eChapters

Free radicals, such as singlet oxygen (¹_O2), superoxide (O₂ ^.–) and some active derivatives of oxygen, like H₂O₂ are although generated in plant cells during the course of normal metabolic processes, but their production is notably enhanced when the plants are exposed to any kind of stress environment. The reactive oxygen species damage important cellular components, including cell membrane by peroxidation of lipid and de-esterification of fatty acids.

Plants have evolved a wide range of mechanisms to contend with this problem. The antioxidant defence system of a plant comprises of a variety of antioxidant molecules and enzymes which take care of free radicals produced in the cells. These enzymes are popularly termed as the ‘Scavenging Enzymes’ or ‘Antioxidative Enzymes’.

Conversion of oxygen molecules into its reactive form leads to induction of a sort of stress in plants, to which we call as ‘Oxidative Stress’. It is the equilibrium between oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes, which determines the fate of a plant.

Plants possess scavenging enzyme system to protect them from destructive oxidative reactions. These enzymes are not restricted to the intercellular compartment but are also found in the apoplast to a limited extent. Some of the enzymes are as follows:-

A Flame Photometer has long been in use for analysis of elements; however, it is now being gradually replaced by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The reason being, that the former can analyze only a few elements such as sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), barium (Ba) and lithium (Li), whereas the later can be used to analyze almost all the elements known, provided a specific Hollow Cathode Lamp (HC), for a specific element, is available. In addition, Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer is more precise and accurate in measurement as compared to Flame Photometer.

In this chapter, we shall deal with the operation techniques, working principles and a brief description of each and every component/constituent unit of a Flame Photometer as well as an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.

Abstract

Designer foods are known by various names like medical foods, fortified foods, nutritional foods, nutraceutical foods, pharma foods etc. These foods are nutritious, maintain health and prevent diseases. Such foods must possess characteristics like modified composition; limit the presence of certain potentially harmful components and include certain desirable ingredients either naturally or by intentional addition. The term designer food emerged some years ago to describe foods tailored to specific concentration and proportion of nutrients that are important to health. These are designed and produced by using different approaches. The term ‘designer foods’ is subjected to change based on nutritional labelling regulations, new developments, consumer perceptions and expectations. Grain improvement through biotechnology emphasizes crop upgrading with a specific challenge to manipulate the endosperm composition in order to improve its intrinsic properties for diet and health. Breeding fruits with higher bioactive compounds for disease resistance and improved composition have stimulated interest in the nutraceutical and processing aspects of the fruits Nutritive and genetic interventions to alter milk composition for specific health and processing opportunities are gaining importance in dairy biotechnology. Designer eggs having modified fat provide choices with different nutritional benefits. The options suggested for designer meat and meat products are through production practices, post-harvest procedures and reformulation techniques. All these features of designer foods will be presented with suitable examples.

Abstract

Research has demonstrated that nutrition plays a crucial role in the prevention of chronic diseases as most of them can be related to diet. Functional food enters the concept of considering food not only necessary for living but also as a source of mental and physical well-being contributing to the prevention and reduction of risk factors for several diseases or enhancing certain physiological functions. One of the most clear objectives of the study of functional foods is to identify and validate biological markers in order to understand the interaction mechanisms between the food component and a body function. Epidemiologic and laboratory data from previous studies suggests that diets rich in fruits and vegetables are associated with a reduced risk of various types of cancers. The reduction in cancer risk may be attributed to the abundance of a family of specific compounds referred to as anthocyanins, which are found in various berries. Anthocyanins are water soluble pigments responsible for the blue, purple, and red color in many plant tissues Strawberry is one of “super fruits”, since they can form a significant component of the diet and are a potential resource of functional foods and nutraceuticals due to their antioxidant capacity and nutritional quality. Strawberries contain high levels of anthocyanins and they are also well liked by consumers. Popularity of strawberries in the consumer market makes them an ideal focus for chemoprevention studies. Strawberries are a rich source of phytochemicals (anthocyanins, catechins, the flavonols quercetin and kaempferol, and ellagic acid) and an important source of essential nutrients (ascorbic acid, potassium, folic acid, carotenoids, B-vitamins). Strawberries are consistently ranked among the top food sources of polyphenols and antioxidant capacity; the preventive and therapeutic health benefits of strawberries may be attributed to the synergistic effects of these bioactives and the nutrients contained in the fruit. These bioactive photochemical contribute the major health-promoting function. Strawberries have shown a remarkably high scavenging activity toward chemically generated radicals, thus making them effective in inhibiting oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. Antioxidant activity of strawberries could contribute to the prevention of cancer, cardiovascular and other chronic diseases. Hence strawberry can be used as a vital and indispensible functional ingredient for the development offunctional foods and nutraceuticals.

Abstract

Micronutrients and bioactive compounds must be part of the population's diet in sufficient amounts to meet the body's needs. The concentrations of micronutrients and bioactive compounds in plant foods at harvest are known to vary with such factors as the variety or cultivar, stage of maturity, geographic or climatic effects, etc. Most subclasses of polyphenols e.g., phenolics acids and flavonoids, the effects of processing on the contents were found negligible in comparison to the differences between varieties of plants but carotenoids are among the food components most affected by environmental and processing conditions. Thermal processing has long been known to cause significant losses of vitamins, carotenoids and anthocyanins. The heat treatment viz. blanching, pasteurization, sterilization etc. result in losses of thermally labile nutrients and bioactive compounds, but the inactivation of oxidative and other degradative enzymes (e.g., lipoxygenase for carotenoids, polyphenol oxidase for flavonoids, ascorbic acid oxidase for vitamin C). Nutrients in dehydrated products are more likely to undergo degradation during storage because of the greater surface area exposed to oxygen and light. Blanched products generally resist decomposition better than unblanched foods during storage. Compared to losses during processing, subsequent storage often has a small but significant effect on vitamin and bioactive compound contents. Reaction rates are relatively slow at ambient or reduced temperature. The processing method chosen, and storage condition applied finalise the retention of these compounds which decreases with longer processing time, higher processing temperatures and storage of the food.

Abstract

Dietary fibers mostly include non-starch polysaccharides such as celluloses, hemicelluloses, gums and pectins, lignin, resistant dextrins and resistant starches. Based on their water solubility, dietary fibers may be divided into two forms insoluble dietary fiber which includes celluloses, some hemicelluloses and lignins which is fermented to a limited extent in the colon and soluble dietary fiber which includes f-glucans, pectins, gums, mucilages and hemicelluloses that are fermented in the colon. Resistant starch generally considered to be represented by the total amount ofstarch and the product of starch degradation that are not digested in the small intestine andpass into large intestine, and regarded as a component ofdietary fiber. Herbal nutraceutical is used as a powerful instrument in maintaining health and to act against nutritionally induced acute and chronic diseases, thereby promoting optimal health, and quality of life. Dietary spices in their minute quantities has an immense influence on the human health by their antioxidative, chemopreventive, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, immune modulatory effects on cells and a wide range of beneficial effects on human health. Nutraceutical is the hybrid of ‘nutrition’ and ‘pharmaceutical’. Nutraceuticals, in broad, are food or part of food playing a significant role in modifying and maintaining normal physiological function that maintains healthy human beings. Functional foods are including whole foods and fortified, enriched, or enhanced foods or dietary components that may reduce the risk of chronic disease and provide a health and physiological benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains.

Abstract

Nutraceuticals have potential to be used as food supplement, preventive medicine and the growing evidence points in the direction that certain foods fight and or prevent against diseases. The development of next generation nutraceutical “super foods” or products consist of value-addition in the traditional natural diets.The word Nutraceuticals combine ‘nutrition’ and ‘pharmaceuticals’ to mean that they can be used as preventive drugs or food supplements. The increase in knowledge about the immune response unveils the fact that besides immunological disorders and infections the outcome of many other diseases like diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. can be modified by modulating Immune response. Hence, the efficient immunomodulators can be employed to prevent or cure the diseases as immunotherapeutic agents. The most acceptable alternative therapeutic agents are the edible sources. Hence the researchers shifted towards formation of nutraceuticals or foods acting as medicine, a concept which was given by Hippocrates long back.

Abstract

The cereal grains are grown around the world, the most common is wheat, which accounts for one third of the total grain crop worldwide. In addition to providing energy, whole grains contain several key nutrients, including fibers, lipids, B vitamins and minerals as well as other beneficial components such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, lignans and phytosterols. Several of these components function as antioxidants. While multiple studies have been conducted to analyze antioxidants in different grains. In wheat and other grains, naturally occurring phytonutrients with antioxidant activity include phenolic acids, flavonoids, coumarins, polyphenols, phytates, terpenes, carotenoids, tocopherols and tocotrienols. Potential roles of the naturally occurring antioxidants in grains include free radical scavenger, reducing agent, complexation of prooxidant metals, quenchers of singlet-oxygen molecules and antioxidant defense enzyme system activators for biological systems. Wheat grain contains several components that have potential antioxidant activity and thus may have a protective role in human health. Traditional wheat-based breakfast foods include hot and cold ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals, as well as a variety of yeast-leavened and chemically leavened bakery products. Increasing baking time and temperature increases antioxidant activity in the bread crust and lowers antioxidant activity in the bread crumb portion. Wheat and wheat based products, particularly partial and 100% whole grain products have been shown to provide a variety of beneficial components including fiber, vitamins, minerals and other phytonutrients with antioxidant activity. Scientific evidence indicates that consumption of three or more ounce equivalents of whole grain foods per day may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes and certain cancers and help with weight management.

Abstract

Egg is a nutrient dense food, containing high quality proteins and a wide range of vitamins, minerals, trace elements, PUFA, MUFA etc. Whole egg slices were prepared by boiling in water technique for a predetermined time i.e. 15 min. The egg slices were prepared with spice extract at different levels of 2%, 5%, 7% and 10%, out of which 5% was found acceptable by sensory evaluation. The egg slices with 5% spice extract were then subjected to frying in different oils such as mustard oil, rice bran oil, sunflower oil and soya bean oil. Among all of the fried egg slices and control (without any spice extract and frying), on sensory evaluation, fried egg slices with mustard oil was most preferred. Texture analysis results shows that hardness was increased on frying and highest in fried egg slices with rice bran oil. Also the values for other TPA component viz. adhesiveness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness were increased on frying as compared with control. Among the fried egg slices, highest values for adhesiveness, cohesiveness, gumminess was observed in egg slices with rice bran oil. However, chewiness of fried egg slices with sunflower oil was highest. It can be concluded from present study that the egg slices fried in mustard oil was organoleptically acceptable with good textural properties.

Abstract

Nanotechnology deals with understanding and control of matter at 1-100 nm dimensions. Nano-sized materials have been part of everyday life in the form of biological entities and processes. Many of the structural building elements in foods are colloids in nature and are built up as a result of self assembly of nano-sized molecules in particles or at interfaces. The most important food raw materials-proteins, starches and fats undergo structural changes at the nanometer and micrometer scales during normal food processing. Unique phenomena occurring at this length scale are being exploited for novel food applications. Functional foods are products, in food or drink form, which influence specific functions in the body and thereby offer benefits for health, well-being, or performance beyond their regular nutritional value. Nanotechnology promises to provide means of altering and manipulating food products to efficiently deliver nutrients like proteins and antioxidants for precisely targeted nutritional and health benefits. Nanotechnology applications for functional food ingredients and additives offer range of benefits to the consumer in terms of innovative, tasteful and healthy food products. Nanoencapsulation systems aid smart protection and delivery of bioactives so as to ensure their stability, taste, colour, safety and bioavailability. The advent of nanotechnology has opened up innovations in food packaging with improved stability and barrier properties. However, need exists to develop regulatory systems for managing any risks associated with functional nanofoods and the use of nanotechnologies in the food industry.

Abstract

The concern of consumers for convenience and healthy foods involves many parameters like functional and nutraceutical properties, ease to prepare, good quality, economics as well as good nutritional profile of the food. This trend of convenience has been increasing in today's world because of the societal changes like the aging of population, the increasing entry of women into the labor force, the change to a multi-cultured society and the increasing polarization between poor and rich. Value addition to the traditional sources is a medium to bring variety products into the market. Cereal starches possess a wide application in the food industry as an additive but the native starch is not widely used in food industry due to its poor functional properties. Pregelatinized starches and flours have become important in processed foods because the functional properties of the starches and flours are improved over the native starches and cereal flours. Modification is a process which alters the structure of the starch in the wheat endosperm by affecting the hydrogen bonds in a controllable manner. Modification of starch and flours is generally done by several methods such as chemical degradation, physical alteration or enzymatic transformation. The primary objective of modification is to reduce the hot viscosity of the starch paste so that higher concentrations of starch can be dispersed without excessive thickening. The pregelatinized flours offer a tremendous number of functional benefits to variety of foods such as bakeries, snacks, beverages as well as nutritional foods. The various functional benefits of pre-gelatinized starch/flour as an additive are classified as fat replacer, texture improver, stabilizer, emulsifier, thickening agent and for freeze-thaw stability. Keywords: Pregelatinization, modification, functionality, cereal flour.

Abstract

The aim of this work was to reduce the natural fermentation period of ‘idli’ from the conventional 14 hr to10 hr by adding underutilized okara for the preparation of ‘idli’. Black gram was partially substituted with soy residue okara in the ratio of (1:1). After 14 hr of natural fermentation, the pH and total acidity of control ‘idli’ batter was 4.55 and 0.68% and that of okara fortified ‘idli’ batter was 4.57 and 0.56%, respectively. The amount of CO₂ released by the control and okara fortified batter was 12.5% and 22.5% respectively. The viable count of yeast and mold, lactics and mesophilic bacteria in control and okara batter increased with time reaching 8.4 and 9.6, 8.2 and 7.5, and 8.6 and 9.2 log10 cfu/g, respectively at the end of 10 hr of natural fermentation. Okara fortified ‘idli’ was soft and spongy compared to control ‘idli’.

Abstract

Rice is the most produced and consumed source of stable food in J andK, and is excellent in genetic diversity. Rice production is the principal activity and a major source of income for the State. Traditional rice varieties have an enhancing potential in wide range of nutraceutical and functional foods. Besides possessing medicinal and nutritional properties, the by-products generated from these rice varieties in various post harvest operations are equally valuable. Traditional healers and local farmers have been using these traditional varieties in ayurveda and in curing of various kinds of ailments, such as cooling the body in ayurvedic treatments, improving vocal clarity, curing of boils, swellings and skin blemishes. Extracts of brown rice are also used as energy drink in individuals, patients and in treatment of chronic gastric problems, jaundice, dysenteric complaints and to increase lactation and nutrition to Childs. Sticky glutinous rice has been reported in treatment of stomach upsets, nausea, heart-burn and indigestion. Brown rice extracts have been reported in treatments of breast and stomach cancer and warts.

Abstract

Starch is a naturally occurring biodegradable polymer and readily available from agriculture. It is widely used in food and non-food applications and isolated from crops such as maize, potatoes, tapioca, rice and wheat. However, in recent years substantial progress has been made on the molecular structure of cereal and tuber starches and their impact on functionality, the following is a subjective summary that presents status of knowledge on isolation of starch from non-conventional source like Acorus calamus (sweet flag). The focus is on potential application of the source as food and non-food derivatives. Extensive work has been carried out on agronomic and phenotypic properties for most tropical crops, but relatively little study has been carried out on the properties which are of direct technical and economic interest to competitive food and non-food industry. Sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.) is an emergent macrophyte, originating in Asia, commonly found in European wetlands. Rhizome is the most important storage organ in Acorus. It contains considerable amounts of carbohydrates and nitrogen-rich compound. This species is growing to 6 feet, with long lanceolate leaves %-inch wide with pronounced midrib, aromatic, with stout rhizomes. The major proportion of total non-structural carbohydrates in rhizomes is starch (91-93% and 51-64% in rhizomes and roots, respectively). However, amount of starch varies among the organs as well. Rhizomes contain the highest amount of starch followed by branched roots and finally by unbranched roots. Rhizomes comprises single to compound grains, with clusters present in high frequencies. Non-conventional food resources and their value addition have attracted attention in the recent years for their potential use as functional ingredients in food formulations, besides food they have also been used for non-food applications. So there is tremendous potential for the profitable commercial use of these tropical starches and exploring them for further use.

Abstract

Due to rapidly increasing knowledge on nutrition and medicine, concepts about food and health has dramatically changed and resulted in consumption of nutraceuticals and natural plant foods.Use of nutritional therapy and phytotherapy have become progressively popular to improve health, and to prevent and treat diseases. Plants have long history of their uses as ingredients of human nutrition and folk medicine,because of availability of huge array of high-value components and multiple-activity bio-actives. “Licorice” means “sweet root” in Greek is a plant of ancient origin, indigenous to Southern Europe and Asia Minor. Most of the supply comes from former USSR, Spain, Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan, with total production between 40,000 and 50,000 tonnes per annum. The chemical constituents of the roots include several bioactive compounds, such as glycyrrhizin (~16%), different sugars (up to 18%) ,flavonoids, saponoids,sterols, starches, amino acids, gums and essential oils. A large number of clinical and experimental studies reported its useful biological properties such as antioxidant, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral and anticancer effects. It is useful in anaemia, gout, asthama,ulcers, sore throat, tonsillitis, diabetes, tuberculosis, flatulence, diarrhea, sexual debility, epilepsy, hyperdypsia, fever, coughs, skin diseases, eye diseases, swellings,constipation, rheumatism, acidity, leucorrhoea, bleeding, jaundice, hiccough, hoarseness, bronchitis.Recently, it is reported to have neurological properties such as antidepressant, anxiolytic, and anticonvulsant effects. The most abundant minerals present are calcium, sodium, phosphorus, potassium and iron. Licorice extracts and its principle component, glycyrrhizin, have extensive use in foods,as a natural sweetener and flavoring agent in beverage, confectionery, tobacco and pharmaceutical industry. It is in great demand globally as medicinal and nutritional supplement due to it's wide range of properties, which also indicates that in future the plant could serve as a “lead” for the development of novel agents having good efficacy in various disorders.

Abstract

Kulfi is a mixture of fat; sugar and milk solid not fat together with added flavour. So diabetics people on restricted diets cannot consume kulfi having normal ingredients. Now-a-days, consumers demand for low fat/calorie products has significantly raised in an attempt to limit health problems, to lose or stabilize their weight and to work within the frame of a healthier diet. The role of fat replacers and sugar substitutes in the successful manufacture of these products is crucial. Development of sugar free kulfi would certainly ensure diabetic/obese people to enjoy ice cream/ kulfi. The current study is to standardize the kulfi recipe with fat and calorie replacer. Basic formula mix consist of Whole milk 60 percent, SMP 12 percent, Sugar 13 percent, Cream 15 percent and Stabilizer 0.5 percent where the whole milk was replaced by skim milk, cream and sugar was replaced by maltodextrin as a bulking agent and aspartame respectively alongwith sodium alginate as a stabilizer. The replacers were incorporated at four different levels of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 percent to the basic formula mix. Freezing of above kulfi mix was done by traditional method and softy freezer method. Sensory evaluation was carried out by using 9-point hedonic scale through semi-trained judges and results were statistically analyzed. On the basis of sensory scores it was revealed that sugar could be replaced 100% by artificial sweetener, bulking agent (Maltodextrin). It was found from the sensory scores that the milk fat in kulfi can be replaced upto 75 percent by sodium caseinate thereafter increase in caseinate gives prominent flavour of casein and kulfi body becomes thick and hard. It was concluded from the results that 100 percent sugar replacement was found feasible in preparation of low fat and low calorie kulfi. Results of the low fat and low calorie kulfi mix indicated that there was 32.29 percent reduction in the calorific value of experimental kulfi as compared to the control sample (traditional). It was concluded from the results that the kulfi with 75 percent less fat and 100 percent sugar free can be prepared with low cost in comparison with control.

Abstract

Vitamin D or “sunshine vitamin” is an essential fat soluble vitamin required for healthy bones. It is responsible for enhancing intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphate. Its deficiency leads to osteoporosis and osteomalacia in adults and rickets and other bone deformities in children. Vitamin D deficiency is being reported to be quite common these days due to modernization accompanied with changes in lifestyle and environmental pollution which limit sun exposure for several individuals. Inadequate sun exposure results in reduced vitamin D synthesis and ultimately poor vitamin D status necessitating compensation through dietary intake. Dietary vitamin D intake is very low in India because of low consumption of vitamin D rich foods, absence of fortification and little use of supplements. It is becoming a major public health problem, needing immediate attention. Fortification of milk and milk products is the safe and effective approach to deal with widespread vitamin D deficiency as milk is consumed and liked equally by all age groups. This paper highlights the importance, sources, recommended allowances and other relevant issues related to vitamin D fortification and its health effects.

ABSTRACT

Multispectral imagery has been used as the data source for natural resource mapping and land observational remote sensing from airborne and satellite systems since the early 1960s. Over the past two decades, advances in sensor technology have made it possible for the collection of several hundred spectral bands. This is commonly refe rred to as hyperspectral imagery. Thus it is possible to construct a complete reflectance spectrum of every pixel in the scene. This review highlights the hyperspectral remote sensing system development, hyper spectral data processing and difference between multispectral and hyperspectral data; spatial and spectral resolutions and focuses on the application of hyperspectral imagery in natural resource studies and, in particular the classification and mapping of land resources.

ABSTRACT

Mineral composition and their distribution on planetary surfaces provides important clues to the evolutionary processes that the planetary bodies have undergone since their formation. For distant and inaccessible planets, remote sensing, either from Earth-based telescopes or from an orbiter around the planetary body, using reflectance spectroscopy over a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum (UV-Visible-IR), can provide surface distribution of minerals. With advances in technology, a high-resolution hyperspectral imager onboard an orbiter has developed into a powerful tool for compositional mapping of planetary surfaces. Interpretation of the signals from these distant and relatively unknown destinations is a challenging task due to scarcity of available ground truth. Here, we describe the technique with its applicability to airless bodies, such as Moon, in the context of the Indian Moon mission, Chandrayaan-1, and, the intricacies involved in the data analyses.

Keywords : Reflectance spectroscopy, hyperspectral data, remote sensing, planets, moon

1. INTRODUCTION

The primary goal of planetary exploration is to understand the mechanism by which planetary objects (planets, dwarf planets, satellites and small solar system bodies) have evolved with time. The information gathered from the study of individual bodies is integrated to comprehend the development of our solar system. The present understanding envisages our solar system to have formed from the solar nebula, produced as a consequence of the collapse of a molecular cloud. While the central mass gravitated and formed the sun, the gas and dust surrounding it condensed to form grains and formed the proto-planetary disk. These grains, through a series of processes, finally aggregated to form of the various planetary bodies. Existing Astronomical, chemical and mineralogical evidences from studies of lunar samples, meteorites and, remote sensing observations suggest that the planetary bodies are heterogeneous and possess extreme compositional and morphological diversity. The internal energy of a planetary body, a function of its size, is responsible for the differences in the degree of differentiation a body has undergone leading to the variations in their surface composition. Large planets like the Earth and Venus are still evolving whereas the small asteroids have barely evolved after their formation and are considered primitive. The wide variety of planetary bodies in our solar system is therefore reminiscent of the various stages of evolution that our solar system went through. The degree of melting and cycling through episodes of differentiation determine the mineral inventory on a planetary body. Therefore, distribution and composition of various minerals can be used to understand various stages of chemical evolution of a planetary body. Mineral mapping of planetary surfaces is thus useful in understanding the petrogenetic history.

ABSTRACT

Greenseeker is a handheld computer mounted sensor for observing normalized difference vegetation Index [NDVI= (NIR “R)/(NIR+R)], which may be used to estimate site specific amount of fertilizer nitrogen depending up on the crop condition. The sensor can be used for yield estimation and developing remote sensing based growth models. It is an active sensor with a built in light source for illuminating the target and records reflected light from vegetation at wavelength of 670 nm (red region) and 780 nm (near infrared region) of electromagnetic spectrum. The swath covered by the Sensor is 0.75 m when sensor is placed about 1.0 m above crop canopy.

The sensor was used to record NDVI in wheat- sugarcane intercropping system wherein wheat was grown on raised beds of 1.04 m width with six rows of wheat and sugarcane in furrows at row spacing of 1.38 m. The wheat variety PBW 343 was sown with nitrogen levels @ 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180 and 210 kg N ha^-1 (all basal) and sugarcane variety CoSe 92423 was planted in furrows on 7^th November, 2006 in a medium textured loam soil.

The NDVI was recorded in wheat at 17, 41, 59, 73, 88, 113 and 129 DAS using Greenseeker and Spectroradiometer (UNISPEC ^TM of PP system, USA) simulating normal satellite bands i.e.

NIR: 770-860 nm, Red: 620-680 nm, Green: 520-580 nm. The maximum NDVI (recorded at 88 DAS) was used to develop INSEY “ yield relationship in wheat. The NDVI recorded by Greenseeker was integrated with NDVI recorded by Spectroradiometer.

The Greenseeker was also used to monitor crop growth in sugarcane. The NDVI was correlated with shoot population, plant height, LAI and total biomass during formative and crop elongation phase of sugarcane till end of November 2007. Highly significant (at 1%) correlation was observed between GS- NDVI and shoot population till mid August and LAI in sugarcane for entire crop cycle. An exponential model (R² = 0.9017) was developed to estimate LAI of sugarcane from NDVI. The NDVI was significantly (at 5 %) was correlated with plant height till mid August. However, the correlation between total crop biomass in sugarcane and NDVI remained non-significant.

ABSTRACT

The improvement of spatial resolution of satellite remote sensing (RS) imagery, it is possible to update spatial data infrastructure efficiently by satellite RS images. But the RS data volume is vast, so high processing capacity is required. In order to extract the anticipated images from vast image database, effective retrieval technique is vital. The rapid development of Earth Observation System (EOS), the spatial resolution, temporal resolution and spectral resolution of Remote Sensing (RS) image have been improved greatly. Based on contentbased image retrieval, content-based RS image retrieval is put forward and some topics including retrieval pattern, useful image content, feature extraction and similarity measure are researched. After related images are retrieved from vast image database, it is necessary to discover those change areas, so change detection from multitemporal RS images are discussed further. RS image data mining and knowledge discovery is the synergy of Spatial Data Mining (SDM) and Image Data Mining (IDM). It is pointed out that content based RS image retrieval will be potential advantageous in the future and all the techniques discussed in this paper including retrieval modes, content-useful in RS image retrieval. Content-based image retrieval (CBIR) is one of the hot issues in image retrieval, and it can be used to RS image retrieval. That lead to a new area: content-based RS imagery retrieval.

Keywords : Remote Sensing, content based RS image Retrieval, Earth Observation System, Spatial Data Mining, Image Data Mining.

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper is to utilize thermal infra red remote sensing data to find the location of heat processing units which contribute to high temperatures. These industries occur as anomalous pixels in urban area on the temperature map derived from the thermal remote sensing data. The night scenes of ASTER thermal infra red data were used for this study. It is concluded that analysis of temporal thermal remote sensing data can be used as a tool in environmental impact assessment and management. The temperature maps can be helpful in decision making process of siting / relocation of heat producing industries in and around cities.

1. INTRODUCTION

For sustainable industrial development, management and regular monitoring of the industries is needed. Knowledge of industrial impacts on the environment is an essential for environmental impact assessment and management. Thermal remotes sensing techniques can be applied for this.

ABSTRACT

Presence of mangrove ecosystems on coastline, save lives and property during natural hazards such as cyclones, storm surges and erosion. This study is undertaken to assess the distribution of mangroves in Tamil Nadu. Geographical Information System, Remote Sensing and GPS (Global Positioning System) were used for mapping the mangrove forests. Mangrove wetland map and species zonation maps have been done using didital analysis of Remote Sensing data and ground truth information. The total area of mangroves found in Tamil Nadu and in Puducherry is around 4100ha.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mangroves are typical, tropical specialized trees growing in the saline and brackish water system. Mangrove plants live in muddy and wet saline soils. They are trees associated with shrubs, growing both on the sheltered coast and inland, lining the bank of estuaries and rivers. They are an ecological group of evergreen plant species, belonging to different families, but possessing marked similarities in their physiological characteristics and structural adaptations. Mangrove areas are associated with high leaf production and leaf fall and rapid decomposition of the litter.

Mangrove forests perform multiple ecological functions: They produce woody trees, provide habitat and detritus food for fish and shellfish and act as spawning ground for a variety of fishes, prawns and shellfishes. They harbour a variety of valuable fauna, including migratory birds. They also protect the coasts from storms and tidal waves and help in the formation of land by trapping sediments brought by the coastal community.There are many threats to mangroves. Deforestation is one of the major threats.

ABSTRACT

Coastal resources represents highly productive ecosystems and are under pressure on account of increased anthropogenic activity on the coast. There is an urgent need to protect coastal resources aiming at sustainable development. Management of coastal resources requires spatial information on land and water resources, processes, water quality in a repetitive basis. Availability of high resolution and very high resolution data made the spatial tools indispensable in planning and management of resources such as mangroves and coral reefs. Monitoring mangrove degradation and aquaculture development, land use pattern, site selection for developmental activities adhering to coastal regulation zone notification requires highly accurate spatial information that can be extracted from IRS, IKONOS data. Extensive applications of remote sensing were hindered by cost, lack of familiarity and expertise in the developing countries. A national frame work must be established involving all available spatial datasets to build up the technical capabilities and ensure sustained support.

ABSTRACT

This work presents the results of multispectral analysis of TM (Thematic Mapper) sensor images on board the satellite LANDSAT 5 for discrimination of selected features of a Nainarmalai region of part of Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu using hyperspectral tools. The spectral classification was carried out using hyperspectral tools namely, a) spectral reduction by the Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) transformation, b) spatial reduction by the Pixel Purity Index (PPI) and c) manual identification of the end members using the N-dimensional visualizer. The results of study shows that the kinds of features such as magnetite quartzite, sand, harvested land and vegetation area are discriminated well (as given in the figure) and show a strong correlation with landscape.

Keywords: Landsat TM Multispectral Images, MNF transformation, PPI, endmembers, Reflectance spectrum, ENVI software.

1. INTRODUCTION

With a multispectral analysis of an images collected by radiometers and detectors embarked on a satellite, one can make: “spectroscopy by satellite imagery”. Imaging spectrometers or “multispectral sensors” are remote sensing instruments that combine the spatial presentation of an imaging sensor with the analytical capabilities of a spectrometer. With a radiometer such as AVIRIS ”Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer” where the number of spectral bands exceeds the 200, and with a spectral resolution of the order of 10 nm or narrow, it can produce a complete spectrum for each pixel of the image. The case of this radiometer enters on the “Hyperspectral” field. In the case of our study, we are using the radiometer TM (Thematic Mapper), which is on board for the satellite Landsat 5, and which only has 7 multispectral bands, with a spectral resolution of the order of 100 nm. Like finale result, one using the spectroscopy by satellite imagery, we can identify the spectra of various materials which are on various terrestrial surfaces.

ABSTRACT

Soil is the medium in which the plant growth and development occurs. Soil type might change with genesis of the parent material and with prevailing weather conditions. Dominant soils of Tamil Nadu are Black soil, Red soil, Laterite soil and Hill soils. Each soil type has an inherent potential to retain and release nutrients to plants. The availability of nutrients varies from place to place and hence spatial distribution of nutrients, quantity of nutrients along with plant available water determines phenological development of crops. Nutrients are broadly classified as Macro and Micro nutrients that are required for crops in large and small quantities respectively. Availability of both macro and micro nutrients and its spatial distribution has not been attempted so far at a regional level. Such regional level approach of nutrients would suffice the researchers and policy planners to employ these data as inputs to Crop Simulation Models (CSM) in forecasting productivity of crops.

Thiruvannamalai district in Tamil Nadu is divided into 6 taluks, 18 blocks covering an area of 6,31,205 haof land. The district lies between 12⁰ 00’ to 12⁰ 55’ N latitude and 78⁰ 37'to 79⁰ 45’ E longitude. Red loamy soil is predominantly prevalent followed by black loamy soils. Generally paddy, groundnut, sugarcane, millets and pulses are cultivated during fasli season. This district was chosen as our study area.

A study has been attempted to map micro nutrients of Thiruvannamalai district. Geo-referenced surface soil samples from eighteen blocks of Thiruvananmalai district covering maximum soil units of soil map were collected randomly as per procedure adopted by soil survey manual. Global Positioning System (GPS) were used to collect corresponding geographic coordinates from each soil sampling point covering the entire Thiruvananmalai district by using Rikaline Bluetooth GPS 6031- X7 model. Approximately one thousand five hundred surface soil samples were collected, air dried, powered and sieved as per standard conditions. Soil samples were analyzed for its physical, chemical and fertility properties. Fertility maps for Micro nutrients such as Zinc, Iron, Manganese, Copper and Boron were plotted in ARCGIS Desktop. Micronutrients maps form a part of base map in analyzing and preparing an aggregated fertility map of Thiruvannamalai district.

ABSTRACT

The present study reports shoreline changes at Gopalpur along east coast of India for 30 years during 1973-2003. In order to understand the trend of sediment transport, shoreline changes at the vicinity areas viz. Rushikulya and Bahuda estuaries are also discussed. Geomorphological investigation is also carried out to understand the processes acting on this system. One Landsat image (1973) and two IRS 1C/1D images (1993 and 2003) were used for the study. The data were subjected to digital analysis using ERDAS Imagine and management of information layers using ARC/INFO GIS software. The results of the study show that the changes occurred differently in three distinct spatial features namely, i) sand spit ii) beach and, (iii) channel zone. Changes documented in these imageries reveal that the lengths of NE spit and SW spit are increased and decreased respectively in thirty years. Areas of NE and SW spits are also showing the similar pattern. Beach is almost stabilised and a slight decrease of 0.28 km in length is observed. However, area has been increased in the southern beach. Towards north, the beach area is also increased over a period of thirty years. The change of width of the beach is not found to be significant. The mouth near channel zone is reduced to 70 meter from 135 meter during the period of study.

ABSTRACT

The study was aimed to identify and delineate the groundwater potable zone in and around Madurai region. The study area is composed of Charnockites and Khondalites of Archaean age. The information of lithology, geomorphology and land use/land cover was generated using the Resourcesat (IRS P6 LISS IV data) and Survey of India (SoI) toposheets of scale 1:50,000 and integrated them with GIS to identify the groundwater potable zones of the study area. On the basis of hydrogeomorphology, groundwater potential zones was identified and delineated. From the overlay analyses landuse and EC, it is inferred that, poor category groundwater is found in the scrub forest, current fallow, canal and scrub with land areas.

ABSTRACT

Groundwater geochemistry is largely a function of mineral composition of aquifer through which water flows thus, differences in aquifer composition are reflected as differences in groundwater chemistry. To understand water quality and flow pattern multivariate statistical analysis are used due to its relative importance in combining chemical variables and organize voluminous data and group into variables of similar characters. R-mode factor analysis is used in the field of hydrogeochemistry to interpret complex hydrogeological process. A total of 216 samples representing complete lithology like peninsular gneiss, Charnockite and calc gneiss for four different seasons was collected and analyzed for major ions like Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO₃, Cl, SO₄, NO₃, PO₄, F and H₄SiO₄. Correlation analysis reveals Mg, Cl and Na are spinal and others seasonal. Factor analysis indicates ascendancy of anthropogenic basis followed by lithological weight. Factor score superimpose indicate governing hydrogeochemical regimes spread in western and eastern part. In southern part the same has superior influence than northern part.

Every garden has got specific purpose and utility. Specialized gardens are planned gardens according to various locations and fulfilling specific needs. Therefore, these should be designed envisaging primary requirements depending upon the types. Features of these are specific including plants and planting pattern. So, these gardens need to be dealt separately so that planning and execution is done in more systematic way focusing utilitarian and ornamental purposes.

Home Garden

Basically it is a piece of land attached to the home, beautified with different features, ornamental and flowering plants. The main purpose of this type of garden is beautification round the year and utility for relaxation of the family. Accordingly, design and features should be selected to fulfill the same.

This is a special kind of garden made with help of vertical structures and plants are grown / trained in special manner. Besides, roofs can also be converted into green roof. Restricted availability of ground space, modification of residential places and quest for growing plants have given birth of vertical gardening. Practically, this type of gardening has widened the scope of growing plants. Small spaces can also be converted into a lively place with proper design. Even bare walls can be converted into an attractive green wall with proper structure and designing with plants.

Advantages

Vertical gardening is ideal for urban areas especially for people living in the apartments. Following advantages have been recorded.

Wide hybridization (interspecific/intergeneric) is basically attemped to introduce new genetic variability from wild or distantly related species into cultivated ones or to synthesize new plant type/s like Triticale and Raphanobrassica. Majority of the commercial crop plants are usually deficient for one or the other desirable traits which are usually available in their wild relatives. However, crossability between commercial varieties and their wild relatives is very limited which is naturally imposed by certain genetically controlled reproductive barriers. These reproductive barrier/s usually operate either at pre or post fertilization stage/s in plant species (Stebbins1958). Since a species is constituted of individuals who share a common gene pool, reproduce among themselves only / exchange genes and share a common habitat. Hence at natural level gene flow remains strictly confined only among members of a particular species otherwise among the members of unrelated species a genetic barrier exists to create reproductive isolation. Therefore, wide crossing basically requires the overcoming of such barriers whch are imposed by temporal and spatial isolation of parents. The reproductive isolation consists of premating and post mating isolation mechanisms like habitat isolation or geographical isolation, sexual isolation and mechanical barrier depending upon incompatibility or mismatching of ganitalia (animals). Sexual isolation in animal kingdom is usually enforced by type of sexual displays and mating calls which are attractivce only to particular members of a species , however other potential intermating species also do exist in the same habitat or locality at that particular period of time.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

3.1 Determination of Bulk Density of Soil

3.1.1 Determination of Bulk Density of an undisturbed Soil

Bulk density of soil is expressed as the ratio of the mass (weight) of soil particle to their total volume including the pore space between the soil particles. Alternately, it is the weight of unit volume of dry soil. It is usually expressed in the unit of gram per cubic centimeter (g/cc) or mega gram per cubic meter (Mg/m³). In fine textured soil bulk density varies from 1.00 to 1.60 g/cc, whereas in coarse textured soil from 1.20 to 1.80 g/cc.

In agroforestry systems the various components like tree, crop and pasture exist in different proportions and orientations. It is difficult to find out which agroforestry system is the best suited for a given land situation. Similarly, it is to be decided which technologies are required for refinement and improvement of the existing agroforestry practices. But without sufficient knowledge of the existing system in a particular land situation, it is very difficult to set the research priorities for modification and development of this system.

Diagnosis and Design (D & D) is a systematic and objective methodology developed by International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) to initiate, monitor and evaluate agroforestry programmes. D & D is based on the philosophy that knowledge of the existing situation (diagnosis) is essential to plan and evaluate (design) meaningful and effective programmes in agroforestry research for development. The methodology plays a strategic role in all the phases of the agroforestry research process. D & D in agroforestry is unique and it has been specially developed for the following purposes.

Algae are a large and diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that contain chlorophyll and carry out the oxygenic photosynthesis.

Study of algae is referred as phycology or algalogy

They vary from cyanobacteria or blue green algae by their eukaryotic nature.

India ranks third after China and Canada in the world in production of edible oilseed crops. Average yield of rapeseed-mustard in the world is 2043 kg/ha. Average yield of European Union, Canada and China is higher than India. Higher yield in these countries is due to cultivation of long duration varieties suitable for their local climatic conditions. Duration of favorable climatic condition to grow rapeseed-mustard is shorter in India as compared to EU, Canada and China, which enforces cultivation of short duration varieties (130-145days). Rapeseed-mustard contribute one third in the production of edible oils in India. These crops ranks second in area and production after soybean. Total area and production under these crops is 5.80mh and 6.28mt respectively. It is necessary to mention that total water requirement of these crop is 80-240mm, which is very low as compared to other crops. These crops pay higher return by utilizing low inputs, thus, are highly remunerative for the farmers.

Rapeseed-mustard group of crops are mainly cultivated in irrigated areas where at least one irrigation facility is available and only 24.0% of area is under rain-fed situation. Five states of India namely, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal contribute 82.00% and 85.67% in total area and production, respectively, under these crops. In Madhya Pradesh 53.2% of total area is irrigated with average yield of 1006 kg/ha, however, 76.6% of total area of country is irrigated even then average yield is only 1083 kg/ha. The lower average seed yield can be attributed to (i) cultivation of very short duration and low yielding B. rapa genotypes in Eastern and North-Eastern states; (ii) susceptibility of varieties to different pests; and (iii) high temperature stress at seedling and reproductive stage. Out of total area under these crops, Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) is grown over more than 80% area. Cultivation of Indian mustard has also been taken up in non-traditional areas of southern states of India viz., Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh, recently. This has become possible due to its higher average yield, tolerance against different biotic and abiotic stresses, availability of varieties with 100-152 days maturity, and non-shattering behaviour.

India has emerged as the second largest producer of vegetables 176.17 mt after China 573.93 mt in the world and is gradually striding towards achieving food and nutritional security at national level. The average productivity of vegetable crops is 17.6 t/ha (NHB, 2015) which is comparatively lower than the productivity of China (23.4t/ha), Spain (39.3t/ha) and USA (32.5t/ha). The lower productivity could be attributed to limited use of quality seeds, inefficient production management, impact of biotic stress and climatic factors during crop production. Among the limiting factors limited availability of quality seed is one of the important factors. Since, the performance of other inputs is also depend on the quality of seed. At present the seed replacement rate among vegetable crops is around 25%, whereas highest in cabbage (>90%) followed by tomato, capsicum, bitter gourd, muskmelon, bottle gourd etc.The use of hybrid seed is in increasing due to higher productivity, tolerance to biotic and a biotic stresses and better market value than the open pollinated varieties but the higher price of the hybrid and their availability is still a constraint in adopting the use of hybrid seeds among small and marginal farmers.

Crop diversification has been well recognized as an effective strategy for achieving the objectives of food and nutritional security, income growth, poverty alleviation, employment generation, judicious use of land, water and other natural resources, sustaining agricultural development and environmental improvement. Vegetable crops being rich sources of various health building substances, especially vitamins and minerals, offer unique advantage for food and nutritional security, tackle malnutrition and dietary deficiency diseases. Besides, their high yield potential per unit area and time, diverse varietal wealth, labour intensiveness, high market price and prospects of processing, value addition and export, they play an important role in employment generation, and livelihood improvement. Since India is endowed with diverse agro-climatic conditions, almost all kinds of vegetable crops are grown in one or other corner of our country. More than 200 different vegetables are grown in India, of which, about 70 types are cultivated commercially. Vegetable production scenario in India has made a remarkable progress since independence from a meagre production of 17.5 million tonnes to 146 million tones, with a productivity of 17.3 t/ha. India is the second largest vegetable producer in the world after China. However, it needs to be doubled by 2020 in order to meet the nutritional requirement of burgeoning population in the country. With increasing purchasing power of people, the demand for vegetables has increased enormously, as a result the prices of vegetables have increased and it has been the dominant factor for high inflationary pressure in Indian economy during recent years. Inclusion of different vegetable crops with shorter maturity period in the prevailing cropping system will enhance the total system productivity, which may go a long way in improving the economic as well as physical health of small and marginal farmers.

Insect pests, diseases and weeds are major biotic bottlenecks in the production of crops, inflicting on an average about 30% yield loss. Monetary value of these losses has been estimated to be exceeding Rs 1,00, 000 crores. There is thus ample scope to enhance our food production by curtailing losses due to pests to certain extent. Only option to boost our production remains in growing improved crop cultivars with better pest management options. Mainly synthetic pesticides have been used to combat pest menace in agriculture and public health. Pesticides have, of course, played a commendable role in increasing our food production and protecting us against disease vectors. However sole reliance on pesticides has created several problems such as development of resistant pests, pest outbreaks, mortality of useful organisms, adverse effect on human health and environmental degradation. Adverse effects of pesticides prompted scientists to look for safer and environment friendly methods of pest control and consequently concept of pest management came in to being.

Pest management is known as an ecological approach to tackle pest problems, because here emphasis is on containing pests in such a way that other biotic components of the system such as natural enemies, human beings and wildlife etc are not harmed and environment is preserved in general. Pest management works on the premise that all pest population levels are not injurious to crops and crops can always compensate for certain injury due to pests. Moreover, some pest population is always required for the survival of natural enemies of the pests. This has given rise to the concept of economic injury level (EIL), which helps to avoid unwarranted application of pesticides. The EIL based pesticide application ensures favourable cost-benefit ratio to farmers. Pest management also underlines that pest control tactics should be socially acceptable and within the reach of farmers. It is a holistic approach to pest problems in which we aim to protect our commodities against all the pests and ensure production of healthy crops.

Agriculture shapes the foundation of Indian economy and despite the fact that there has been vast industrialization in most 60 years; horticulture still occupies a place of significance. In India, approximately 20-25% of the horticulture produce goes waste due to improper post harvest operations which reduces the growers share in the present marketing arrangements. The grower is getting hardly 25-35 paisa of a consumer rupee. The Value addition activities where the fruits and vegetables are processed, that fetches higher remunerative prices of the produce. Such opportunities are presently not available in rural areas but could be created through selective mechanization of agriculture and appropriate post harvest management and value addition to the harvested biomass in the production catchments.The agricultural produce involves operations like cleaning, grading, drying, storage, milling, packaging, transport, marketing and utilization. At the end of each operation, value is added to the product. The lowest and the highest monetary values of a food commodity are, respectively, when it is in raw and fresh form and when it is in processed and ready to consume/eat form. Post harvest and food processing technology are commodity and location specific. It prevent avoidable post harvest losses and adding value to the fresh agro-produces. It also creates opportunities for employment and income generation. Integration of production agriculture with on-farm primary processing is needed to have higher and sustainable production, productivity and better quality end products for domestic and export markets. It would help in reducing rural- urban disparity and ensuring household food and nutritional security for all at an affordable cost. The technology is available and a wide range of tools, machines and equipment are used in post-production of agriculture. The globalization of trade may compel many agro processing industries to rely on an imported technology at a high cost and the advantage of such technology may be availed by a few who have an exclusive business interest. Majority of agriculture-based enterprises will continue to depend upon indigenous technology and, therefore, R&D through public support has to be strengthened to become globally competitive and serve small-scale food processing sector of the country.

Most of the horticultural produce is of perishable nature and must be protected from postharvest losses, which start from the field itself. Therefore, adoption of proper packing house operation plays a very crucial role in minimizing postharvest losses

Although, we have reached new heights in the production of fruits comparable to China, Brazil and USA and in vegetables to China, yet we are far behind in postharvest management of these perishables, primarily due to lack of appropriate infrastructure. Test studies conducted in Australia have indicated that the distribution cost of perishable horticultural produce is assumed 5 to 9 times, the production cost. Further, packaging accounted for 25-50% of the wholesale price of fruits and vegetables. In India, huge losses of horticultural produce (25-30%) after harvest are encountered mainly due to non-existence of packing house concept.

Packing house operations essentially begins with the use of proper field containers, field transport, temperature protection of harvest produce, sorting, sizing, grading, packing, which are essential preparatory steps to storage, shipment and subsequent marketing. Depending on the kind of produce, additional activities viz. degreening, curing, washing, ripening, waxing, precooling etc. are done. The sequence of activities varies with the crops. A considerable quantity of postharvest losses of horticultural produce could be minimized by adoption of various packing house operations described below:

Introduction

Decision making is the most important aspect of any business and industry. Farming is a business and agriculture is also an industry. Hence, decision making plays an important role with regard to the problems concerning production of commodities. The main questions before the producer or the production manager are: (i) What to produce, (ii) How to produce, and (iii) How much to produce.

Linear programming (LP) is a modeling tool that can assist in the solution of many problems in agriculture. It is useful in selecting the best alternative from a number of available course of actions.

LP models are designed to “optimize” a specific objective criterion subject to a set of constraints. The quality of the resulting solution depends on the completeness of the model in representing the real system.