eChapters

Lilium is a high-value bulbous cut flower known for large, attractive and fragrant flowers and extensive international demand. This chapter examines its taxonomy, origin, genetics, botanical description and major hybrid groups, including Asiatic and Oriental lilies. It explains bulb preparation, storage, planting, climate, soil, greenhouse management, nutrition, irrigation and crop regulation. Pest and disease management, harvesting, grading, postharvest treatment and yield are also presented. Special attention is given to commercial standards for Oriental and LA Hybrid lilies, including stem length, flower number, bunching and presentation. The chapter provides a comprehensive foundation for modern commercial lily production.

Lilies, both Asiatic lilies and Oriental lilies, along with their hybrids are cultivated in very small scale in India, but are classified under high value crops (based on per stem value). Lilies are also capital intensive crops, in terms of high cost of infrastructure required for protected cultivation and bulbs which are imported. This article deals with growing conditions, varieties and other cultural aspects, as well as, practical tips from field conditions, from areas where Liliums are commercially grown in India.

Lilies are grouped under “high value flowers” in commercial floriculture parlance and are generally regarded under minor crops in production terms (on quantity produced or on area under production or on per sq.meter yield per year basis).  Lily is in fact a more productive and lucrative crop, specifically so in terms of income (on per sq. meter per year basis) than any other cut flower grown for commercial purposes in the open or protected cultivation in India.

Introduction

Lily is one of the most important ornamental bulbous flowers. It is commercially cultivated for cut flower production. The flower stems of lily are long and it has longer vase life. Lilies are very useful flowering plants which can be planted in any location as they do well in the bed or border with other perennial.

Asiatic and oriental lilies are leading cut flower group and in the international market it is dominated by the Netherlands. Oriental and Asiatic hybrid lilies are compact, with plant height of 60 to 150 cm that bears many flowers.

INTRODUCTION

Lily is one of the most important ornamental bulbous plants. It comprises one of the distinctive flowers in form, appearance and colour. The flower stems of lily are long and sturdy with luxuriant foliage and it has longer vase life. Lilies are very useful flowering plants which can be planted in any location as they do well in the bed or border with other perennial. Almost all varieties of lily are suitable for planting in combination with other plants and in front of tall shrubs. They look very charming in large clusters for mass effect. Shorter varieties are planted in containers. Lilies may be planted in the perennial border, preferably with the plants having ample foliage. They seem to have fascination for some companion and thus can be grown with other flowers in the garden. The bulbs of some varieties of lily are edible and somewhat bitter in taste but fairly pleasant when properly cooked. In China, bulbs of tiger lily are prefered as food due to its specific taste. Lilaline, an alkaloid is also found in the flower of some lilies. Lily has several medicinal properties. The bulb is diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient and expectorant. The flowers are carminative. They are used to strengthen the eye lid muscles and are commended in the treatment of myoptic astigmia.

Among the lilies, two groups have been evolved through extensive improvement and referred as coloured lilies and extensively grown for cut flowers and other popular type is generally grown for garden display in India. Asiatic and Oriental lilies are leading cut flower group and in the international market. It is dominated by the Netherlands. An oriental hybrid cultivar Tiara is developed. It is true pollen free lily, excellent for bouquets. Oriental and Asiatic hybrid lilies are compact, with plant height of 60 to 150 cm that bears many flowers. Spikes of 10 to 15 cm flower diameter that may point up, out or down. Blooms may be red, pink, orange, yellow, lavender or white in colour. They grow well in full sun or light shade, although flowers sometimes fade if exposed to hot sun. They can be grown with companion plants providing less competition. Popularity of Oriental lily is increasing over Asiatic lily.

Abstract: Lilium is one of the six major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Species are native to diverse habitat within Northern hemisphere. Liliums have a lengthy association with various world cultures. As a result, flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop which has enabled its establishment in the top ten cuts, potted flowering and garden crops worldwide. The crop arises from multiple species. Research has focused on development of late flowering genotypes with forcing ability, improvement of flower form/ shape, pollenless cultivars, disease resistance and floral longevity. The limited genetic information and trait heritability have been established for this crop. Wide crosses are routinely used to create new genetic variability. Breeders have created complex hybrids such as LA, OT, OTO, FA, FAA, FO and OA hybrids through in vitro embryo rescue techniques. Molecular biology is being used to engineer Lilium against LSV and TBV. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists including short forcing time, late flowering in Asiatic lilies, enhanced shelf life, genetically controlled height, rapid propagation and cultivars requiring no vernalization for flowering.

Lima beans are flat green or light green beans. It is only utilised for the seed because the pods are coarse or woody. There are two kinds used in commercial canning: a climbing or pole variant and a dwarf or bush variation. Like other legumes used for seed, the lima bean (Phaseolus Iunatus) has a wide range in seed size, shape, and colour, as well as plant structure and primary applications. For freezing, canning, or fresh market usage, mature seeds are utilised like a vegetable. Lima’s have long been used as a grain legume when they are firm and dry. Peru is where they were discovered. The first domestication occurred in the Andes around 2000 BC, resulting in a large-seeded variety (Lima type), while the second occurred around 800 A.D. in Mesoamerica, resulting in a small-seeded variation (Sieva type).

Despite the meticulous methodology and extensive analysis employed throughout this research project, it is crucial to acknowledge and address the limitations that arose during the study. By recognizing these limitations, we not only ensure a transparent evaluation of the research process but also shed light on potential areas for future investigations to refine and expand upon the findings.

In this section of the chapter, the limitations encountered in this thesis are highlighted as follows:

Despite the meticulous methodology and extensive analysis employed throughout this research project, it is crucial to acknowledge and address the limitations that arose during the study. By recognizing these limitations, we not only ensure a transparent evaluation of the research process but also shed light on potential areas for future investigations to refine and expand upon the findings.

In this section of the chapter, the limitations encountered in this thesis are highlighted as follows:

1. Due to the complexity of the concept, obtaining quantitative responses proved to be exceedingly challenging.

2. The development of improved scales for scoring could have enhanced the research if implemented.

3. The inclusion of a greater number of relevant variables could have provided a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the research topic.

4. Deploying mathematical optimization and simulations could have effectively integrated and co-integrated the seemingly disparate aspects of climate change perception, uncertainty perception, and perception of agricultural dynamics.

5. Presently, farmers are hesitant to engage in conversations and provide data to individuals outside their close social circles.

8.1. Limitations

The most important limitations which have been observed in this research are as follows:

1. Bench marking on the status of reigning uncertainty and chaos on farming’has really been a difficult task.
2. There are problems of overlapping of some variables that could have been avoided.
3. Some new scales could have been better if created.
4. Since the concept is complex, it was very difficult to get qualitative response.
5. Farmers nowadays are reluctant to engage in conversation and produce data.
6. Due to non-random sampling , there is possibility of error or biases.

8.1 Limitations

1. The research was limited to a specific geographic area.

2. The study was constrained by limitations in time and reSources.

3. The study relies on the subjective opinions of the participants, which may be influenced by their individual perspectives and biases, despite the researcher’s efforts to gather them as objectively as possible.

4. It would have been advantageous to include a broader range of relevant variables in the study.

5. A suitable statistical model could have been employed to provide thematic support for the behavior and functioning of the system.

6. The selection of variables could have been expanded by incorporating additional variables that would have demonstrated resilience in domain interactions.

A student investigator confronted time constraints, such as course credit pressure, and resource constraints, such as physical, budgetary, and managerial constraints, in the current investigation. However, every effort and consideration made the study as objective and scientific as feasible. Despite the researcher’s best efforts, the study depends on the respondents’ opinions, which may or may not be devoid of their perceptions and biases.

As a result, it is a modest piece of labour that may be completed over a more extended period.

Suggestions for Future Research

• The findings of the present study warrant the need for further investigations in several directions. The following suggestions are made for further research in the following areas.

• The study was confined to one state; therefore, the results cannot be generalised to the whole country. Similar analyses can be taken up in other states to generalise the results.

Limitations
• Data Reliability and Availability: The availability and dependability of data is one major drawback. Accurate assessments of livelihood dynamics can be hampered by the absence of complete and current data that is frequently present in rural areas. Research results may also be impacted by data inconsistencies seen in local reports, surveys, and official sources.
• Complex and Dynamic Variables: Because livelihood transitions are multifaceted and influenced by a variety of policy, environmental, and socioeconomic factors, it can be difficult to separate out and evaluate individual components. The interaction of these variables may make it more difficult to determine the precise cause and effect correlations.
• Temporal and Spatial Variability: The dynamics of livelihood can change dramatically over time and between Bengal’s many regions. The generalizability of results and suggestions may be limited by the nonuniform application of research findings across domains.
• Implementation Difficulties: Implementation issues with well-designed policies and initiatives can include local opposition, corruption, and ineffective bureaucracy. These difficulties may impede the efficacy of interventions and make evaluating their effects more difficult.
• Response Variability and Adaptation: Rural communities’ responses to changes in the economic, environmental, or social spheres can vary greatly. Adaptation techniques can be influenced by local cultural norms, resource availability, and unique household situations, making it challenging to create universally applicable solutions.
• Future Uncertainties: The trajectory of livelihood transitions may be impacted by uncertainties about future technical advancements, economic situations, and the effects of climate change. Accurately predicting these changes is intrinsically difficult, which may compromise the validity of subsequent estimates and suggestions.

Results of intensive researches in the field of synthetic seed technology seem promising for propagation of crop plants. However, as described in literature, the major stumbling block in establishing artificial seed production as a viable technology is a lack of understanding of the somatic embryo process and an inability to consistently produce high-quality propagules that can germinate in a soil environment with an acceptably high success rate7. Several aspects of the techniques are still underdeveloped and hinder its commercial application.

10.1. LACK OF STANDARD PROTOCOLS

The synthetic seed technology application in a commercial scale is still hampered by the low efficiency of the protocols and logistic behind it. Till today standard protocol for synthetic preparation is available for a limited number of plant species.

Introduction

The influence of various socio-economic factors on the willingness of the decision makers to adopt new technologies has been investigated by a number of studies (Roe, 1983; Shakya and Flinn, 1985; Thomas et al., 1990). In most studies of adoption behaviour, the dependent variable is constrained to lie between 0 and 1 and the models used are exponential functions (Kebede et al., 1990). However, the decision to adopt a new technology can be very effectively captured using binary choice models. Binary choice models are appropriate when the choice between two alternatives depends on the characteristics of the problem. Application of a linear probability model to this type of problem, however, suffers from a number of deficiencies (Capps and Kramer, 1985), particularly, the one associated with the estimated probabilities in some cases being greater than one or lesser than zero as a result of neglecting significant interaction effects (Mingche, 1977). These deficiencies could be circumvented through the use of a monotonic transformation (probit or logit specification) which guaranties that predictions lie within the unit interval (Capps and Kramer, 1985). Univariate logit and probit models and their modified forms have been used extensively to study the adoption behaviour of farmers and consumers (Schmidt and Strauss, 1975; Garcia et al., 1983; Shakya and Flinn, 1985; Harper et al., 1990). According to Hanushek and Jackson (1977), the choice between logit and probit models is largely a matter of convenience. However, Maddala (1983) and Shakya and Flinn (1985) have recommended probit models for functional forms with limited dependent variables that are continuous between 0 and 1, and logit models for discrete dependent variables.

Model Specification

Univariate logit model is generally used to study the adoption behaviour of farmers and consumers.

The model is estimated using the maximum likelihood method.

3.1 Definition

 Let f (x) be the function of a random variable ‘x’. If there exists a number ' ' ?

 such that f(x) may be made as close to ' ' ? as we proceed to choose x close to

 a given number ‘k’, then we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches to k, is ' ' ?

 and we write it symbolically as

 x k

 limf(x)

 ?

 ??

 Example 3.1 : We are giving some examples as below:

 Example 3.1.1 : A function f (x) may become infinite as x tends to a value ‘c’

 and we write that

 x c

 limf(x)

 ?

 ??

 Example 3.1.2 : Consider the function 1 f(x) x ? . Then we say that as x ??,

 f(x) tends to zero and write it as :

 x

 1 lim 0

INTRODUCTION

Lakes are of immense ecological, economic, and cultural significance, representing integral features within our planet's landscapes. Studies show that there are around 117 million lakes worldwide, constituting about 4% of the Earth's non-glaciated land surface (Verpoorter et al., 2014). These lakes play a crucial role in providing essential services to nearby communities and serve as important centres for recreation and overall well-being. However, the increasing demand for natural resources has led to widespread degradation of these lakes (Jenny et al., 2020). Despite efforts to restore lakes, there is a prevailing perception that such programs often encounter high failure rates (Søndergaard et al., 2007; Gulati et al., 2008; Poikane et al., 2024). This concern is particularly pronounced in less economically developed countries, where populations are highly exposed to the consequences of lake degradation, and monitoring, assessment, and restoration programs may be in nascent stages. Additionally, lakes play a pivotal role in climate regulation, influencing local weather patterns and contributing to global processes such as water and carbon cycles. Recognizing and preserving the significance of lakes is imperative for sustaining ecosystems, ensuring water security, and nurturing the well-being of both the natural environment and human societies. 21o 8’ 55’’ 79o 4’46’’E.

Nagpur situated at coordinates 21o 8’ 55’’ N and 79o 4’46’’E, holds the distinction of being the second capital of Maharashtra. Renowned as the "orange city" and the "city of lakes," Nagpur relies significantly on its lakes as a valuable resource base. The current water supply for the city is primarily sourced from, Kanhan River, Gorewada Lake, and Pench Dam. Futala Lake serves an irrigation purpose, benefitting 84 acres of cultivated agricultural land. Ambazari Lake, on the other hand, caters to the water needs of local residents in the MIDC colony, Hingna area, Nagpur, and supports industrial purposes. Other notable water bodies in Nagpur include Sonegaon, Gandhisagar, Naik, Sakkardara, and Lendi. However, these lakes face severe pollution due to anthropogenic activities such as bathing, washing clothes, and improperly disposing of plastic, paper, oil, and worship materials. Moreover, the lakes Gandhisagar and Lendi are now dried.

1. The term limnology is derived from Greek word.

2. Limne means lake.

3. The term limnology was coined by Francois-Alponse forel.

4. August Thienemann and EinarNaumann co-founded the international society of limnology.

5. Welch 1935 described about biological productivity.

6. Epheirology is defined as branch of science deals with terrestrial habitats.

7. Peter Erasmus Muller is credited with laying the foundation stone of limnological study.

8. Anton Fritsch could be considered as the Pioneer in Lacustrine limnology.

9. F.Simony (1850) is regarded sometimes as the founder of limnology for his discovery of thermal stratification.

10. Junge and Forbes who were the first to treat the native waters as microcosm.

Limonium, commonly known as statice, is an important cut and dried flower valued for its attractive inflorescences and excellent keeping quality. This chapter covers its origin, taxonomy, botanical features, varieties and commercial significance. It discusses climate, soil, propagation, planting, irrigation, nutrient management and crop protection. Harvesting at the correct flowering stage, immediate hydration, cold storage and floral preservatives are emphasized for maintaining quality. The chapter also provides commercial grading standards for varieties such as Misty Blue, Saffron and Glow, along with yield information. These practices support both domestic and export production of high-quality Limonium stems.

ABSTRACT

Lineaments are the surficial expression of sub-surface phenomena which are well discerned from low-orbital data, satellite data with its synoptic view and repetitive coverage and help to bring out more information on structural features hither to unknown by conventional geological surveys. Their study paved way to many new concepts on tectonism, mineralization, structural deformity etc. of an area both in regional and local perspective. In the present study, a small area was selected after careful observation, for their importance in mineral deposits. The lineaments are mostly structurally controlled and analysed for their relationship with the base metal deposits of the area. Moreover satellite parameters like spatial resolution, scale etc., and are observed for their changes in their orientation and relationship with the deposit of the study area, Jambughoda of Panchmahal District, Gujarat Satellite data of Landsat MSS and TM are used for the analysis. The results proved that the satellite parameters are important criteria and play a vital role in lineament analysis for mineral investigation.

Abstract

The frequently recurring earth tremors / Seismicities in parts of Tamil Nadu & Kerala and the earthquakes of higher magnitude in Central India in the recent years have gradually dissolved the concept of shield area stability for the South India and the concept of mid-plate seismicity has emerged in the minds of geoscientists, Hence, the geoscientists have embarked into a number of studies to bringout seismotectonic maps for South India. In this context, a detailed studies have been carried out by the authors in parts of westernghats (Kodaikkanal and Varushanad hills) in Tamil Nadu. In the said study lineaments were interpreted using high resolution IRS satellite data and from the lineament pattern, isofracture, lineament density and lineament interaction intensity the strain maxima axes were drawn. Such strain maximas were observed to fall in N- S, E – W and NE –SW directions. These strain maximas were found to coincide with various drainage anomalies, like radial, compressed meandering and eyed drainages indicating that these lineaments are prone for seismicity/ earth tremors.

8.1 Write True/False

Q.1    Any linear function of sample observations which is used to estimate the population parameter or parametric function,is called the “Linear estimator.”

Introduction

Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms, has been the agro industrial activity with the highest growth rate worldwide in the last four decades. From 1970 to 2008 the production of aquaculture organisms grew at a rate of 8.3% per year, compared to less than 2% of fisheries, and 2.9% of livestock (Luchini et al. 2008). In India, aquaculture feed market was valued at USD 1.20 billion in 2017 and is expected to register a CAGR of 10.4% during the forecast period (2018-2023). Indian feed mills have the capacity to produce 2.88 million metric ton. Andhra Pradesh is the largest feed consuming state in India (Anon. 2017). The growth in production has been faster for fed species than for non fed species indicating that adoption of feed based aquaculture as the major driver of aquaculture production growth (FAO, 2016). However, the demand for aquaculture feed in the country will touch to 7 million tons by 2017-18. Hence, there is wide gap in demand and supply of feed. The feed cost is a major production cost in aquaculture in India yet feeding of fish is still mostly guesswork, each fish producer following different guidelines (feed charts) or adopting different practices. Feeding too much leads to feed wastage, a pure economic loss, and greater waste output. Feeding too little results in less growth and this also represents an economic loss. In intensive and semi intensive aquaculture, natural foods are not sufficient to meet our overall nutritional requirement of the fishes for their survival and faster growth. Hence, the good quality supplementary diet which contains all required nutrients in recommended quantity were recommended by many aquaculture scientists for the better production. It is further opined by the researchers that it is economical to prepare supplementary feeds by using locally available ingredients. The dietary carbohydrates are usually quantitatively the largest constituent of diet (40-55% W/W) particularly in feeds for carps, the most dominant group of fishes with respect to not only world aquaculture but also Indian Aquaculture. The rice bran, corn, and wheat are the conventional carbohydrate sources in India. In North East Region of the country none of these items are produced locally in sufficient quantity (Kumar et al. 2018). Due to less of local production of these ingredients, cost of feed which generally constitute about 40-50% of total cost of production, increase tremendously in NEH region due high transportation cost. Hence, for development of ideal feed for carp based aquaculture in North East Region, optimization of feed cost is very important to make the fish production cost effective and more profitable.

Introduction

Linear programming (LP) is one of the most widely applied operation research techniques and owes its popularity to George Dantzig’s simplex method (Danzig 1963). It is an important field of optimization for several reasons. Many practical problems in operation research can be expressed as linear programming problems. Linear programming is heavily used in microeconomics and business management, either to maximize the income or minimize the costs of a production scheme. Some examples are food blending, inventory management, portfolio and finance management, resource allocation for human and machine resources, planning advertisement campaign etc.

In our economy, there are limited resources at our disposal. Our problem is to make such use of these resources to yield maximum quantity of production or to minimize the cost of production. Therefore, there arises the question of Linear Programming that is defined as a mathematical method of calculating the least cost combination of the factors of production, when there are many possible alternative combinations available to an enterprise.

24.1 Introduction

Linear programming is a budgeting technique which is more refined and systematic than conventional budgeting in determining the optimum combination of enterprises or inputs so as to maximise the income or combination of enterprises or the income or minimise costs within the limits of available resources. It may be defined as “The analysis of the problem in which a linear function of a number of variables is to be maximised or minimised when these variables are subject to a number of restraints in the form of linear inequalities”, In linear programming models, the objective of the typical farm i.e maximisation of net profit or cost minimisation is achieved through an optimal plan generated from its solution.

2.1 Introduction

Consider two linear equations in two variables i.e., x and y, such that equations are

Introduction

Regression analysis is one of the most widely used techniques for studying relationships involving multiple variables for analysing data by expressing a relationship between a variable of interest (the response) and a set of related predictor variables. The regression models include linear and non linear approaches assuming appropriate functional forms. A good account on regression analysis and related topics can be found in Draper and Smith (1998), Montgomery et al. (2001), Chatterjee and Hadi (2006) etc. In this write-up, regression model fitting, some of the detection techniques which are useful in detecting the problem of multicollinearity between the so-called ‘independent variables’ and also outlier detection in data are discussed. Linear regression with qualitative regressor variables is also discussed. Moreover, variable selection procedures, goodness of fit measures for model adequacy and validation are also discussed. In addition, non-linear regressions viz., logistic (both binary and multinomial) when the response variable is qualitative are also covered.

Multiple Linear Regression Modeling

Let the response variable (variable to be forecasted) be denoted by Y and the set of predictor variables, by X1 , X2 , …, Xp , where p denotes the number of predictor variables. The true relationship between Y and (X1 , X2 ,…,Xp ) can be approximated by a multiple linear regression model given by

8. 1 Introduction

Water is a precious commodity. Necessity of conservation of water supply is increasingly felt all over the world as the demand of it continues to increase when the sources of supply are increasingly scarce. The conveyance and proportional distribution of water is one of the most important part of any irrigation project. Water available in the stream, reservoirs or wells is carried to the field of use through canals. The economy of any irrigation project largely depends on how efficiently the water is being transported and distributed in respect to water losses and cost.

Water losses in irrigation channels are mainly due to evaporation from the water surface and seepage from the bed and side of the channels. Seepage losses some time become the single important factor which causes unavailability of water particularly in downstream of the channel in canal irrigation system and excess pumping of water in tube wells and river lift irrigation system.

Lining irrigation channels means to cover the channel earthen surface by any substance, which can considerably reduce the seepage loss. The concrete, brick, stone, natural clay of low permeability, bituminous material, plastic compounds, etc. , are used for channel lining.

9.1 Introduction

Water is a precious commodity. Necessity of conservation of water supply is increasingly felt all over the world as the demand of it continues to increase when the sources of supply are increasingly scarce. The conveyance and proportional distribution of water is one of the most important part of any irrigation project. Water available in the stream, reservoirs or wells is carried to the field of use through canals. The economy of any irrigation project largely depends on how efficiently the water is being transported and distributed in respect to water losses and cost.

Water losses in irrigation channels are mainly due to evaporation from the water surface and seepage from the bed and side of the channels. Seepage losses some time become the single important factor which causes unavailability of water particularly in downstream of the channel in canal irrigation system and excess pumping of water in tube wells and river lift irrigation system.

Linkage

When two or more genes are located on the same chromosome, they are said to be linked. Genes on different chromosomes are distributed to the gametes following the law of independent assortment. However, genes located on the same chromosome, tend to stay together during gamete formation. For example, results of test-crossing dihybrid individuals will produce different results depending upon whether the genes are linked or are located on the same chromosome. This is illustrated as follows:

Operational agricultural meteorology is a critical field that applies meteorological knowledge and tools to support agricultural decision-making, enhance crop yields, and mitigate the impacts of weather and climate variability on agricultural systems. Effective collaboration and coordination among various stakeholders are essential for the successful application of agricultural meteorology (Fig. 12.1).
This chapter explores the linkages between key players in operational agricultural meteorology, including national meteorological services, research organizations, development departments dealing with agriculture and allied sectors, agricultural universities, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
Importance of Collaboration in Agricultural Meteorology
The integration of meteorological information into agricultural practices requires a multidisciplinary approach. By working together, stakeholders can ensure that weather and climate data are accurately interpreted and applied to support farmers, policymakers, and other decision-makers. Collaboration can lead to improved agricultural productivity, reduced risks associated with weather extremes, and more sustainable agricultural practices.
12.1. Key Stakeholders and Their Roles
• National Meteorological Services (NMS): Provide weather and climate data, forecasts, and warnings that are critical for agricultural planning and management.    

There streams of thought are presented in this paper:

One, that rural women are not only the warriors, creative actors in the agricultural scene, or rural areas, but also the urban poor, the  migrants , the homeless, the source of labour supply into the expanding urban spaces, including trafficking.
 
I would then argue [two] that this spread of the location of “rural women” is the phenomena that we should now look at, the connectivity between the old divisions of rural and urban, as it indicates the pressures that the current development paradigms operating in our countries, is putting on the RURAL … and therefore that we should look at the macroeconomic policies that are in place, globally and regionally and  nationally.

ABSTRACT

Farmers in India are at the mercy of traders especially the middlemen who fix lower rates at the farmers end. The farmers are desperate as they are not aware of the prices elsewhere and they have meager produce at their hand. Market led agriculture is need of the hour which needs market intelligence. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu in collaboration with Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Hyderabad centre initiated the project for the benefit of farmers and traders covering six major markets of South India as Pilot project. Main emphasis of the project is covering Perishable items of 161 commodities, updating the daily wholesale and retail price through www.tnau.ac.in/ www.indg.in @ 1.00 PM with the help of Market Analysts recruited for this purpose. Ensuring the last mile connectivity and reaching the large number of users, the price information is being delivered through Mobile phone. This paper also explains about its additional features.

Introduction

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), also known as common flax or linseed, is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. Linseed is an annual oil crop that is grown either for its fibre (fibre flax) or for its oil. The area under annual cultivation is 3 million hectares, accounting for 1% of the total world production of plant oil. The five major flax-producing countries are Canada, China, India, the United States, and the European Union.Canada with 614,000 metric tonnes of flaxseed produced in the year 2013-2014, is the world’s largest producer of flax and accounts for nearly 80% of the global trade in flaxseed (Oomah 2001; Bhatty, 1995)

Flaxseed, of Mesopotamic origin, has been cultivated in Mediterranean region and India since 5000 BC, being used principally for the fabrication of cloths and papers (Soni, et al., 2016).

With the adoption of cotton as a fibre crop for cloth preparation, fibre flax production declined and the major use of flax was switched from stem fibre to seed oil. It is a food and fibre crop cultivated in cooler regions of the world. Textiles made from flax are known in the Western countries as linen, and traditionally used for bed sheets, underclothes, and table linen. Its oil is known as linseed oil. In addition to referring to the plant itself, the word “flax” may refer to the unspun fibres of the flax plant. The plant species is known only as a cultivated plant and appears to have been domesticated just once from the wild species Linum bienne, called pale flax. (Allaby et al.,2005). Fibre flax is currently grown in the cool-temperate regions of China, the Russian Federation and Western Europe while linseed cultivars are grown in Canada, India, China, the United States and Argentina (Green et al., 2008).

Introduction

(Titrimetric Method of  Cherry and crandall, 1932 Modified by Tietz and Fiereck, 1966).

In 1932, Cherry and Crandall employed olive oil as the substrate for pancreatic and serum lipase (LPS. Triacylglycerol lipase) determinations. In subsequent years this method was improved (Tietz et al., 1959; Tietz and Fereck, 1966: Tietz. 1972), reducing the original 24 h, period to 6 h and finally to 3 h.

Principle
This procedure is based on the hydrolysis of triglycerides in olive oil into fatty acids, diglycerides and to some small extent into monoglycerides and glycerol.

Fatty acid esters of glycerol are known as fats or lipids. A fat, in its liquid state, is called ‘oil’. Oilseed plants such as castor, groundnut, sunflower, safflower, linseed etc. contain oil as reserve food in their seeds.

It must be noted that a small quantity of free fatty acid is usually present in oils along with the triglycerides. It increases during storage. The free fatty acid content of an oil is called as ‘acid number’ or ‘acid value’. The keeping quality of oil relies upon the free fatty acid content.

During germination of oilseeds, lipases play an important role in hydrolyzing the stored oils to fatty acid and glycerol. Fatty acid is metabolized to acetyl-COA, which may take part in glyoxylate cycle forming sugars from fatty acid involving the enzymes- Isocitritase and Malate Synthetase.

ABSTRACT

Biological lipids are chemically diverse group of compounds. Lipids serve two major biological roles namely a structural one as component of membrane, and storage function, particularly in certain seed tissues. Fats and oils are the principal stored form of energy in many organism, and phospholipids and sterols makeup about half of the mass of biological membranes.

An experiment was conducted to study phospholipids composition qualitatively as well as quantitatively in the roots of mung bean seedlings. Among the four solvents used for phospholipids isolation, solvent II (methanol) and solvent III (chloroform: methanol: NH₃ salt) were proved to be the major phospholipids eluting solvents. The results indicated that Phosphatidyl Choline (PC), Phosphatidyl Inositol (PI), Phosphatidyl Serine (PS), Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine (PE) and Di Phospho Glyceride (DPG) were present in significant amount in the roots of ten days old mung bean seedlings. These phospholipids were also identified by their Rf values using thin layer chromatography. Among all the phospholipids isolated, PI showed the minimum Rf value, whereas PS showed the maximum Rf value. On the basis of column chromatography, four fractions of phospholipids were isolated. The highest amount of phospholipids was found in fraction II and the lowest in fraction I. Fraction II and fraction III contained the maximum phospholipids. In the fraction II PC showed the highest content (μg g-1) and one unidentified phospholipids showed the lowest content (μg g-1), whereas in fraction III, PI showed the maximum content (μg g-1) and PS showed the minimum content (μg g-1).

The importance of lipids have already been elaborated. They play a major role as source of energy and as components of membranes which have implications in plant growth regulation. The complete metabolism of fat leads to oxidation, the final products being CO₂ and water. The burning of one mole of palmitic acid gives 2340 kcal.  The molecular weight of palmitic acid is 256. This works out to approximately 9 kcal/g of palmitic acid. This energy is twice that derived from either sugars or proteins. Fats and oils are thus better and more efficient forms of storage of energy in living beings.

Introduction

The diverse cluster of naturally occurring organic compounds including fats, oils, fatty acids, waxes, phospholipids, eicosanoids, terpenes, steroids and fat soluble vitamins that do not prefer to interact with water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents like ether, chloroform, benzene, acetone, are called as lipids. The main functions of lipids in biological system include storage and transport of metabolic fuel, structural component of cell membranes, insulation & protection of vital organs from shock and carrier of fat soluble vitamins. Contradictory to proteins,lipids are not polymers in nature and are hydrophobic due to presence of a long hydrophobic chain. Apart from this, lipids also act as precursor molecules for several pigments, hormones and signaling molecules.

Introduction

Lipid nanoparticles are composed of macromolecular materials that act as adjuvants in vaccines or drug carriers, in which the drug is either dissolved, entrapped, or encapsulated. Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) have received a great attention in drug development and cancer treatment. These nanoparticles have minimal or no toxicity and can transport both hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules and extend the duration of drug action through a prolonged half-life and controlled drug release. Liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), lipid—drug conjugates (LDCs), and lipid nano capsules are the most common types of LNPs (LNCs).

Lipids are a hetrogenous group of substances, widely distributed throughout the plant and animal kingdom. In plants they are present in the seeds nuts and fruits, while in the animals they are stored in adipose tissues, bone marrow and nervous tissues. Lipids are relatively insoluble in water and readily soluble in organic solvents such as ether, chloroform, carbon disulfide, benzene, hot alcohol etc. The term lipid was used by the German biochemist Bloor in 1943 for a major class of tissue components and foodstuffs.

Lipids are non polar substances of biological origin that are sparingly soluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents like chloroform, hexane, benzene etc. The word lipid comes from the Greek word lipos meaning lard or fat. The lipids present in biological systems are either hydrophobic (non polar) or amphipathic (both polar and non polar). Lipids like fats, oils or glycerophospholipids can be hydrolyzed to get fatty acids and other products. Hydrophobic nature is useful in making lipids as membranes which act as effective barriers to more polar molecules. Steroids are also considered lipids, but cannot be hydrolysed and are components of non-saponifiables in fats. Waxes, which are esters of fatty acids with long chain alcohols are also considered as lipids.

Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signalling, and acting as structural components of cell membrane. Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology.

Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or “building-blocks”: ketoacyl and isoperen groups. Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories:fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).

Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides. Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides and phospholipids), as well as other sterol containing metabolites such as chloestrol. Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways to both break down and synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet.

1.    A lipid is

(a) Insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents

(b) Insoluble in both water and nonpolar solvents

(b) Soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents

(d) None of the above

2.    Fats are

(a) Esters of fatty acid with glycerol

(b) Esters of fatty acid with long chain monohydroxy alcohols

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Esters of fatty acid with alcohols

Lipids are a class of organic compounds composed of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and oxygen (O) atoms. These classes of biomolecules come together to create the fundamental building blocks that shape and govern the structure and functionality of living cells. The term lipid was used by the German biochemist Wilhem Bloor in 1943. Lipids are heterogeneous groups of substances that are insoluble in polar (water) and soluble in non-polar (ether, benzene, and chloroform) solvents. Lipids are the esters of fatty acids and their derivatives. Lipids play a crucial role in both the plant and animal domains. They are widely distributed in plants, but lipids are primarily stored in animal adipose tissues.

Classification of lipids

Lipids are classified into four different groups, as shown below:

1. Simple lipids

2. Complex lipids

3. Derived lipids and

4. Miscellaneous lipids

Lipoma is a benign tumor of adipocytes and it is more common in dogs and mostly observed in the trunk, thigh and proximal limbs with rare presence of ulceration.

Liposarcoma is a rare malignant tumor of adipocytes in dogs. Grossly, the neoplastic cells are arranged in less circumscribed to large firm to hard (Figure 67) nodules on the dermis and the nodules noticed on the subcutis are grey white in color.

Introduction
The term “drug delivery systems” (DDSs) describes sophisticated dose forms that are utilized in the management of illness. The idea behind the design is to deliver the right quantity of medication to the diseased locations at the right time in order to maximize therapeutic efficacy while minimizing negative effects. The “3R” delivery principle—right dose, right place, and right time—is a concise way to describe it. Drug delivery technology can increase a candidate’s draggability while also enhancing the potency and safety of the medication. For example, liposomal drug delivery methods can be used to address issues with poor solubility and significant side toxicity in a variety of medications. The hazardous side effects of conventional chemotherapy medications can be greatly decreased by employing liposomal technology, which increases patient compliance (Andresen et al., 2004). Liposomes are the most widely used and researched nanocarrier for targeted medication delivery. They have improved therapies for a range of biomedical applications by stabilizing medicinal molecules, eliminating obstacles to cellular and tissue absorption, and boosting the biodistribution of compounds to specific locations in vivo. One or more concentric lipid bilayers enclosing discrete aqueous zones are described as the features of phospholipid vesicles, also known as liposomes. Due to the unique ability of liposomal systems to ensnape both lipophilic and hydrophilic molecules, a broad range of pharmaceuticals can be stored within these vesicles. Hydrophilic molecules may become trapped in the aqueous center of the bilayer membrane when hydrophobic molecules are introduced into it (Antohe et al., 2004).
There are many potentials uses for liposomes, and some recent reviews have offered useful details. In order to address the ongoing demand for the R&D of novel liposomal medications, significant efforts must be done. There are still some unanswered questions in this field. This article will summarize technological advancements, address issues, and explore the future of pharmaceutical liposomal delivery by focusing on three key areas: effective application, overcoming obstacles, and the move from idea to clinical application (Allen et al., 2013). Additionally, because of the large aqueous center and biocompatible lipid exterior, a variety of macromolecules, including as DNA, proteins, and imaging agents, can be administered.
Liposomes are a drug delivery technique that have several advantages, including biocompatibility, the capability to self-assemble, a large drug payload, and a range of physicochemical and biophysical properties that may be modified to control their biological features (Allen, 1994).
Among the features that characterize liposomal formulations and ascertain their durability in vitro and in vivo are particle size, charge, lamellar number, lipid content, and surface modification with polymers and ligands. Encapsulated compounds are protected from dilution, degradation, and early inactivation in the circulation by liposomes. Liposomes are generally believed to be low toxicity and pharmacologically inactive because they are frequently composed of phospholipids that occur naturally. But more and more studies are showing that liposomes are not as immunologically inactive as was once thought. Although liposomal formulations have demonstrated efficacy in vivo, their clinical translation has been gradual. The advancements, biological difficulties, biomedical uses, and translational barriers of liposomal technology will all be covered in this review (Dams et al., 2000).

9.1 Introduction

Biomass conversion is a transformative process that harnesses the energy and chemical potential of organic materials derived from living organisms. It encompasses various methods of converting biomass, including agricultural residues, forestry by-products, algae, and even waste materials, into valuable products such as biofuels, chemicals, and energy. This process is a cornerstone of sustainable resource utilization and plays a critical role in addressing environmental concerns, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, and promoting a circular economy. Biomass conversion methods range from biochemical processes like fermentation and anaerobic digestion to thermochemical processes such as combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction. Each method employs distinct conditions, catalysts, and technologies to break down complex biomass structures and convert them into desired products.