama, the name of the main character of the Epic, has two contextual meanings. In the Atharvaveda, it means 'dark’, dark-coloured, ‘black' and is related to the word ‘ratri’ (night) which means 'darkness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the Mahabharata, is 'pleasing’, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful. The word ‘Ayana’ means travel or journey. Thus, Ramaya?a means ‘Rama's Journey’ from his kingdom to various places, forests during his life time (Anonymous, 1960; Tulsidas, 1966; Murthy, 2003; Kishore, 2007; Rajagopalachari, 2013).

Ramayana contains over 24,000 couplet verses, in its full form, which are divided into following seven ‘Ka??as’ (booklets) - Balaka??a, Ayodhyaka??a, Ara?yaka??a, Ki?kindhaka??a, Sundaraka??a, Yuddhaka??a, Uttaraka??a and about 500 sargas (chapters). It is regarded as one of the longest epic poems written in history (Keshavadas, 1988; Debroy, 2017; Gupta, 2021).

morally right man in the world? Narada replied that such a man is Rama, son of King Dasharatha of Ayodhya. Valmiki wanted to know more about Rama and proceeded to take bath when he saw two birds in playful mood and was happy. Suddenly, a hunter hiding in the bush shot one of the two birds. Valmiki became painful and chanted some dialogues in curse which ultimately created a new form of sloka. This was the beginning of the main narrative (Goldman, 1984; Sachithanantham, 2004).

History

Pineapple was discovered a little later in time than expected. It had been a staple of the American diet for years before Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, discovered it on November 4, 1493. (www.library.ucf.edu; www. levins.com). That’s when the Guadeloupe Island natives served him and his colleagues this delectable fruit, pineapple. The varieties cultivated at the time were all seedless, and many typical wild cultivars were missing (Collins, 1948), demonstrating the area’s early vegetation. He brought the fruit to Europe. The European travellers were so fascinated by this fruit that they frequently mentioned it in their accounts (Morrison, 1963; Collins, 1960).

It was known as ‘nanas’ or ‘ananas’ by the people of South America (‘ananas’ meant ‘excellent fruit’ in Guarani). People in the area literally cultivated it according to a strict protocol, and they were especially keen to select superior varieties in order to increase fruit yield and quality. They gained a thorough understanding of crop agronomy and production. They also put into practise some of the processing standards that are still in use today around the world (holidayandtraveleurope.blogspot.in). Pineapple wine was made, fibre was extracted, and pharmacological needs such as emmenagogue, abortifacient, antiamoebic, vermifuge, stomach disorders, and poisoning arrow heads were met (Leal and Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge, 1996). In 1980, Antoni and Leal proposed that the pineapple originated in an area further north, between 10° N and S latitudes and 55–75° W longitude, which included parts of north western and eastern Brazil, Columbia, Guyana, and Venezuela. During colonisation, Spanish and Portuguese navigators were instrumental in the distribution and spread of pineapple to all corners of the globe (www.daf.qld.gov.au 2015).

1.1 History and Evolution of Aquaculture

Aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks and aquatic plants, has a rich history dating back thousands of years. Its evolution has been shaped by diverse cultural practices, technological advancements, and growing demands for sustainable food production. This essay explores the history and evolution of aquaculture, highlighting key developments from ancient times to the modern era.

Ancient Origins of Aquaculture

The earliest records of aquaculture date back to ancient China around 2500 BCE. The Chinese practiced fish farming, particularly with carp, in ponds. Carp were favored due to their resilience and adaptability. This period marked the beginning of organized aquaculture, where fish were bred and raised in controlled environments. The Chinese recognized the benefits of aquaculture for food security and sustainability, laying the foundation for future practices.

In Egypt, evidence suggests that tilapia were farmed as early as 1500 BCE. Ancient Egyptians built ponds along the Nile River to cultivate fish, which were an essential part of their diet. These early aquaculture practices were driven by the need for a reliable food source, especially during periods of low f ish availability in natural waters.

Roman and Greek Contributions

The Romans and Greeks also contributed to the development of aquaculture. In ancient Rome, mullet and oysters were cultivated in man-made ponds called “vivaria.” These ponds were designed to mimic natural habitats, providing ideal conditions for the growth and reproduction of fish. The Romans were known for their engineering prowess, and their aquaculture systems reflected this, with intricate designs to regulate water flow and quality.

1. Atropine Toxicity

? Toxicity of atropine depending upon the route of administration and the sp. of animal.

? Herbivores are more resis-tant than carnivores. Dogs, cats and birds are sensitive to its action. Rabbits are quite resistant to belladona leaves since an atropinase enzyme present in liver rapidly hydrolyses and inactivates atropine.

? Horse cattle and goats are relatively resistant to bellladona when administered orally, however poisoning on ingestion occurs more often in swine. Resistance in ruminants due to destructive maceration of atropine in rumen.

? All parts of plants are toxic as these contain atropine like alkaloids. Toxic dose of hyoscamine is 2.7 mg/kg for pigs.

Key Points

• Neurologic dysfunction, which can show up as a wide range of perplexing symptoms and indicators, can accompany gastrointestinal disorders that cause malabsorption and the ensuing nutritional deficits.

• Digestive illnesses are among the most common problems in animals living in tropical countries. They often manifest as intestinal blockage, malabsorption, malnourishment, bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract, diarrhea, and stomach pain or distention.

Introduction

Animal digestive problems can be brought on by a range of conditions, including infections, parasites, and other illnesses. In older dogs and cats, gastrointestinal (GI) disorders of the alimentary tract and hepatobiliary system are prevalent. The majority of the time, GI symptoms in affected animals are caused by inflammatory illnesses; however, degenerative lesions and motility issues can also occur. Acute and chronic conditions are two general classifications for gastrointestinal diseases. Dietary errors, or the worsening of long-term gastrointestinal disorders, are the most frequent causes of acute gastrointestinal disorders. Alongside chronic gastrointestinal disease, colitis or inflammatory bowel disease are frequently diagnosed.

Introduction

Fertilization is the application of fertilizer for the benefit of the crops. It may be traditional broadcasting or fertigation. In broadcasting method the fertilizer is applied in concentrated granular form. The size of the granules ranges from granular dust to pellet size. These solid fertilizers get dissolved by the rain or irrigated water to leach down the plat root zone. This method results uneven nutrient delivery due to uneven dissolving the fertilizer granules. It may cause burning of plant leaves and root system due to uneven and uncontrolled release of nutrients. Dry fertilizers can volatilize and release gases which may damage or burn the nearby foliage. Availability of fertilizer to the plant root zone largely depends on the temperature and availability of water to dissolve the fertilizers.

In fertigation liquid or water-soluble fertilizer, soil amendments or other products required by the plants is either sprayed on to the plant material or applied to the plant bottom with irrigation water. Foliar application provides high rate of absorption of fertilizer through the leaf/stalk/branch structures of plants. Ground application also provides good consistency in making its way to root zone and plant absorption. Thus, the fertigation provides benefit of increased nutrient absorption; decrease water needs, and reduce the fertilizer and chemical use (Anonyms, 2005).

Statistics

It is a branch of mathematics, which comprises several areas like Algebra, Trigonometry, Calculus, Geometry, Statistics and Probability etc.

Biostatistics is a mathematical science which analyses numerical facts or biometric data of biological events following certain rules like design of experiments, analysis of data, presentation of data with tables, figures hypothesis testing, making a probability prediction and conclusion etc.

or it is an art of analysis and presentation of data following certain rules and international norms accepted by international journals for pharmacology experiments, animal farm data, human and animal medicines data, epidemiology data, non-parametric data etc.

What is statistics?

The number of introductory or elementary texts on the subject of statistics indicates how important the subject has become for everyone in the biological sciences. However, the fact that there are many texts might also suggest that we have yet to discover a fool proof method of presenting what is required. The problem confronted in biological statistics is as follows:

When there is a need to make a set of numerical observations in biology, it has been observed that the values are scattered. Then questions arise to know whether these values differ because of factors e.g. treatments or these are part of a ‘background’ i.e., natural variation. You need to evaluate what the numbers actually mean, and to represent them in a way that readily communicates their meaning to others.

Important Definitions

• Sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the population by gathering information (on basis of samples) and analyzing that data.

• Population: The whole group we are interested in census.

• Census: A collection of data from the whole population

• Sample: A collection of data from part of the population

• Parameter Vs Statistics: Parameter is statistical measure pertaining to population whereas statistics is measure pertaining to sample.

• Estimate-Value of population parameter obtained from sample.

• Livestock census carried every 5 years (2019-20th livestock census)

What is Least Square Method?

The Least Squares Method is used to derive a generalized linear equation between two variables, one of which is independent and the other dependent on the former. The value of the independent variable is represented as the x-coordinate and that of the dependent variable is represented as the y-coordinate in a two-dimensional cartesian coordinate system. Initially, known values are marked on a plot. The plot obtained at this point is called a scatter plot. Then, we try to represent all the marked points as a straight line or a linear equation. The equation of such a line is obtained with the help of the least squares method. This is done to get the value of the dependent variable for an independent variable for which the value was initially unknown. This helps us to fill in the missing points in a data table or forecast the data. The method is discussed in detail as follows. The least-squares method was officially discovered and published by Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805), though it is usually also co-credited to Carl Friedrich Gauss (1809), who contributed significant theoretical advances to the method.

Least Square Method Definition

The least-squares method can be defined as a statistical method that is used to find the equation of the line of best fit related to the given data. This method is called so as it aims at reducing the sum of squares of deviations (residual part) as much as possible. The line obtained from such a method is called a regression line.

1. Introduction

Modern medicine relies heavily on biomaterials and tissue engineering, which are a broad category of materials designed to interact with biological systems in a therapeutic or diagnostic capacity. These materials, which are frequently polymers, natural or synthetic, are made to have particular physical, chemical, and biological characteristics in order to satisfy the demands of a range of medical applications (Holzapfel et al., 2013; Ozdil & Aydin, 2014). These materials can be produced, modified and characterized in a number of ways, according to the particular needs of the application, including 3D printing, molding, and machining (Jandyal et al., 2022). Biomaterials are extensively studied for their applications in tissue engineering, which comprises the recent developments into studying the disease models, micro-scale bone repairing, wound healing and other applications (Purnama et al., 2010). Biomaterial degradation and biocompatibility must be taken into account when developing implants or medical devices since the material's characteristics are tunable according the external or internal parameters. In order to produce biomaterials for use in healthcare applications, cooperation between specialists in biology, medicine, and materials science is needed, the upcoming advances in bioprinting, artificial graft and usage of artificial intelligence might give us an insight towards development in disease regression (Holzapfel et al., 2013; Khan et al., 2015).

The majority of the protein found in the food supply worldwide comes from animal or grain sources, which together account for around half of the total. First of all, fish and crustaceans are significant and excellent providers of amino acids, a form of protein that is essential to nutrition and is only present in trace amounts in cereals and grains. It turns out that these matters for global nutrition and that some low-income, food-deficient nations really benefit from it. Furthermore, fisheries are significant local sources of food, commerce, and revenue in many coastal developing and developed countries. This has prompted researchers and biotechnologists to look at the identification, use, and extraction of these biomaterials in healthcare settings (Raghavendra et al., 2015). The varied fish-derived biomaterials have a variety of uses, including as in tissue engineering, medication delivery, and wound healing, which has opened up new avenues for medical science to make scientific discoveries (Bhat & Kumar, 2013).

1. Introduction

With the advancement of science and technology, new technologies have been developed to advance molecular work to a great extent. Thousands of DNA molecules can be simultaneously sequenced at one time using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies act as revolutionary tools for various implementations and can produce hundreds of gigabases of sequence data within a single experiment. A wide variety of modern sequencing technologies go by the name of "high-throughput sequencing." In recent years, this technology has advanced as a de facto tool for the study of genomics and epigenomics. Nucleotides can be located using this technique anywhere in the genome or in groups of specific DNA or RNA regions. An NGS plot is a useful tool for bridging the gap between enormous datasets and genomic information in this era of massive sequencing data. Resequencing of genomic DNA will undoubtedly be the primary application of NGS in clinical settings. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) offers an intricate representation of single nucleotide variations (SNV), insertions and deletions (indels), complex structural alterations, and changes in copy number, all of which are attainable through a single analysis. Extensive genetic information can be obtained and used after complete genome sequencing, which reveals a large amount of genetic data. However, a significant portion contains either novel information or data whose clinical significance has not yet been established. WGS is the most comprehensive genetic analysis of an individual or cancer genome.

1. Introduction

By 2030, sustainable development must be achieved through cross-sector cooperation, creativity and comprehensive initiatives. Aquaculture has contributed to SDGs; however, its contribution depends on the effectiveness of local and international governance (Farmery et al., 2020). Because it includes all aquatic ecosystems, it is one of the global food-producing industries that does so at one of the fastest rates (Mugimba et al., 2021), accounting for approximately half (46%) of the total global fish production (FAO, 2020). Understanding the various environmental, social, and economic aspects of aquaculture offers a more specialized method for handling opportunities and challenges for future development (Troell et al., 2023). Global seafood consumption has risen from 9.0 kg in 1961 to 20.2 kg in 2020, accounting for over 17% of the world's intake of animal proteins (FAO 2022). Indeed, there are considerable regional differences in the production potential and value of the aquaculture sector (Naylor et al., 2021). Over the past 20 years, China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Egypt have been the major producing countries that have consolidated their share of regional or global production (FAO 2020). Moreover, developing nations account for more than 95% of global aquaculture production, growing at an average annual rate of 6.13 percent (FAO, 2020). As the name aquaculture indicates, it involves farming various aquatic organisms, ranging from the production of unicellular Chlorella algae within indoor bioreactors (Gors et al., 2010) for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) production in outdoor floating net cages (FAO, 2019). The aquaculture production of fish is the largest, accounting for over half (53.4 million tonnes) of all farmed aquatic species. Aquatic plants (31.8 million tonnes), mollusks (17.4 million tonnes), crustaceans (8.4 million tonnes), amphibians and reptiles (471,784 tons), and miscellaneous invertebrate animals (422,124 tons) are among the other important aquatic species farmed (Tacon 2019). Although aquaculture is a fast-expanding industry that provides billions of people with food and is a means of subsistence worldwide, several obstacles could prevent this sector's expansion and sustainability on a global scale.

1. Introduction

The aquaculture industry is a rapidly expanding domain of food production worldwide. With the exponential growth of the human population, there has been a corresponding rise in the demand for natural resources. Therefore, all technologies aim to maximize food production. The widespread expansion of aquaculture, especially in coastal areas, increases the load of biomass in the culture water and presents enduring ecological hazards. (Piedrahita 2003; Sharifinia et al., 2018, 2019).

The primary challenge confronted by aquaculturists as a result of rapid intensification of the system is the quality of water. Consequently, there has been a surge in eco-friendly management and cultivation practices. Additionally, the development of aquaculture is limited by high land costs and its heavy reliance on fish oil and fish meal (Browdy et al., 2001; De Schryver 2008). Nevertheless, the sector continues to exhibit limited productivity, which is primarily attributed to inadequate quality inputs and substandard culture technologies. With substantial operating and maintenance expenses, the acceptance of recirculating systems among farmers, specifically in developing nations, is limited. Hence, there is a growing requirement for an affordable, environmentally friendly technology that is embraced by farmers and can be widely implemented (Ahmad et al., 2017; Karimanzira et al., 2017). There is growing interest in enclosed aquaculture systems, primarily driven by the biosecurity, environmental, and marketing benefits they offer compared to traditional, semi-intensive, and extensive systems (Ray, 2012).

1. Introduction

Aquaculture is described as an organized production of crops in an aquatic medium (FAO, 1987). Global aquaculture production has continued to expand at approximately 9% per year since the 1970s, with Asia dominating production levels, particularly for finfish (FAO, 2014). FAO data indicate that global fish production stands at 167 million tons (MT), of which 44% (73.8 MT) is contributed by the aquaculture sector (FAO, 2016). Twelve percent of the world's population depend on the fishing industry for their livelihood as and it provides 17 percent of animal protein. India is second only to China in terms of the world's output of culturable fisheries. According to reports, the aquaculture industry in India has suffered significant losses from the frequent incidence of infectious diseases of bacterial and viral origins, which has hindered sustainable development. To overcome the challenges of developing appropriate technologies for managing water quality in culture systems, developing quick diagnostic tools and ways to contain disease outbreaks, and providing disease-free or highly healthy broodstock and seeds, aquaculture requires creative biotechnological interventions “is the need of the hour” (Subasinghe et al., 2003).

1. Introduction

Aquatic algae is present in both contaminated and uncontaminated water sources. serve as essential bioindicators for evaluating water quality. Their sensitivity to pollutants and position in The significance of lower-level organisms in the food chain lies in their invaluable role in comprehending the effects of toxic substances on aquatic ecosystems. (Dwivedi & Pandey (2002). Pesticides, including herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides, play a crucial role in agriculture by utilizing forestry and animal husbandry to improve crop production. However, their indiscriminate use can lead to environmental contamination, which poses significant risks to ecosystems and human health. Pesticide contamination primarily results from surface runoff, emissions during spraying, improper transportation, inadequate spraying practices, and insufficient wastewater treatment from the pesticide industry. Introduction of pesticides into the environment Presents numerous environmental and health risks., inhibiting plant and animal growth and affecting the development and nervous systems of animals Pesticides have the potential to infiltrate the food chain, bioaccumulate in higher trophic levels, and reach the human body through biomagnification. Commonly used pesticides, such as imidacloprid, isoproturon, simazine, atrazine, mecoprop, and glyphosate, along with historical organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), contribute to significant pesticide contamination.

1. Introduction

The increasing global population has intensified the challenges associated with land and freshwater scarcity (Dutta, 2019). The unpredictable supply of water bodies has prompted a significant shift among farmers towards the utilization of private tube wells, exerting increased pressure on groundwater resources (Ahmad et al., 2003; Ahmad et al., 2007). Due to inadequate water management practices and excessive extraction of groundwater, leading to a decline in water tables, irrigation is increasingly exerting a detrimental influence on the ecosystem (Pingali and Shah 2001; Qureshi et al., 2003). Therefore, agricultural technologies that contribute to water conservation, cost reduction, and increased productivity are gaining increasing importance (Gupta et al., 1997; Gupta et al., 2002).

Zero tillage fish farming, a groundbreaking approach in aquaculture, has emerged as a sustainable and efficient method for cultivating fish without disturbing the aquatic environment. Zero tillage fish farming is an innovative and sustainable aquaculture method that minimizes soil disturbance and preserves natural pond ecology (Hussan et al., 2019). In contrast to traditional practices involving pond bottom dredging, zero tillage maintains water quality, supports biodiversity, and enhances overall environmental sustainability (FAO AQUASTAT 2009). By avoiding disruptive practices, this approach promotes self-sustaining aquatic ecosystems, contributing to increased productivity, cost-effectiveness, and resilience in fish cultivation. Zero tillage fish farming represents a significant shift towards responsible and eco-friendly aquaculture, addressing challenges such as environmental degradation, food security, and the impact of climate change. This chapter explores the principles, benefits, and importance of zero-tillage fish farming, shedding light on its potential to transform the aquaculture industry.

1. Introduction

Bisphosphonates are frequently utilized in treating osteoporosis and cancer induced bone metastases, but they carry the risk of inducing a severe complication known as osteonecrosis of the jaw (ONJ). ONJ manifests as exposed bone in the craniofacial area and persists for over eight weeks in patients who are currently or previously treated with bisphosphonates. Many novel antiresorptive tyrosine kinases, mammalian targets of rapamycin, monoclonal antibodies, and immunosuppressant drugs have been discovered since BRONJ was first identified in 2003 and linked to ONJ (Akita et al., 2020). Current ideas include the prevention of angiogenesis and suppression of bone remodeling, gingival inflammation, gingival fibroblast dysfunction, and compromised immunological function. Wound healing mechanisms may play a role in most instances of ONJ, which occur after dental procedures, such as tooth extraction. In addition to surgical treatment for bone lesions, complementary therapies such as laser therapy, ozone therapy, and the administration of platelet concentrates in solid and liquid forms might help prevent ONJ and promote recovery (Gaurav Kumar et al., 2017; Hampton et al., 2015). Formation of new blood vessels is critical for the initiation and maintenance of wound healing.

Introduction

The Indian arid zone, which occupies 38.7 million hectares in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, is characterized by low and erratic rainfall with a coefficient of variation fluctuating from 40 to 70% and extremes of temperature (1–48º C), poor-quality underground water, high wind velocity, and sandy soils. These vast land resources are blessed with rich agro-biodiversity despite all these aberrations that support the high human and livestock populations and have beneficial climatic conditions for producing quality fruits and vegetables. Recently, the immense potential of arid horticulture has been realized, and the area under cultivation of arid crops is increasing enormously. The production also increases with the increased cultivated area, which opens up the probability of establishing a market glut with underutilized foods.

Arid Fruits and Vegetables

Arid and semi-arid regions of the country are blessed with a variety of horticultural crops such as date palm, bael, aonla, pomegranate, fig, mulberry, Jamun, ker, karonda, lasora, wood apple, ber, bordi, khejri, kachri, snap melon, drumstick, cluster bean, and methi. Most of these crops are highly perishable and cannot be stored for extended periods due to uncongenial atmospheric conditions such as high temperatures and low relative humidity.

The hot arid regions of India are spread over an area of about 31.7 million ha, mainly in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana, which inhabit an average of 61 people per square km, making up a population of nearly 20 million people. The Indian arid zone is characterized by high temperature and low and variable precipitation, which limit the scope for high horticultural productivity. However, these conditions greatly favor the development of high-quality production in a number of fruits, such as date palm, ber, pomegranate, citrus, aonla, bael, grapes, and guava. The optimized technologies and inputs could increase the existing low productivity. It is now realized that there is a limited scope for a quantum jump in fruit and vegetable production in the traditional production areas. The amelioration of the extreme conditions is also considered vital for the life support of the inhabitants of this area. The recent awareness regarding the potential of these ecologically fragile lands for the production of quality horticultural produce has not only opened up the scope for providing economic sustenance for the people of this region but also for bringing new areas to increase production through horticulture. The scope of expanding water supplies through the development of water resources is very limited since suitable dam sites are fewer, development costs are prohibited, and environmental concerns are too strong. This has led to the realization that saving on the use of water is an option for expanding the water supply.

Introduction

Despite environmental, bio-physical, and resource constraints in most parts of Rajasthan, even though the state’s geography can be classified into three distinct climatic zones: hot arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid, from a horticultural perspective. These diverse zones have excellent vegetable production potential, a wide range of crop plants, and varied opportunities for resource utilization. However, extremes of high (March–October) and low (December–January) temperature situations associated with abiotic stresses in arid regions restrict the choice of crops and their genotypes, quality of product, and productivity levels. Thus, vegetable exploitation with adaptive and native crop plants is generally found to be most productive and stable under the dry-land climate of the state that receives 150–650 mm of rain and has problems from abiotic factors owing to climatic variability, extremes in temperatures, drought, frost, hot and cold winds, and soil and water quality.

Vegetable production in the country is largely uneven and concentrated, mainly in the limited states and areas where the climate is much more favorable and mild for their production. In addition, emphasis is given only to the few numbers of vegetables that are grown with high inputs and irrigations. To meet the increasing vegetable demand and utilization of indigenous resources, there is the utmost need for massive and integrated efforts with unconventional, under-scored, and perennial vegetable production. The increase in vegetable production can be achieved first by developing high-yielding crop genotypes suited to the prevailing conditions of the targeted zones and resource-based technologies under climatic variability. The second approach is to exploit native resources, i.e., varied and untapped land-areas and under-scored horticultural species with vegetable potentialities.

Introduction

The term horticulture first appeared in English literature in 1678 in the treatise “The New World of English” authored by E. Phillips in London. In ancient scriptures, the garden is mentioned in Vatsayan. During the ancient period, gardens were the sole means of recreation, leisure, and pleasure. The planting of trees was undertaken for the purpose of shade, shelter, and fruits. It is quoted the queen of Raja Dashrath made a question that “What is the meaning of planting trees and garden”. Raja Dasharath responds that “the very meaning of planting trees and taking fruit plantation is the shade and fruits to the passersby”

Horticulture accounts for about 30% of India’s GDP from 13.08% of the cropped area. It stands for about 37.1% of the total export of agricultural commodities. The country shares about 13.6% of the fruit production and 14% of vegetable production (Indian Hortic Database, 2014). Horticulture shares for more than 33% of agricultural production. The horticultural production touched the mark of 300.64 million tonne during 2016–2017 which marks the sixth straight year horticultural production outstripping that of food grain production estimated at 276 million tonne in 2016–2017. It stands witness to structural changes in Indian agriculture in which the farmers have increasingly adopted the cultivation of commercial horticultural crops due to increasing market demand and quicker cash flow.

India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after China. However, the average productivity of fruits in India could be higher compared to many developed countries. The main reasons for low productivity are old and senile orchards, low-yielding varieties, poor orchard management, and inadequate technological upgradation and adoption by the growers. Presently, due to urbanization and population explosion, there is a continuous decline in the availability of cultivable land; rising energy and land costs, together with the increased demand for horticultural produce, have given thrust to the concept of high-density planting (HDP) in fruit crops. However, at the same time, it is now realized that there is limited scope for a quantum jump in fruit production in traditional areas. Therefore, the alternative is to expand under non-traditional regions like arid and semi-arid areas of the country. India’s hot arid and semi-arid regions are spread mainly in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab, and Haryana. The vast land resources offer an excellent opportunity for fruit production in the Indian arid zone, which is spread over about 31.70 m ha, of which 41.50% is arable and 19% is a cultivable wasteland (Table 1).

Cryopreservation

Cryo is a Greek word (krayos-frost). It literally means preservation in frozen state. Cryopreservation is the non lethal storage of biological material at ultra-low temperatures. At the temperature of liquid nitrogen (-196?C) almost all metabolic activities of cells are ceased and the sample can then be preserved in such state for extended periods. This is to bring plant cells or tissues to a zero metabolism and non-dividing state by reducing the temperature in the presence of cryoprotectant. However only few biological materials can be frozen without affecting the cell viability.

It can be done by using,

• Over solid carbon dioxide (at -79 degree)

• Low temperature deep freezer(-80 degree)

• In vapour phase nitrogen(at -150 degree)

• In liquid nitrogen(at -196 degree)

Among these, liquid nitrogen is most widely used material for cryopreservation because it is chemically inert, relatively low cost, Nontoxic, Non-flammable and Readily available.

Introduction

According to Frankel (1957), plant introduction is the transposition of a genetic entity from an environment to which it is attuned to one in which it is untried. According to Bennett (1965), the introduction of wild plants into cultivation and the successful transfer of cultivars, with their genotypes unaltered, to new environments is called as ‘primary’ plant introduction and the rest as ‘secondary’ introduction. However, both are equally meaningful for effective use of plant germplasm.

Types of Plant Introduction

1. Primary Introduction

2. Secondary Introduction

1. Primary Introduction

When the introduced crop or variety is well suited to the new environment, it is directly grown or cultivated without any alteration in the original genotype. This is known as primary introduction. E.g. IR. 8, IR 20, IR 34, IR 50 rice varieties; oil palm varieties introduced from Malaysia and Mashuri rice from Malaysia.

Introduction

Precision agriculture, also known as precision farming or smart farming, represents a ground breaking approach to agricultural management that integrates cutting-edge technologies and data-driven techniques to optimize crop production. This introduction sets the stage for exploring the transformative potential of precision agriculture in revolutionizing traditional farming practices. By harnessing advancements in sensors, drones, artificial intelligence, and global positioning systems (GPS), precision agriculture empowers farmers to make informed decisions based on real-time data and spatial variability within fields. The overarching goal of precision agriculture is to maximize yields, minimize input costs, and reduce environmental impacts by precisely tailoring farming practices to the specific needs of crops and soil conditions. As global population growth and climate change exert increasing pressure on agricultural systems, the adoption of precision agriculture emerges as a crucial strategy for enhancing food security, promoting sustainability, and ensuring the long-term viability of farming operations. Through this introduction, we embark on a journey to explore the multifaceted dimensions of precision agriculture and its profound implications for the future of agriculture.

Introduction

Soil management refers to a set of practices and strategies employed by farmers and land managers to maintain, improve, and sustain the health, fertility, and productivity of soil in agricultural systems. It encompasses a range of activities aimed at optimizing soil conditions for crop growth while minimizing environmental degradation. Soil management practices include soil testing to assess nutrient levels and pH, the application of fertilizers and soil amendments to correct deficiencies, erosion control measures to prevent soil loss, and conservation practices to enhance soil structure and health. Additionally, soil management involves the integration of organic matter, such as compost and crop residues, to enhance soil fertility and microbial activity. The overarching goal of soil management is to ensure the long-term sustainability of agricultural systems by preserving soil health, supporting crop productivity, and minimizing environmental impacts.

Method of Soil Management 1

. Soil Testing and Analysis: Soil testing and analysis play a pivotal role in soil management for agricultural crops, providing farmers with critical information about soil health, fertility, and nutrient status. By understanding the composition of their soil, farmers can make informed decisions about fertilization, soil amendments, and crop selection to optimize yields and minimize environmental impacts. For example, soil testing can reveal deficiencies or excesses of essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, enabling farmers to tailor their fertilizer applications accordingly. If a soil test indicates low levels of phosphorus, for instance, farmers can apply phosphorus-rich fertilizers to replenish the nutrient and support healthy crop growth. Conversely, if soil pH is too high or too low, amendments such as lime or sulphur can be applied to adjust pH levels and create optimal growing conditions for crops.

Introduction

The term “Integrated Nutrient Management” refers to the process of ensuring that the fertility of the soil and the delivery of plant nutrients are kept at an optimal level in order to maintain the desired level of production. This is accomplished by using an integrated approach to maximize the advantages that may be obtained from all conceivable sources of organic, inorganic, and biological components. Due to the fact that it supplies plants with anchoring, water, and nutrients, soil is an essential component for crop development. It is common for soils to have a certain amount of organic and mineral nutrient sources; but, in order to improve plant development, it is often necessary to supplement these soils with external treatments, sometimes known as fertilisers. It is common practice to apply fertilizers in order to boost the fertility of the soil, encourage the development of plants, increase crop yields, and provide support for agricultural intensification. Generally speaking, fertilizers may be categorized as either organic or mineral. Manure, compost, seaweed, and cereal straw are all examples of organic fertilizers. Organic fertilizers are created from components that are either plant or animal based. In general, organic fertilizers have lower amounts of plant nutrients because they are coupled with organic matter, which enhances the soil’s physical and biological features. This results in the soil having better qualities. Mineral fertilizers that are based on nitrogen, potassium, and phosphate are the ones that are used the most often. According to the International Food Policy Research Institute (1995), in order to satisfy the ever-increasing demand for food throughout the world, it will be of the utmost significance to make the most efficient and well-balanced use of nutrient inputs from mineral fertilizers. Since 1960, the usage of mineral fertilizer has expanded by approximately fivefold, which has greatly supported the expansion of the world population. According to Smil (2002), nitrogen-based fertilizer has contributed an estimated forty percent to the gains in per-capita food production over the previous fifty years. In spite of this, mineral fertilizers should not be the only means by which crop nutrient needs are satisfied. This is because environmental issues and economic limits make this situation impossible. As a result, Integrated Nutrient Management has to be used in order to encourage the efficient utilization of all nutrient sources, which includes organic sources, recyclable wastes, mineral fertilizers, and biofertilizers (Roy et al, 2006).

Introduction

Fruits are an essential component of the human diet, and India holds the position of the second-largest fruit producer worldwide. The nation’s agricultural sector produces banana, papaya, and mango, contributing approximately 13% of the global fruit production. Nevertheless, the present fruit output in India falls short of satisfying 46% of the total demand. Fruits provide a substantial amount of vitamins and minerals that are crucial for sustaining good health and immunity. In addition, they include oils, lipids, and proteins that are used in different metabolic processes.

The overutilization of synthetic fertilizers to enhance fruit yield has resulted in problems such as economic inefficiency, ecological degradation, and potential injury to both plants and consumers. This has resulted in significant issues. In order to meet the requirements of plants and enhance productivity, a significant quantity of nutrients must be supplied to the soil. Continual crop production may result in the gradual depletion of nutrient reserves in the soil, which ultimately leads to soil degradation. Due to the exorbitant expense of inorganic fertilizers, there has been a growing focus on using bio-fertilizers and organic matter with inorganic fertilizers. Farmers are now exploring the use of the Integrated Nutrient Management system for cultivating fruit crops. This system incorporates innovative techniques such as deep fertilizer application and urea coatings to enhance plant absorption of nutrients and minimize nutrient wastage. Ultimately, fruits are essential components of human meals, although their over use has resulted in economic inefficiencies, environmental harm, and land deterioration.

Introduction

Through the use of both art and science, crop breeding is the process of enhancing significant agricultural plants for the benefit of humanity. Crop breeders attempt to improve the productivity and nutritional value of our food, f iber, pasture, and industrial crops via their efforts. In order to meet the needs of a growing global population with rising dietary demands, crops are essential. Additionally, the activity of crop breeders contributes to the improvement of environmental protection.

Since the beginning of agriculture, farmers have been selecting plants for desirable characteristics such as bigger seeds, more flavourful fruits, and other desirable characteristics. This method is known as plant breeding. In today’s world, the breeding of plants is a collaborative effort between scientists and farmers.

Different techniques are used by plant breeders, depending on the manner of reproduction of crops. This process is known as self-fertilization, and it occurs when pollen from one plant fertilizes the reproductive cells or ovules of another plant. There is a phenomenon known as cross-pollination, in which pollen from one plant can only fertilize another plant. For example, runners from strawberry plants are an example of asexual propagation, in which the new plant is genetically identical to its parent plant. Apomixis, also known as self-cloning, is a process in which seeds are created asexually and their offspring are genetically identical to their parents. When it comes to developing appropriate breeding and selection strategies, the mode of reproduction of a crop is the decisive element. This is because the genetic makeup of the crop is determined by the mode of reproduction. Additionally, it is necessary to have knowledge of the way of reproduction in order to artificially manipulate it in order to produce enhanced varieties. The only breeding and selection strategies that are appropriate for a crop are those that do not disrupt the crop’s natural condition or guarantee that it will remain in that form. The imposition of self fertilization on cross-pollinating crops results in a significant decrease in the performance of such crops for several reasons, including those listed above.