eChapters

Land capability classification

Introduction: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) land classification system is interpretative, using the USDA soil survey map as a basis and classifying the individual soil map units in groups that have similar management requirements. At the highest of categorization, eight soil classes are distinguished, namely, arable lands (I to IV) and non arable lands (V to VIII).

Origin of land capability classification (1933) : The Georgia Piedmont Land Capability Classification (LCC): First U.S. effort to systematically determine the best use of lands by classifying and mapping erosion rates and potential in relation to both physical characteristics and agricultural capacity.

Definition: Land capability classification is a system of grouping soils primarily on the basis of their capability to produce common cultivated crops and pasture plants without deteriorating environment over a long period of time.

Classes: Land capability classification is subdivided into capability class and capability subclass nationally. Some states also use a capability unit.

The capability classification provides three major categories of soil groupings: (1) Capability unit, (2) capability subclass, and (3) capability class.

Technical Term              Definition

Land Use Capability     Capability is the inherent capacity of land to perform given at a level for a general use

Abstract

Continental erosion and fluvial transport play an important role enhancing mobilization of organic carbon from soils and transferring this pool to the ocean through downstream rivers and streams. The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system represents one of the largest transporters of terrestrial carbon to ocean. Intensive agriculture in the Ganges basin coupled with atmospheric deposition (AD) of nitrogen may render the soil more prone to erosion loss of carbon and nutrients. The aims of this study were to quantify atmospheric deposition of nitrogen (AD-N) in the watershed and to assess the influence of land use and AD-N on carbon and nitrogen transport in Ganga River. We collected samples in summer low flow along a 1595 km long transect of the river to assess the status of DOC under variable land use and AD-N input and, at monthly intervals along a 35 km long transect to understand seasonal patterns and the influence of local control. Our study shows average deposition of reactive-N (NO₃^- + NH₄⁺) range from 19.7 kg ha^-1yr-1 in upper stretch to 38.6 kg ha-1yr-1 in the middle stretch. The AD-N in lower stretch was almost similar to the values recorded in the middle stretch of the watershed. The average concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) in the river range from 0.62 to 5.3 mg L-1 and 52.0 to 385.6 µg L-1 respectively. The land-derived carbon and nitrogen emerging in surface runoff showed positive correlation with AD-N and the river DOC showed synchrony with land use, AD-N and autochthonous carbon pool. Our data indicate that DOC in Ganga River is rising and the land use together with AD-N is an important driver of rising DOC. We suggest that future climate model should consider large scale regional time series data on changing state of atmosphere-land-water coupling and associated shifts in carbon and nutrient transport of major rivers. This has relevance predicting region specific climate change drivers and preparing action plan for integrated river basin management (IRBM).

Land is merely an area of the earth’s surface comprising all physical, chemical and biological environments that influence the land use (FAO ,1976). Land refers not only to soil but also to climate, landforms, hydrology, geology, natural vegetation including fauna and flora. The land use simply means management of a land for specific uses to meet the human needs in all rural, urban and industrial context, whereas the land use plan refers to a coherent set of decisions about the ways to achieve the desired level preferably on economic background. Thus, the land use planning is the systematic evaluation and assessment of a land and associated attributes for the purpose of identifying the best land use options beneficial to landowners or users without degrading the land resources or environment. It includes not only the landowner or users, but also the policy or decision makers as well as economic experts for financial measures from planning stage or logistic planning to execution.

Land cover

Relates to the type of feature present on the surface of the earth e.g., Fields, trees, concrete high ways.

Land use

Relates to the human activity associated with a specific piece of land. The same land would have a land cover consisting of roofs, pavements, grass and trees. The land use in an area is really an intervention by the people over the existing natural eco-environment for satisfying their needs.

Land cover is distinct from land use despite the two terms often being used interchangeably. Land use is a description of how people utilize the land and socio-economic activity - urban and agricultural land uses are two of the most commonly recognised high-level classes of use. At any one point or place, there may be multiple and alternate land uses, the specification of which may have a political dimension.

Sustainable management of soil and water resources is essential for food, nutritional and environmental security of the country. The total and partial factor productivity of agricultures in India declined over years because of continued degradation of natural resources. The process leading to land degradation are generally triggered by excessive use of land and water resources to meet the growing demand of population for food, fibre and fodder. Various anthropogenic activities leading to accelerated land degradation through salinization, flooding, water logging, erosion of water and nutrients, drought reduced agricultural productivity and nutritional security in the country. These problems can be overcome by optimum utilization of land adopting suitable management practices. For effective land management practices, the soils should be interpreted in forms of their land capability, suitability for irrigation and crop growth. This will not only help the farming community and extension specialists, but also to the administrators and policy makers for using soils for sustainable agricultural production.

3.1. Land use classification

3.1.1. Classes

Capability class is the broadest category in the land capability classification system.

Class codes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are used to represent both irrigated and non-irrigated land capability classes.

Class 1: Soils have slight limitations that restrict their use.

Class 2: Soils have moderate limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require moderate conservation practices.

Class 3: Soils have severe limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require special conservation practices or both.

Year    Contributor    Description
1756    Duharmel du Monceau H.L.    Discovered callus formation in decorticated elm tree. 
1839    Schwann, T.H.    Proposed the view that each living cell of a multicellular organism would be capable of developing independently if provided with proper external conditions.
1853    Trecul, A.    Performed experiment on callus formation by decorticated trees such as Robinia, Pawlonia and Ulmus.

Introduction

Increasing concern about climate change and global warming has created immense awareness among society about green house gas and its reduction. Irrespective of the geographical location, population density and economic development of any region, there is a huge scope for addressing the green house gas emission. Cities have a key role to play in the global agenda for addressing the challenge of climate change. Today, approximately half of the world’s population lives in cities; by 2050, that proportion will probably have increased to two-thirds. India has the highest rate of change of the urban population and will remain above 2% annually for the next three decades. At this rate, an estimated 854 million people will live in Indian cities by 2050.

Introduction

Landscape gardening is a very fascinating and interesting subject. It is a money spinner business and people who are involved in designing and preparing landscape gardens are earning handsome money. It is an aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with application of garden forms, different styles, methods and materials with a view to improve the landscape. Frescos of flowers of old times reveal the association of human with flowering plants which they used in making gardens and planting on road side. In India, the landscape gardening is a developing subject and as such offers much scope for improvement. A beautiful landscape is a vital part of your home and community. A well-planned landscape can save your money by reducing energy consumption.

1. Banks of rivers and canals

The banks of river and canal passing through town and villages are well suited for landscaping. Landscaping is one of the important processes for beautification and preventing the soil erosion near the bank of river and canal. With the help of landscaping, people can take advantage of pleasant scenery and natural environment. The plants themselves will objects of beauty and their reflection on the water surface is an additional attraction.

Abstract

The softer rock types belonging to Tertiary period, intense deformation and the related more frequent tectonic weak planes, high degree of weathering and extensive road cutting are the inherent systems in provoking Landslides in Noney-Nungba segment of NH-53 in the state of Manipur. So Landslide Hazard Zonation mapping was carried out in this segment using BIS method and also geotechnical investigations were carried out in Awang Khull part-II slide and Raungdai slide and on the basis of type of failure and the morphotectonic conditions mitigation strategies were suggested.

Abstract

Landslides are the most common hazards in hilly regions. Rapid development and the resultant uncontrolled interactions with ecosystems are the major reasons for the landslides, besides the rainfall. So, the assessment of landslides hazard vulnerability is a prerequisite before making any developments related to settlements, hill resorts, hydropower projects and the related network of Ghat roads. The present study deals with the assessment of landslides in two different sites; Site-1 located in the Ghat section of Yercaud hills between 10/4 and 29/6 km stones in the southwestern slopes of Shevroy hills, Salem, and the Site-2 located in the Ghat road between Lower camp and Kumuli in Theni districts, Tamil Nadu. The Theni ghat road in the National Highway-220 is connecting Tamil Nadu with Kerala and is the lifeline for Sabarimala, Tekkadi and Munnar. Besides, a series of pan stacks conveying water from Periyar reservoir in Kerala to the power house located at Lower camp in Tamil Nadu also lie in this stretch of hills. Landslide vulnerability mapping was carried out in an area of 130sq.km in Site-1 and 6.7 sq.km in Site-2 by assigning numerical values to the causative factors of slope instability such as lithology, structure, slope morphometery, relative relief, land use and land cover, and ground water conditions following the BIS code No. 14496 (1998) for preparing landslide hazard zonation maps. The study in Yercaud hills revealed that out of 12 slope facets, facet 1 to 6, 9 and 12 fall under moderate landslide hazard zone whereas facets 7, 8, 10, and 11 fall under high hazard zone. The area falling in facets 3, 4 and 5 of Kumuli ghat section fall under high landslide hazard zone, the slope facets 1, 2, 9 and 10 fall in the moderate hazardous zone and other facets in low hazardous zone.

Abstract

Since the landslides have started spreading over to the most of the mountain provinces of all over the world, having developed expertise in Landslide vulnerability mapping, Factor of safety, Rock mechanic studies etc. the scientists and the technocrats have started focusing towards developing landslide early warning systems using instruments. As the instrumentation in such vast areas is not feasible satellite based monitoring of landslide movements is fast emerging. In this connection the paper discusses InSAR interferometry based landslide movements carried out in Nainital and Mansadevi areas, Uttrakhand Himalayas, India.

Keywords: SAR interferometry, Monitoring movements, Nainital & Mansadevi Landslides.

INTRODUCTION

Landslides pose greater threats to the population of India also, especially those living in mountainous regions, the top being the Himalayas. Many villages and vital transport routes are endangered by landslides and losses of lives and important infrastructure now become a routine phenomenon. Therefore, studies on surface displacements and landslide movements have become very important. However, due to the large aerial extent of the landslide prone provinces, this task may not be effectively carried out by ground based methods. In the recent years, the availability of interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) data from a variety of satellite and airborne remote sensing sensors has emerged, as a potential tool that can yield accurate data on surface displacements. Although, monitoring of such low velocity deformations, as we observe in landslides, is only possible if considerably long time series images are available. InSAR derived displacement measurements are not only feasible but also moderate in their costs compared to many ground-based methods. This paper discusses Small Baseline Subset (SBAS) algorithm used to monitor landslide movements.

Abstract

The landslide is a disaster which causes rampant loss to life, property and ecosystems. With increased awareness and technological development, the number of monitoring stations near hazardous regions have increased. To give warning prior to the occurrence of a landslide, the soil/rock mechanics of the underlying bed needs to be studied and understood. This paper examines the current literature and elucidates some features of state-of- the-art landslide monitoring systems.

Keywords: Field based sensors, Wireless sensor network, Landslide monitoring

INTRODUCTION

Advancements in technology have helped us to understand nature better than before, yet the geotechnical parameters causing landslides could not be quantified accurately. The efforts taken in predicting landslides are clearly moving towards this objective and this can be seen by the number of monitoring stations that have been setup in landslide prone areas around the world. The data that is obtained at each location is important in understanding landslides. Each location is unique in terms of soil properties, groundwater, inclination of the slope and weather conditions and consequently, each deployment is unique.

The paper narrates the instrumentation based forewarning systems functioning around the world. The paper discusses these aspects hierarchically viz; Landslide prone areas in India, geotechnical instrumentations and their merits, influence of rainfall on landslides, correlation between rainfall and pore pressure, the relevance of different systems for different scenarios etc.

Abstract

The article briefly narrates the initiatives taken by the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi in providing solutions to rapidly growing Landslide Disasters in India. Duly considering the importance of the issue, the DST has embarked on a National Landslide Programme more than two decades ago and brought voluminous information on Landslide Vulnerability Mapping, Site Specific Landslide Investigations, Landslide Kinematics, Instrument Based Forewarning etc. by funding large number of research projects to various Academic/Research institutions in the country. In addition, the bilateral collaborative programme launched on Geohazards between India & Norway, resulted in bilateral flow of knowledge and capacity building amongst various tiers of the Academic, Research and the Planning Hierarchy, yielding tangible benefits.

Keywords: Landslides in India, DST’s Initiatives.

INTRODUCTION

Landslides cause extensive damages to roads, bridges, human dwellings, agricultural lands, forests and other establishments year after year resulting in immense losses of life and properties. The entire Himalayan region has been the target of intense development activities for the last few decades. Hence the instabilities along the natural slopes are accentuated by the human activities since the development schemes are often not properly planned and implemented (Valdiya 1980; Thakur 2001). This has become the case in most of the mountains in India. Keeping in view of the stability of the slopes, the need of the hour is to achieve sustainable development of the hilly regions while implementing various developmental schemes. So there has to be a major S&T role to play to minimize the landslide problems. This should include all possible corrective and preventive measures to minimize the losses due to this disaster.

Abstract

The state of Nagaland located in the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent is also prone to landslides similar to the other north eastern states due to the softer lithologies, intense deformation and extensive anthropogenic activities. So in order to understand the landslide vulnerability and to evolve remedial measures, a 12 km stretch of the NH-2 from Kohima town in the south to Zhadima junction in the north was studied. The study comprises the preparation of landslide hazard zonation map using BIS method and detailed studies in six major landslides involving RMR, SMR and Kinematic analysis and also the suitable remedial measures for such landslide phenomenon.

Abstract

Due to fragile lithology belonging to Disang and Barail groups of the Cretaceous-Tertiary period, intensive structural deformation related to collision tectonics, extensive weathering and the anthropogenic activities in the form of slope cutting for the development and widening of roads lead to frequent landslides in the state of Manipur, India. In this connection, the road section between Tengnoupal and Sita has been studied to understand the landslides vulnerability and to evolve mitigation strategies. The study involved the Petrochemical analysis to elucidate the weathering potential of the rocks, kinematic analysis to understand the network of joints and the strain, slope stability analysis to prepare Land Hazard Zonation mapping and estimation of factors of safety in selected locations. On the basis of these studies, long & short term remedial measures were suggested to mitigate the landslide hazards.

Abstract

Similar to other north eastern states of India, the state of Manipur is also prone to recurring landslides. The National Highway 150 and the state Highway in Ukhrul, Nunghar and Paorei sectors often witness landslides due to geological complexities, rainfall and anthropogenic activities. So a study was conducted to prepare the landslide hazard zonation map for the region using the method developed by Bureau of Indian Standards, which indicates that 67.32 km² (nearly 56%) fall under high hazard zone. The RMR and SMR studies carried out in five test sites in such high hazard zone show that four sites fall under highly unstable category (class IV) and one under partially unstable category (class III). The kinematic analysis indicates dominant wedge failure. The improper landuse, lack of adequate drainage and toe removal for road widening are the major causative factors for the recurring landslides.

Abstract

The landslides of the hill ecosystems are either due to the natural morphotectonic and morphodynamics processes of the planet earth or due to the anthropogenic effects or due to the combinations of the both. In the Indian subcontinent, the landslides are reported from three major provinces viz: Himalayas, Westernghats and The Nilgiris. While the landslides of the Himalayas are demonstrated to be predominantly due to active tectonics, the landslides of the Westernghats are attributed to excessive weathering and rock fall. On the contrary the landslides of the Nilgiris have been thought to be due to extensive deforestation and the related increase in the pore pressure during rainy seasons. But the studies carried out in the recent years show that not only in the Nilgiris but also in other hill systems of Tamil Nadu, the landslides seem to be related to the recent earth movements. This is very significant in the context of fastly recurring seismicities in South India and hence this aspect warrants detailed studies for landslide mitigation.

Abstract

Subsequent to December 26^th 2004 historical Tsunami, The Government of India has conceived a master plan for setting up Tsunami Warning System (TWS) similar to Pacific Ocean Tsunami Warning System. Concurrently, the union Govt has also initiated scientific studies through Department of Science and Technology and the significant amongst these are the

• All India Co-ordinated Programme on Tsunami disaster and risk assessment using GIS technology and
• Bilateral programme with Norway to know the know – how and capacity building in the fields of Landslides and Tsunami

As a part of this bilateral mission, the authors visited institutions connected to Geohazards and Tsunami affected areas of Norway. The article briefly narrates the salient inferences on the Tsunami scenario and the related studies in Norway.

Keywords: Landslides triggered tsunamis, Norway

? Lantana camara (lantana, wild sage, bunch berry) one of the ten most toxic weeds in the world. Brought to India in early part of the 19th century as an ornamental plant.

? Very hardy shrub grows very luxuriantly, capable of prospering in adverse soil.

? It has no. of adverse interactions with the biosphere.

? Causes hepatotoxicity, photosensitization in grazing livestock and growth inhibition of the neighboring vegetation due to allelopathic action which is rapidly changing the ecological balance.

? Reports of poisoning have been received form India, Australia, Cuba, Mexico, Kenya, Brazil and New Zealand.

? Very pungent plant. Cattle eat only in scarcity of other feed/fodder.

? Bos taurus more susceptible than Bos indicus.

The most common indication for laparoscopy is to examine and biopsy the abdominal organs or masses. Additional diagnostic procedures that can be performed using laparoscopic guidance include gall bladder puncture to collect bile, contrast radiographic techniques for the diagnosis of bile duct obstructions, overdistension of gall bladder, portography and splenic pulp pressure measurement.

Laparoscopy is not only used in the examination of the abdominal cavity organs, surgical treatment but also in the diagnosis of the different disease conditioned by biopsy examination (removal of a sample of tissue from the living body for histopathological examination). Biopsy is indicated to ascertain a correct diagnosis, specific therapy and accurate prognosis. Laparoscopy is becoming an alternative method of monitoring biopsies of internal organs. It permits precise localization and accurate site on the various abdominal organs surface such as kidney, liver, spleen etc. Since, it is relatively noninvasive so it ranks highest amongst biopsy techniques. The technique allows visual control over the biopsy procedure, which considerably limits post biopsy complications and increases the likelihood of obtaining diagnostically useful biopsy specimens.

Positioning of the patient/anesthesia

The patient is transported to the operating room and after general anesthesia the patient is placed in a desirable position. Some operating tables can be repositioned intraoperatively, allowing the surgeon to change the angle of the patient during the procedure. Special care should be taken to avoid nerve injury by malpositioning the patient, particularly along the popliteal fossa and brachial plexus. If any part of the patient is in contact with a metal object, patient may be at risk of electro surgical burns. General anesthesia is preferred for laparoscopy as it provides adequate muscle relaxation and assisted respiration particularly as the patient is in Trendelenburg position.

Among the various modern surgical methods, laparoscopy is now held as one of the most potent and promising aids for both diagnostic (laparoscopy) and therapeutic (laparoscopic surgery) use. Laparoscopy is an endoscopic procedure that bridges the gap between clinical evaluation and surgical exploration. The laparoscopic surgical techniques in both and human and veterinary medicine have grown tremendously. Laparoscopy requires a minor surgical intervention and it provides the only available practical means of making repeated direct observation of abdominal viscera. The advantage of surgical laparoscopy over the conventional open surgical laparotomy include faster patient recovery because of smaller surgical sites, decreased hospitalization, improved cosmetic, improved visualization of abdominal organs, lower postoperative morbidity with lower infection rates, and less postoperative pain and stress. Surgeons are commonly looking for more progressive and stressful surgical methods of sterilization in dogs, particularly in canine birth control programs in urban industrial areas. Demographically dense urban and industrial areas require effective animal birth control programs that can overcome the problems of hospitalization, postoperative complications and reduction in the overall cost of operation. In a large scale animal birth control program, the conventional methods of sterilization require a long period between capture of dogs and their release, due to the time taken for the surgical wounds to heal. In this aspect, keyhole surgery (laparoscopic surgery) can revolutionize the entire program, as it needs only a very small surgical wound, which usually needs no postoperative care or regular dressings.

Many surgeons have made attempts to develop minimally invasive surgical techniques with minimum blood loss and fewer traumas, to treat the disease process and minimize patient morbidity. Laparoscopic surgery may provide a wide field of its extensive application particularly in surgical sterilization of different animal species. Furthermore, high demographic urban and industrial area requires an effective animal birth control programme, which can overcome the problem of hospitalization, postoperative complications, and the overall cost reduction of operation. The sterilization of (both male and female) is effective measure in controlling the stray dog’s problem. Because the sterilization of either male or female alone is not effective and also sterilization of female consume more time when compared to male sterilization. To combat stray dogs in Animal Birth Control (ABC) programme, it is effective to sterilize the male also. Castration of male dogs by conventional open method has many disadvantages and postoperative complications such as hemorrhage, wound dehiscence, infections, maggot infestations and scrotal swellings etc. In a large scale Animal Birth Control programme, the conventional methods of sterilization requires a long period between capture of dogs and their release due to the time taken for the surgical wounds to heal. In this aspect, Keyhole surgery (Laparoscopic surgery) can revolutionize the entire programme, as it needs only very small surgical wound, which usually needs no postoperative care or regular dressings. It also avoids postoperative complications such as wound dehiscence, herniation, etc. and reduces the surgical stress to animal as well as recurring cost of each surgery.

Introduction

Laparoscopy is an operative procedure, performed through a keyhole opening with a rigid telescope that allows visual inspections and biopsy of the peritoneal cavity and its organs. Laparoscopy was first introduced in 1901 in human medicine. It has only been in the last 15 years that laparoscopy has been widely used in various animal species for research, clinical diagnosis and therapeutic purposes. Veterinary laparoscopy was widely used initially in the reproductive physiology in equine, nonhuman primate and various zoo and exotic species. The first clinical application of laparoscopy in dog involved ovarian physiology in the early 1960s, and Lettow reported the first laparoscopic liver biopsy procedure in a dog in 1972. The utility of laparoscopy in animal physiology particularly in reproductive physiology is wide and it has been used in almost all the species with encouraging results.

Introduction

The most common indication for laparoscopy in zoo animal clinical medicine includes evaluation of liver disorders (e.g. cirrhosis, hepatitis, hepatomegaly), staging for cancer treatment (liver and peritoneal metastases), diagnosis of various peritoneal diseases (e.g. ascites), diagnosis of pelvic soft tissue diseases (e.g. ovarian problem, endometritis, pyometra,) and diseases of spleen and pancreas. The utility of laparoscopy in zoo animal practice is wide and it has been used in almost all the species with encouraging results. Laparoscopy is now most commonly used in zoo animal medicine to examine and biopsy of liver, gall bladder, kidney, spleen, pancreas, ovaries and prostrate. It provides an excellent means for visualizing the surfaces and colour. Even subtle color and texture changes can be readily detected. The liver is generally evaluated through a right lateral mid abdominal approach in canine and feline species of zoo animals. Abnormal gross liver changes that can be readily appreciated include hepatic lipidosis, glycogen leaden liver, metastasis or multifocal neoplasm, nodular hyperplasia, cirrhosis, cholangihepatitis, extra hepatic biliary tract obstruction etc. Using grasping forceps advanced through the second puncture cannula, the biopsy can be obtained quickly and safely in zoo animals. The pancreas can usually be visualized thorough a right abdominal approach and biopsy samples can be safely obtained.

Inverse Laplace Transform of 1/(s - 2)2 is
(A) exp(2t)            (B) t exp(2t)
(C) 2t exp(2t)         (D) t2 exp(2t)

Grasshoppers: Mecopoda elongata :Tettigonidae; Oxya velox: Acrididae

These pests occur both in nurseries and plantations. Both adults and nymphs feed on leaves by scrapping and eating outer tissues and margins. The emerging leaves are nibbled and the spot holes appear when the leaf unfurls. In severe conditions the entire leaf is eaten leaving behind only the midrib.

Large Language Models are increasingly transforming software engineering by enabling automated code generation, completion, debugging, translation and documentation. This chapter examines how Transformer-based architectures trained on source code and natural-language datasets have expanded the capabilities of intelligent programming systems. It begins with the architectural foundations of code-oriented LLMs and explains how self-attention enables models to capture complex relationships within programming languages. The chapter discusses applications throughout the software development lifecycle, including natural-language-to-code generation, code completion, code translation, refactoring, automated unit testing, bug detection and documentation generation. It also examines training and fine-tuning methodologies and evaluation metrics designed to assess code correctness, functionality and quality. Deployment considerations such as latency, security, computational cost, licensing and human oversight are addressed. Particular attention is given to risks associated with hallucinated code, unreliable outputs and generalization beyond training distributions. Emerging directions, including Retrieval-Augmented Generation, continual learning and formal verification, are considered as mechanisms for improving reliability and developer trust.

Samples having size, n - 30 are known as large sample. For large values of n (i.e., for n - 30), almost all the distributions are very closely approximated by normal distribution. Thus in this case we apply the normal test, which is based upon the area property of the normal probability curve. Large Sample Test is also known as Z-test or SND (Standard Normal Deviate) test.

Dioscorea alata is commonly called greater yam or larger yam or water yam.  This is the most widely distributed species of yam. This species originated in South East Asia, probably in Burma. From there, it first spread to India, Malaysia, Indonesia and the eastern portion of South East Asia.  Later it served as food for voyagers and thereby spread to other parts of the tropics.  Immigrants from India and Malaysia introduced it to Madagascar, from where it was partially introduced into East Africa and Portuguese and Spanish voyager traders of the 16th century probably introduced it into West Africa and later to West Indies.

Aquaculture is currently the fastest-expanding food production industry worldwide, and its continued growth depends greatly on the successful rearing of larvae and juvenile stages. The larval and nursery phases act as a crucial link between the breeding process and the grow-out phase. These early developmental stages are highly sensitive and demand strict environmental regulation, tailored nutrition, and close management.
This article explores the core principles and infrastructure necessary for effective larval rearing and nursery operations in aquaculture. It covers essential techniques, feeding protocols, water quality control, health management practices, and the key challenges encountered in raising both finfish and shellfish.
SIGNIFICANCE OF LARVAL REARING AND NURSERY PRACTICES
• Promotes high survival rates and optimal growth during the most delicate stages of life.
• Produces robust juveniles ready for transfer to grow-out systems such as ponds, cages, or raceways.
• Lowers overall production expenses by reducing early-stage mortality.
• Aids in selective breeding efforts and the production of disease-free stock.
LARVAL REARING
The eggs are elliptical in shape, typically ranging from 1 to 2 mm in diameter, and are attached at one end to a substrate using a short stalk. Initially, the eggs are yellow, but as embryonic development progresses, they turn brownish, and pigmentation appears on the yolk sac. The incubation period generally spans 82 to 100 hours. Hatching begins when the egg membrane ruptures at the head end of the larva, which is the unattached portion, and continues along the dorsal side as the tail begins to move actively.

The objective of larval rearing is to mass-produce high-quality and healthy juvenile fish. In larval rearing, the management of both rearing environment and feeding regime are the most important aspects. Improving larval rearing technique requires understanding of larval morphology & behaviour and requirements of live food, artificial diet and environmental conditions at different ages of larvae (Liao et al., 2001). Striped murrel is predatory as well cannibalistic species in nature. Therefore understanding about its behavior with respect to feeds and feeding, stocking density with growing age is utmost important. It is a general thinking that fish hatchlings do not require exogenous food until yolk-sac attached to their body is exhausted. But this is untrue with many carnivorous fish species, particularly those observe cannibalism. Larvae of such fish species start feeding much before the yolk-sac absorption; rather delay in getting feed make them weak or force them to feed on the conspecifics. Therefore in order to understand larval behavior of this species in respect of feeds and feeding, knowledge on its ontogenic development is crucial particularly in respect of age at which mouth opens; mouth gape size, food choice, size of food particle at different age-groups and finally the age when gut digestion starts.

Yulintine et al. (2017) have given ontogenetic details of striped murrel larvae since hatching. According to him, mouth opens and exogenous feeding begin in this species when hatchling grows to a size 4.63+0.25mm on second say of hatching. On day-3 after hatching, the buccopharynx channeled with the anterior intestine through a short oesophagus and rather narrow lumen, with having prominent liver developed by this time. Two pyloric caeca appeared on day-25 hph, indicating the transition from larval to juvenile stage and acquisition of an adult type of digestion. This chapter provides strategy for larval rearing of striped murrel based on ontogenic studies and work carried out by various workers in this field including that of authors.

Shallow weed infected ponds, swamps, marshes, pools. Bogs infected all inland water bodies. These infected inland water bodies provides shelter food and suitable environmental condition to grow and multiply to different pathogens and microorganism and macro-organism such as mosquitoes, snails other hosts.

Mosquitoes are the vectors of several diseases and carry parasites of malaria, filarial, yellow fever and so on the breed in all sorts of stagnant water and shallow weed infested ponds, swamps, pits gutters and all other kinds of inland water bodies. Different species of mosquitoes prefer different kinds of water for breeding purpose.

A number of fishes have little food value but are of immense utility to public health because of their larvivorous feeding habits. Fish is a natural enemy of mosquito eggs and larvae and its use as means of biological control has been recognized since olden times. Several species of fresh water fishes are known to be larvicidal and of use in the control of mosquito population. Biological control of this type is now regarded as one of the most potent tool in destroying the mosquito population without any causing harmful effect in the food chain and the human system. Man learnt to use them as one of his several measures to combat a number of serious diseases which are spread through the agency of insects. A number of larvicidal fishes directly feed upon mosquito larvae and thus their introduction in such water bodies where mosquitoes breed results in a very effective control on the population the mosquitoes in selection of the larvicidal fishes for such a control of diseases.

45.1 Introduction

Mosquitoes of various species breed in ponds, swamps, gutters, and other bodies of stagnant water, carrying parasites that cause malaria, filaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, Zika and yellow fever. Various approaches have been used to control mosquito populations to reduce the incidence of vector borne diseases, including chemical, physical, and biological measures. In all types of habitats, biological control against mosquito vectors is safe, friendly, and cost effective. Mosquito biological control entails introducing natural enemies such as parasites, disease organisms, and predatory animals into the environment.

It is a common knowledge that most of the farmers apply irrigation water until all the points in the field are fully wetted and covered with a thin sheet of water. Studies have indicated that a significant (20-25%) amount of irrigation water is lost during its application at the farm due to poor farm designing and unevenness of the fields. This problem is more pronounced in the case of rice fields. Unevenness of fields leads to inefficient use of irrigation water and also delays tillage and crop establishment options. Fields that are not levelled have uneven crop stands, increased weed burdens and uneven maturing of crops. All these factors tend to contribute to reduced yield and produce quality which reduce the potential farm income. Effective land levelling is meant to optimize wateruse efficiency, improve crop establishment, reduce the irrigation time and effort required to manage crop.

Reasonably levelled agriculture fields has advantage over uneven and undulating crop fields as unevenness of the soil surface has a significant impact on the seed germination, crop stand and its yield. Traditionally land levelling was being done throughout India by bullock drawn plough or tractors and applying different devices for levelling the field by visual assessment e.g. on small plots with hoes, or with draft animals and equipment such as ploughs and bars or scrapers or grading. Equipment such as grading blades and hydraulically operated levellers mounted on wheels are used with tractors. More advanced and sophisticated levelling equipment is operated with a laser emitter, a laser sensor or receiver, and a scraper pulled by a tractor. After the desired level or slope of the field and/or the difference of the high and low spots have been surveyed, the emitter is set to send a rotating laser beam creating a plane of laser light above the field surface. The laser light is used as the levelling reference. It directs the hydraulic system of the moving tractor and scraper, and thereby controls the levelling. Hence, laser levelling or laser land levelling is levelling the crop field within certain degree of desired slope using a guided laser beam throughout the field.

Lasoda (Cordia myxa L.) known by many names viz., cherry of desert, assyrian palm, sebestene plum,  lasura, lehsua, gonda and naruvilli, is an underutilized, multipurpose fruit tree distributed in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Arid regions are considered under the category of wastelands which are not being used to their fullest potential. Among the arid region crops, lasoda is very suitable crop for cultivation in Rajasthan as it can withstand drought to a very great extent and can tolerate temperature as high as 48 to 50°C during summer months. Lasoda thrives well on neglected, low fertile, sandy, gravelly, saline, alkaline soils and hence can be used for forestation of waste lands. However, it grows vigorously in moist sandy loam soils and gives high productivity.

Background

Water is the most precious input for dryland horticulture, and therefore, its use should be planned judiciously. Rainwater harvesting and its management play a significant role in horticultural production. The rainwater can be diverted either directly to tree basins in situ or in suitable structures ex situ, which can later be utilized as lifesaving irrigation. In sandy soils, in situ conservation should be popularized, while in heavier soils, ex-situ conservation should be popularized. The water thus collected remains stored deep into the soil profile, escapes from evaporative losses, and is available during critical periods of demand. Perennial fruit trees, once established, get the advantage of any time it rains during the year, unlike annual crops. Water harvesting in khadins in parts of the Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan and its use in raising crops and trees is the age-old practice of in situ water harvesting. The hilly, rocky, and sloppy lands generate runoff, which can be collected in ponds or tanks and recycled for the establishment of fruit plantations and lifesaving irrigation at critical stages. In the same stance, nutrient management also plays an important role in the successful cultivation of horticultural crops under dryland. The arid zone soils are very poor in the majority of nutrients except potash. Enrichment of soil with organic and inorganic sources is essential for optimum production of fruits and vegetables. The application of chemical fertilizers has made miracles initially in agriculture and horticulture. However, increasing awareness of environmental degradation due to various anthropogenic activities has been expressed worldwide about the over-reliance on mineral fertilizers, which causes environmental penalties. It has also led to a deficiency of several micronutrients. Therefore, the option left is whether to revert back to traditional farming using organic input or to follow some middle path by integrating both organic and inorganic. So far as present knowledge is concerned, organic manuring alone cannot maintain the required productivity and demand for food.

Abstract

The Cauvery delta is a major bird-foot shaped delta with its apex located east of Tiruchirappalli with the mother channel Cauvery flowing along Thanjavur– Kumbakonam – Kaveripoompattinam. The distributary drainages are radiating over an arc towards east from its apex with a fan shape and finally debouch into the sea from south of Tiruthuraipoondi in the south to Kaveripoompattinam in the north. All these distributary drainages are now seen as palaeochannels including the mother channel Cauvery, which is now called as “Palam Cauvery”. The present day flow of Cauvery river is confined to the northernmost rim of the delta as river Coleroon. On the basis of the archaeological, epigraphic and historical data analysed earlier and the14C dating carried out recently, the present authors infer that the age of the delta may vary from 2300 Y.B.P. ( Years Before Present) to 750 Y.B.P. and the age of the palaeochannels are also younging from 2300 Y.B.P. in the south to 750 Y.B.P. in the north. In the southern part of the Cauvery delta, the Mio-Pliocene Sandstone of Pattukottai-Mannargudi area is undergoing upliftment along N-S faults. On the basis of the rapid land progradation during 6085±233 Y.B.P. - 1020±80 Y.B.P. in Vedaranniyam coast, it is visualized that the Mio-Pliocene Sandstone must be undergoing upliftment significantly since 6100 Y.B.P. onwards. On the basis of the occurrence of older palaeochannels in the south, the gradual younging palaeochannels towards the north and the land emergence in the south of the Cauvery delta in Pattukottai – Mannargudi area, it is concluded that the distributary drainages of river Cauvery would have become sequentially defunct / shifted from south to north and finally the mother channel Cauvery also would have been pushed towards north to reach the present tract of Coleroon river. The thinner palaeochannels in the south and the gradual wider palaeochannels in the north of the delta further indicate that as the land was already undergoing emergence in the south even before river Cauvery has entered into Thanjavur plains, the river could not comfortably spread its distributaries in the south. Hence, the southern distributaries, after a brief flow, would have started drying sequentially from south to north during 2300–750 Y.B.P. thereby the floodwater of each of the southern distributary channel would have been pushed to its successive northern counterpart, i.e. the southern distributary (say 1), pushing its water to its immediate northern counterpart (say 2), then the combined flow of 1 and 2 pushing the water to 3 and so on. The anomalous eyed drainage and its modifications during the last 50–60 years and compressed meanders in Coleroon river, deflected drainages in Palam Cauvery, truncation and punctuation of beach ridges by the E – W faults along the N – S coast and such faults acting as pathways for the sub parallel creeks indicate vibrant Late Holocene geological history predominated by the tectonic movements in Cauvery delta.

INTRODUCTION

It is well accepted that the climatic changes also influence the geomorphic process efficiency and landform development (Ahamad, 1985). Glaciation, sea level changes, flooding and many other geo- environmental events are related with global and regional climatic changes along with tectonic and other non-tectonic factors like natural vegetation, soil, organic development etc. Considering the role of climate on landform development and dynamics of the Late Quaternary climate, a climato-geomorphic study was conducted on the coastal and paleo-coastal areas of the Bengal Basin namely-lower Western (West Bengal coast) and Eastern (Tripura Paleo-coastal Fold Belt Province) Geo-provences. The main objectives of the study were to investigate (i) Development of the landforms during Late Quaternary period with sea level changes and (ii) Climatological influences on the landform modifications.

Introduction

The classic bone tissue engineering paradigm highlights several key players: biocompatible scaffold that closely mimics the natural bone extracellular matrix niche, osteogenic cells to lay down the bone tissue matrix, morphogenic signals that help to direct the cells to the phenotypically desirable type, and sufficient vascularization to meet the growing tissue nutrient supply and clearance needs. The biomaterials are critical components in the bone-tissue engineering strategies, including polymers, ceramics, or their combinations applied in various forms, such as membranes and three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds. These materials typically mimic the extracellular matrix of bone tissue during the tissue regeneration process, providing mechanical support and a suitable environment for cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation

A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself (specifically “cereal grain”). Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa and chia, are referred to as pseudo cereals. In their natural, unprocessed, whole grain form, cereals are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein. When processed by the removal of the bran and germ the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing countries, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, maize etc. constitutes a majority of daily sustenance. 

Sugarcane, (Saccharum officinarum), perennial grass crop of the family Poaceae, primarily cultivated for its juice from which sugar is processed. Most of the world’s sugarcane is grown in subtropical and tropical areas. The plant is also grown for biofuel production, especially in Brazil, as the canes can be used directly to produce ethyl alcohol (ethanol). The by-products from cane sugar processing, namely the straw and bagasse (cane fibres), can be used to produce cellulosic ethanol, a second-generation biofuel. Other sugarcane products include molasses, rum, and cachaça (a Brazilian alcohol), and the plant itself can be used as thatch and as livestock fodder.

Oilseed crops have been grown all over the world and are considered important crops due to their economic value. Oilseed crops are primarily grown for edible oil. Recently, oilseeds attracted more attention due to an increasing demand for their healthy vegetable oils, livestock feeds, pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and other oleochemical industrial uses. The increased interest resulted in an 82% expansion of oilseed crop cultivation areas and about a 240% increase in total world production over the last 30 years.

Pulses are high in protein, fibre, and various vitamins, provide amino acids, and are hearty crops. They are most popular in developing countries, but are increasingly becoming recognized as an excellent part of a healthy diet throughout the world. Pulse crops are one of the most sustainable crops a farmer can grow. It takes just 163 litres of water to produce 0.45 kg (1 pound) of pulses, compared with 818 litres for soybeans. They also contribute to soil fertility by fixing nitrogen in the soil.