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The requirements for a given nutrient is the minimum quantity of that nutrient that will maintain normal growth and reproduction, when all other nutrients are supplied in adequate quantities and at the same time, prevent the development of symptoms of nutritional deficiency.
 
The accurate way to express the nutrient requirements is in amount per day per animal. Poultry are fed in groups and hence, it is not practicable to express the requirements in amounts per day per animal. So, they are expressed in relation to energy content of the diet as poultry eats within limits to satisfy their energy needs. However, the estimation of energy content of the diet is not possible on routine basis and the calculated values may very much from estimated values. Because of these difficulties, the nutrient requirements of poultry are expressed on unit weight basis. 

Pigs are highly prolific among meat producing livestock and also excellent to all other type of farm animals in the efficiency of converting feed into high quality pork. The Nutrient requirements expressed for the mono-gastric animals like poultry and pigs as percent of the diet or the amount per kg of the diet, since they are generally fed in groups rather than individual feeding practiced in case of cattle and buffaloes (where absolute requirements are given). The latest requirements available are NRC nutrient requirements for swine, 1998 (10th revised edition), BIS, 1986 specifications for pig feeds and ICAR, 1998 for growing and finishing swine. Similarly ARC requirements are also available. NRC requirements are on 90% DM basis and are for breeds like Large White Yorkshire, Landrace, Berkshire etc., while BIS specifications are on 100% DM basis and for indigenous pigs, improved pigs and crossbred pigs.

Goats are valued as economical milk producer and main source for meat for a large section of population. The dry matter intake varies from 3% (Meat goat) to 4-6% (Dairy goat) in different breeds of India and it is higher than that of larger farm animals.

1. Nutrient requirements for maintenance

Adult body weight of goats may vary from 15 to 45 kg in different breeds. There are also does and bucks that weight up to 60kg. Nutrient requirements for maintenance of adult goats are, therefore given for body weights ranging from 15 to 60 kg. On an average for maintenance 76 g DM is required for each kg of metabolic body weight and similarly the requirements for DCP and TDN is 3 and 30 g, respectively.

2. Nutrient requirements for pregnant does

Since adult body weight as indicated already varies from 15 to 60 kg, the requirements for pregnant does are also given for body weights ranging from 15 to 60 kg.

Indian breeds of sheep have much lower adult weight (30-40kg) and growth rate in comparison to many foreign sheep breeds (70kg). Hence the requirements are lesser then foreign breeds.

1. Nutrient requirements for maintenance
On the basis of several balance studies and digestibility trials the requirements for Indian sheep breeds has been developed and calculations are made on the basis of 2.73 g of DCP per kg of metabolic body weight and TDN and ME requirements are 27.3 g and 98 Kcal per kg of metabolic body weight respectively. The requirements for different body weight are given in the table below:

Nutrient requirements of the animals in terms of protein, energy, minerals and vitamins are the basis for scientific feeding. The total requirement of an animal includes two components (i) maintenance (ii) production. While maintenance requirement varies with body size of the animal, the requirement for production depends upon its physiological state and production levels.

Such recommendations are based on the results of a large number of feeding experiments, conducted throughout the world. Feeding standards developed by Nation Research Council (NRC) of USA and Agricultural Research Council (ARC) of UK, for livestock and poultry are considered to be the best general guides for computation of ration. However, limited investigations carried out in this country suggest that adoption of foreign standards always leaves a fair margin of safety so far as the feeding of Indian species are concerned. This owes mainly due to differences in size, breed, nutritional values of feeding stuffs and other practices in the agro-climatic conditions of this tropical country. Some efforts have been made by India scientists in this area.

Duck production has an immense role in improving the socio-economical status of rural farmers. In India, duck farming occupies an important place next to chicken farming. Duck contributes about 7-10% of the total poultry population of the world. Ducks are water fowl, hence, they need a semi-aquatic lifestyle. They need a pond, lake, river, canal or any such type of water bodies for their survival. Thus, they are mainly concentrated in West Bengal, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala, Tripura, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir and Manipur. Ducks are reared for both eggs and meat purposes. Unfortunately, duck farming is not done in an organized way in our country.

The requirement of micronutrients is always in low amounts while their moderate decrease causes the deficiency symptoms and a moderate increase causes toxicity. In other words, there is a narrow range of concentration at which the elements are optimum. Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces the dry weight of tissues by about 10 per cent is considered toxic. Such critical concentrations vary widely among different micronutrients. The toxicity symptoms are difficult to identify. Toxicity levels for any element also vary for different plants. Many a times, excess of an element may inhibit the uptake of another element.

Soil is the fundamental resource in the agricultural production systems and monitoring its fertility is critical to the sustainability of agriculture. Plant nutrients undergo different transformation processes through which they are converted from unavailable to available forms. Nutrient cycling thus involves the transformation and availability of nutrients and is mediated by microbial action. Understanding the dynamics of nutrient and soil organic matter transformations requires an understanding of the biological, chemical, and physical processes involved.

7.1. Soil Nitrogen

The objective of nutrient use is to increase the overall performance of cropping systems by providing economically optimum nourishment to the crop while minimizing nutrient losses from the field and supporting agricultural system sustainability through contributions to soil fertility or other soil quality components. NUE addresses some but not all aspects of that performance. The most valuable NUE improvements are those contributing most to overall cropping system performance. Therefore, management practices that improve NUE without reducing productivity or the potential for future productivity increases are likely to be most valuable. An excellent review of NUE measurements and calculations was written by Dobermann (2007). Table  is a summary of common NUE terms, as defined by Dobermann, along with their applications and limitations. The primary question addressed by each term and the most typical use of the term are also listed below.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is a heavy feeder and needs a balanced and adequate supply of nutrients for growth and yield. Fertilizer is one of the most costly inputs, which accounts for greater part of production costs in the cultivation of oil palm. Large amount of nutrients are removed by the fruit bunches harvested from the mature palms. It is estimated that 25 tonnes fresh fruit bunches per hectare per year removes 93.5 Kg Nitrogen, 11.0 Kg Phosphorous, 92.7 Kg Potassium, 19.3 Kg Magnesium and 20.3 Kg Calcium.

Economic yields of oil palm are achieved when the supply of nutrients from the soil, palm residues and fertilizers are properly integrated in required quantities. Leaf analysis is an analytical tool for detecting the nutrient requirements in oil palm and other perennial crops, which are slow growing and can provide easily, defined standard leaf material for analysis due to leaf phyllotaxis. Nutrient deficiency symptoms are also an important means for determining the nutritional problems in oil palm, since the crop presents easily identifiable N, K and Mg deficiency symptoms. However, by the time symptoms are evident, nutrient deficiency might have already affected growth and yield.

Also the nutrient supply may be insufficient before the appearance of leaf symptoms. So there is a need for a thorough inspection of the leaf canopy to corroborate the results of leaf analysis and identify the areas with severe nutrient deficiencies. The research on oil palm nutrition was carried out under rainfed conditions at Palode, Kerala and irrigated conditions at Pedavegi, Andhra Pradesh.

In India, a great variety of soils ranging from red sandy loams/sandy clay loams (Alfisols), alluvial silt loams (Inceptisols / Entisols), heavy black soils (Vertisols) and acidic red laterite soils (Oxisols) are put to oil palm cultivation. In Andhra Pradesh, it is grown in red sandy, red loamy, red loam with clay base, deltaic alluvium pH - 6.5 to 9.0. In Karnataka, it is grown in red and brown sandy loams and black clayey soils, with pH - 6.5 to 9.0. Red soils, red loamy soils and clay loam soils are used for growing oil palm in Tamil Nadu. Laterite soils are used for oil palm cultivation in Kerala.

Post independence era brought about a radical change in agricultural scenario which improved economy and living standard of Indian farmers to a great extent. Green revolution, (field crops) during early sixties followed by white revolution (milk) and thereafter yellow (oilseeds) and blue (fish) revolutions made the country not only self sufficient in most of the food commodities but also exporter in many. Several calamities including droughts, floods, and ill effects of national and international conflicts faced by the, people of the country during post independence era could not affect the economy and stability of the country much because of rich agricultural heritage. As usual, the rapid and rather un-planned development creates several problems and this was true in our conditions too. Loss ofindigenous land races, depletion of soil nutrients and water resources, creation of salinity and water logging, resurgence of pest and diseases, declining factor productivity and farm profits and increased environmental (air, water & soil) pollution are among such problems have great concern to agricultural scientists and planners in coming future. The situation further aggravated because of industry oriented government policies and globalization which supported growth of industries and trades rather than agriculture and hence the growth rate in these sectors was considerably high. This fact is more visible by the figures on relative contribution of different sectors in the national GDP during last sixty years (Table 1). At the time of independence of the country more than 75% people were depend on agriculture related occupations which came down to mere 67.4% in 2009-10. Similar is the case of total contribution of agriculture in national GDP which decreased from 57% in 1951-52 to as low as 14.6% in 2009-10. Besides government policies, major factor identified responsible for degradation of resources, stability in production and decreased factor productivity is chemical based farming and that too in imbalanced and improper methods of application practiced by the farmers for getting more andinore production and profits per unit area per unit time The solution of this lies in the increased use of organic sources of nutrients in proper ratio along with chemical fertilizers - IPNS (Integrated Plant Nutrient System). Livelihood of marginal and small land holders who represent a large section (more than 86%) of farming community and remained deprived of advancements in the, field of agriculture has been the main agenda of the Indian Government in Xlth, five year plan and to continue in Xllth plan too. To ensure livelihood improvement with focus on small and marginal farmers Integrated Farming System (IFS) has been proved to be an effective approach. Accordingly, the Project Directorate of Cropping Systems Research renamed as Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research with AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems Research and Network Project on Organic Farming mandated with farming systems perspectives. Since, integrated farming system is a holistic approach wherein all the wastes and residues are recycled within the system and nothing go waste. Output of one enterprise is used as input for the others. This way, farming becomes more economic and environmentally safe.

Developments of feeding standards

Feeding standards are statements or quantitative descriptions of amounts of one or more nutrients needed by the body. Since the beginning of nineteenth century, scientists worldwide started formulation of standards for feeing the livestock and poultry and as such with the advancement of science the standards were developed from time to time. For convenience all such standards are grouped under major 
3 headings based on principles of standards. These are comparative type, digestible nutrient system and production value type.

Introduction

Nutrition is the fundamental pillar of life and an essential foundation of human and national development. Rightfrom the earliest stage of human development, the fetal stage, at birth, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age, nutrition forms the basis for survival, performance, mental and physical development & economic and social development.Nutritional deficiencies during pregnancy, fetal and early postnatal life can have a negative impact not only on the subsequent growth and development but can also lead to changes in metabolic regulation and homeostasis.

Introduction

"The new science of nutrigenomics teaches us what specific foods tell your genes. What you eat directly determines the genetic messages your body receives. These messages, in turn, control all the molecules that constitute your metabolism: the molecules that tell your body to burn calories or store them. If you can learn the language of your genes and control the messages and instructions they give your body and your metabolism, you can radically alter how food interacts with your body, lose weight, and optimize your health." (Mark Hyman 2006).

Nutrients have long been considered merely as fuel or cofactors however, it is accepted that diet and feeding strategies play an important role in determining the basic physiological processes that influence the health and wellbeing of animals and ultimately influence the efficiency of production. Traditional research related to animal nutrition mainly deals with either deficiency or excess of the particular nutrient which affects their health and productivity. Subsequently, it was appreciated that nutrients can themselves participate in the regulation of metabolic pathways, for instance through the allosteric regulation of specific enzymes, or by modulating hormone secretion. Shifting of balance between health and disease states involves the complex interplay of genes and the environment, which includes nutrients. The use of systems biology approach in nutrition has attracted both scientists and industrialists during recent decades and a link between diet and health is well established. However, it has often been difficult to easily evaluate the effects of specific nutrients, combinations of nutrients and nutrient interactions because of the lack of straightforward biological indicators that respond to even the simplest changes in nutrition or nutritional status.

The exploration of facts about healthy and nutritious food has increased over the years. The advent of advance scientific tools has elucidated facts regarding the role of diet or nutrients in regulating gene expression (Sales et al., 2014). Various studies based on molecular interactions in food has revealed that many dietary components such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins and phyto-constituents has the tendency to regulate gene expression.

Abstract

Nutrition and genetics both have very crucial role in human health and in development of chronic diseases such as cancer, osteoporosis, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Difference between individuals in response to dietary intervention is a well-known phenomenon in nutrition research (Ordovas, 2008).The effect of dietary changes on phenotypes such as blood cholesterol, body weight and blood pressure can differ significantly between individuals (Ordovas et al., 2007). Various bioprocess i.e. ingestion, absorption, digestion, transport, metabolism and excretion of nutrients and food bioactive components in human body is carried out through proteins such as enzymes, receptors, transporters, ion channels and hormones. Genetic variation leads to altered production and affect functional properties of these proteins. Furthermore nutritional efficacy is also different among different individuals which might be affected by nutritional status. Thus diet and gene expression are interrelated and have a mutual effect on physiology of human body.

Introduction

The dairy farmers mostly keep cows (indigenous and crossbred) along with few buffaloes for milk production. However, the genetic potential of the dairy animals is exploited fully, when they are fed with well balanced ration. Further, as feed cost is around 75% of the total cost of production, the success of the dairy farming depends not only on the quality of the ration, but also on the economy of the ration. Therefore, knowledge on the feeds and feeding of dairy animals is highly essential.

What is Feed?

Feed may be defined as supplementation of nutrients for development, maintenance and operation of day to day activities by animals.

Mice are omnivores and can be fed with commercial feeds like pellets or fed with mixed feed which is locally available cereal, pulses and grains.

However, nutritionally requirement of mice

Carbohydrates - 45-55%

Protein - 16- 24%

Fibre - 4-5%

Fat - 4-6%

Supplement vitamin and minerals.

Rabbits are produced for meat, wool and research and as pets or for a hobby. Meat production is the most important commercial aspect of rabbitry. The domestic rabbit is primarily herbivorous and will consume most types of grains, oil seed cakes, brans, greens and hay. Diets provided, whether home grown or commercially prepared, consist almost entirely of ingredients from plant sources. Although, the producers / farmers mostly rely on home grown feeds, a good portion of the rabbit feed presently used is commercial pelleted feed. Since the rabbit can utilize a certain amount of forage, it has a place in food production by making use of some non-competitive feeds.

(I) Digestion of Feed

In feed, carbohydrate is the main nutritive substance which is in the form of insoluble large particles. For intestinal absorption by blood and lymph, it is necessary to be digested as small and simple particles. For example, carbohydrate found in the form of starch or glycogen is not absorbed as such and is only absorbed when it is converted into the simple soluble monosaccharide form. Similarly, proteins present in the feed are also not absorbed untill they are digested into simple forms of aminoacids (Fig. 27, Fig. 28, Fig. 29, Fig. 30). Piglets are exceptions, as the newly born piglets obtain colostrum from their mother. Colostrum is rich in gamma immunoglobulins. This immunoglobulin is abosrbed as such without digestion by pinocytosis. It gives immunity to save the new piglets from many diseases. For this reason, colostrum suckling is necessary for new piglets. The process of pinocytosis occur only few days after birth and it  stops after some time. Fat occurs in the form of triglycerides in the feed. For absorption of the fat, it is necessary to be converted into its simple forms such as glycerol, free fatty acids or in the form of monoglycerides.

Introduction

Nutrition is the study of how food and nutrients affect the body’s health and well-being. It encompasses all aspects of food, from the food production, processing, consumption and digestion by the body. A balanced diet included all the essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals for maintaining good health. The recommended daily intake of nutrients varies depending on the age, gender and physical activity of a person. The nutritional need also varies depending on the lifestyle and medical condition of a person. The nutrition facts are based on recommended daily intakes for various nutrients, which vary based on factors such as age, sex, and physical activity. These facts are given on food packaging or label, providing important information on the serving size, calories, macronutrients and micronutrients, and other ingredients.

Nutrition labels are mainly intended to guide the consumer in food selection. Nutrition information provided on labels must be true and should not mislead consumers. Nutrition labelling regulations are provided by countries to help manufacturers. The Codex guidelines on Nutrition Labelling provide guidance to member countries to develop or update their national regulations and to encourage harmonization of national standards with international standards. According to it, no food should be described or presented in false, misleading or deceptive way. Nutrition labelling cannot solve nutrition problems, instead it is one of the elements of nutrition policy.

11.1. Nutrition Facts

Nutrition Facts means the nutritional information required for most of the packaged food in many countries giving the energy value and nutrients contained in the food. Nutrition facts labels are required by regulation similar to other types of food labels. It provides detailed information on the nutrient content of the food such as the amount of fat, sugar, sodium and dietary fiber.

Fruits and vegetables are the major constituents of daily diet. They provide not only body building elements but also energy yielding food for the wellbeing of humans. Main object of the nutrition garden is to make availability of the requisite quantity of fresh fruits and vegetables to family members. It is generally raised in the backyard of home. It is also called as a home garden or kitchen garden. Most of the day to day cultural operations are performed by family members. Working in the nutrition garden during their spare time is a pleasure, an inspiration, a means of recreation to all the family members. The foremost advantage of nutrition garden is to daily supply fresh fruits and vegetables as per the needs of family members. Nutrition garden has an important role in enhancing national food security and dietary diversity to combat malnutrition.

Points to be considered, while the planning and layout of nutrition garden

The term essential element was proposed by Arnon and Stout (1939).They concluded three criteria must be met for an element to be considered essential. These criteria are:

1.A plant must be unable to complete its life cycle in the absence of the mineral element.

2.The function of the element must not be replaceable by another mineral element.

3.The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.

The number of elements considered essential for the growth of higher plants now varies from 16 to 20 or more, depending upon the definition of essentiality. Other scientists such as Nicholas (1961) believed that an element should be considered essential if its addition enhances plant growth even though it merely substitutes for one of the 16 elements that Arnon declares to be essential. For example, sodium can substitute in plant nutrition for some potassium and vanadium for some molybdenum, Nicholas would consider both sodium and vanadium as essential, but Arnon would not. On the basis of the criteria used, Arnon specifies 16 elements and Nicholas 20 elements as being essential for the growth of higher plants. Three other debated nutrients are nickel (urea transformations), cobalt (N₂ fixation) and silicon. These criteria are important guidelines for plant nutrition but exclude beneficial mineral elements. Beneficial elements are those that can compensate for toxic effects of other elements or may replace mineral nutrients in some other less specific function such as the maintenance of osmotic pressure. The omission of beneficial nutrients in commercial production could mean that plants are not being grown to their optimum genetic potential but are merely produced at a subsistence level.

Nutrient

Definition: Those elements are required for plant metabolism in more or less quantity, is known as nutrients. Plants have 30 types of elements but 17 elements out of 30 are essential for plant growth and development. These elements are called Essential nutrients.

Criteria of essentiality of plant nutrients theory: It is given by Arnon and Stout (1939). This theory stated that plant can not be completed their life cycle without the deficiency or complete absence of a single nutrient among the essential nutrients

Low of minimum: It is given by Justus Von Leibing (1840). According to this low, the growth of the plants is limited by the plant ntruient present in smaller quantity, all other being in adequate amounts. This has been re–stated as Barrel concept.

Allen and Arnon (1955) laid out following criteria for categorising nutrients essentiality to plants:

1. Complete or partial lack of the element in question must make normal plant growth impossible
2. Deficiency symptoms must be reversibly by the addition of the elements in question
3. The element must play specific role in the plant metabolic symptom

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is the DM consumption in adult guinea pig? Ans. An adult animal consumes @ 7-8% of body weight.

2.    Mention daily average feed consumption of guinea pigs?

Ans: Growing Guinea pigs: 20-30g, Adult maintenance: 30-50g, Pregnant and lactating: 40-60g.

3.    Write down the peculiarities of digestive system of guinea pig.

Ans. The entire stomach of guinea pig is lined with glandular epithelium and gastric mucosa does not have a keratinized portion.

4.    Why guinea pig cannot synthesize vitamin C?

Nutrients

The nutrients are chemical elements which are absorbed by the plants in more or less quantity to transform light energy into chemical energy and to keep up plant metabolism for the synthesis of organic materials. These materials constitute among other things, foods for humans and animals and a range of raw materials for various industrial uses. Feeding of plants with nutrients is termed as nutrition. Successful growth and production of the plants in general requires a proper supply of the 17 elements. These elements are regarded as essential to life in higher plants.

4.1. Digestive System of Rabbit

The digestive system of rabbit includes:
    A.    The digestive tract 
    B.    Its associated glands
The digestive system breaks down the complex molecules into the simpler one so that it is readily absorbed from gastro intestinal mucosa.
 
A. The digestive tract (gastro intestinal tract/ alimentary canal)

The digestive tract is essentially a tubular structure for the ingestion and digestion of food. In an adult (4 to 4.5 kg) or semi-adult (2.5 to 3 kg) rabbit the total length of the alimentary canal is 4.5 to 5 m. It commences from mouth and terminates in anus. G.I.T is divided into following parts:

Food security is achieved when adequate food is available and accessible and satisfactorily used and utilized by all individuals to live a healthy and active life. But food and nutrition security is achieved when people have physical, economic and social access to food of sufficient quantity in terms of variety, diversity, nutrient content and safety to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life coupled with sanitary environment, adequate health and education care. In order to achieve food and nutrition security there is a need for transitioning toward nutrition sensitive food system.

In Uttarakhand, majority of the population lives in rural areas and primarily depends on agriculture for their livelihood. In Uttarakhand, only 14.02% area is under cultivation. Out of total 7.66 lakh hectare cultivated area in the state, 4.21 lakh hectare area is rainfed i.e. more than 50 % of the cultivable area is rainfed. The average land holding is 0.68 ha that too is divided into many patches. Rainfed farming in Uttarakhand gets affected by frequent drought like situations and excessive rainfall. Food and nutritional security of people living in hill region depends more on favorable climatic conditions as agriculture and livestock farming are the main occupations. Prevailing low level of soil fertility and increased incidences of pest and disease occurrences has adversely affected the crop production and productivity in hills. Low agricultural productivity has emerged out as an important push factor for out migration of people from hill areas. Traditional hill agriculture is practiced on small and fragmented terraced fields with lack of irrigation facilities, which are uneconomical. Women constitute the main workforce in agriculture as large section of able bodied men have migrated from hills in search of livelihood. They also take care of the cattle, collect fuel wood and fodder from forests, often situated at considerable distance from the villages involving four to five hours of walking both ways, and do all household chores. Their life is an unending drudgery of hard work.

As a large population in the hill region of Uttarakhand depends on agriculture, the problem of malnutrition can be better addressed through nutrition sensitive agricultural interventions specifically designed for women in hills. Local nutritional needs can be met out locally by reviving traditional practices along with amalgamation of science and technology knowledge. Focusing on nutrition helps to build the resilience of rural households. Nutrition sensitive approach was promoted at local level with active participation of women who are mainly responsible for food security of the households.

1.    The predominant form of fat within fat (adipose) tissue is stored in humans in the form of

(a) Glycogen

(b) Triglycerides

(c) Diglycerides

(d) Monoglycerides

2.    The Thermic Effect of food refers to

(a) The ‘heat’ one feels from eating a chili pepper

(b) The amounts of energy the body spents to process, use and store

(c) The benefits of eating warm foods in cold weather

(d) All of the above

    1.    Nutrients : Chemical substances obtained from food and used in the body to provide energy, structural materials, and regulating agents to support growth, maintenance, and repair of the body’s tissues. Nutrients may also reduce the risks of some diseases.
    2.    Carbohydrate, fat, and protein are sometimes called macronutrients because the body requires them in relatively large amounts (many grams daily). In contrast, vitamins and minerals are micronutrients, required only in small amounts (milligrams or micrograms daily).
    3.    The international unit for measuring food energy is the joule, a measure of work energy. To convert kcalories to kilojoules, multiply by 4.2; to convert kilojoules to kcalories, multiply by 0.24.
    4.    Essential nutrients : Nutrients a person must obtain from food because the body cannot make them for itself in sufficient quantity to meet physiological needs; also called indispensable nutrients. About 40 nutrients are currently known to be essential for human beings. Energy-yielding nutrients: the nutrients that break down to yield energy the body can use:

1. Introduction Millets are the Nutri-cereals belonging to the Poaceae family and are classified into two major categories: major and minor, depending on their size and nutritional composition. Most millet crops are indigenous to India and are referred to as “nutri-cereals” since they contain most of the nutrients needed for the body to function properly. Millets such as Sorghum (Jowar), Pearl Millet (Bajra), and Finger Millet (Ragi) are the millets that come under the category of major millets. In contrast, the minor millets category includes Foxtail Millet (Kakun), Proso Millet (Cheena), Kodo Millet, Barnyard Millet (Sanwa), Little Millet (Kutki), Brown top millet including two pseudo millet that includes Buckwheat (Kuttu) and Amaranth (Chaulai) (Saini et al., 2021).

Introduction

There is an ongoing debate on global warming worldwide as it is seriously impacting climate change. The global temperature has been increased by 0.74±0.18°C during the last century and the climate model projections summarized in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report indicate that the global surface temperature will probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4°C during the twenty-first century (IPCC, 2007). High ambient temperature is one of the most important stressors to poultry, which has a direct relationship on profitability of chicken meat and egg production. A seasonal problem in many parts of the world, high environmental temperature (35-43^oC in tropical countries) causes economic losses through reducing feed intake while decreasing nutrient utilization, live weight gain, egg production, egg quality and feed efficiency in poultry (Corzo et al., 2003; Panda et al., 2007a; 2008). The ideal temperature for broilers is 10-22^oC for optimum body weight and 15-27^oC for feed efficiency (NRC, 1994). Layers will produce egg constantly in the temperature range of 10-30^oC. Above 30^oC, performance in terms of growth and egg production declines.

Food, at the fundamental level, is viewed as a source of nutrition to meet daily requirements at a minimum in order to survive but with an ever greater focus on the desire to thrive. Nutritional security denotes the consumption and physiological use of adequate quantities of safe and nutritious food by every member of the family and encompasses the process of equitable distribution among members of household and communities. This would entail the need to ensure a varied food intake, comprising all the essential macro- and micronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins), plant pigments (lycopene, β- carotene, anthocianin, lutein, capsanthin, zeaxanthin, etc.) and other functional phytochemicals (secondary metabolites, like flavonoids, isothiocyanates, glucosinolates, etc.) through a diversified diet. The growing awareness in recent years of the health promoting food has directed increased attention to vegetables as vital components of daily diets.

Main Nutrient Components of Vegetables

Nutrient components of our food can be grouped into five main divisions, namely, (i) Carbohydrate, (ii) Protein, (iii) Fat, (iv) Vitamins and (v) Minerals. Balanced diet is the food containing all these nutrient components in balanced form to run the physiological process in good tune. So, only eating to one’s heart’s content may not be the criterion of a balanced diet. Our dietary constitution which is mostly cereal based is really alarming. Cereals, which supply chiefly carbohydrate, constitute only a part of the diet. Moreover, the present average carbohydrate supply through cereals is also not adequate. Chief deficiencies in our diet are calories, protein, vitamin A and riboflavin. According to the studies of Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi and National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, meager intake of vegetables, the low cost protective foods, is largely responsible for malnutrition among the majority of our population. The dieticians advocate intake of 125g leafy vegetables, 75g other vegetables and 100g root and tuber vegetables (total 300g) everyday to make our diet balanced. In households below the poverty line, per capita vegetable consumption is very low, apprehended to be even lower than 40g per day.

Abstract

Due to rapidly increasing knowledge on nutrition and medicine, concepts about food and health has dramatically changed and resulted in consumption of nutraceuticals and natural plant foods.Use of nutritional therapy and phytotherapy have become progressively popular to improve health, and to prevent and treat diseases. Plants have long history of their uses as ingredients of human nutrition and folk medicine,because of availability of huge array of high-value components and multiple-activity bio-actives. “Licorice” means “sweet root” in Greek is a plant of ancient origin, indigenous to Southern Europe and Asia Minor. Most of the supply comes from former USSR, Spain, Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan, with total production between 40,000 and 50,000 tonnes per annum. The chemical constituents of the roots include several bioactive compounds, such as glycyrrhizin (~16%), different sugars (up to 18%) ,flavonoids, saponoids,sterols, starches, amino acids, gums and essential oils. A large number of clinical and experimental studies reported its useful biological properties such as antioxidant, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral and anticancer effects. It is useful in anaemia, gout, asthama,ulcers, sore throat, tonsillitis, diabetes, tuberculosis, flatulence, diarrhea, sexual debility, epilepsy, hyperdypsia, fever, coughs, skin diseases, eye diseases, swellings,constipation, rheumatism, acidity, leucorrhoea, bleeding, jaundice, hiccough, hoarseness, bronchitis.Recently, it is reported to have neurological properties such as antidepressant, anxiolytic, and anticonvulsant effects. The most abundant minerals present are calcium, sodium, phosphorus, potassium and iron. Licorice extracts and its principle component, glycyrrhizin, have extensive use in foods,as a natural sweetener and flavoring agent in beverage, confectionery, tobacco and pharmaceutical industry. It is in great demand globally as medicinal and nutritional supplement due to it's wide range of properties, which also indicates that in future the plant could serve as a “lead” for the development of novel agents having good efficacy in various disorders.

Introduction

In the recent past there has been a great deal of questioning regarding role of milk fat in cholesterol metabolism and other body functions. The enormous wave against cholesterol containing foods has damaged the image and market growth of fat rich dairy products. This trend is due to presence of saturated fats and cholesterol that are known to increase the incidence of coronary heart diseases one of the common cause of heart attack. The educated and urban society is more health conscious about the presence of cholesterol in their diets. This has led to the greater demand of cholesterol free foods. Ghee being a saturated fat and containing little amount of cholesterol, is suspected to contribute towards coronary heart diseases. However, critically surveyed scientific literature indicates that there is no evidence of any association of milk fat with increased risk of coronary heart diseases. Age old and proven Ayurvedic system of medicine has proved the usage of ghee to induce several beneficial effects on human health and used extensively for therapeutic purpose like in treatment of skin allergy, respiratory diseases, curative for ulcers and eye diseases. This suggest that ghee is a valuable form of dietary fat.

India is blessed with a coast line of 8118 km with an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million square km and a continental shelf of 0.506 million sq. km. The inland water resources includes 191024 km of rivers and canals; 2.05 million ha of reservoirs; 2.254 million ha of ponds and tanks; 1.3 million ha of oxbow lakes and derelict waters; and 1.24 million ha brackish waters. India has an estimated fish production potential of 8.4 million tons, of which the marine sector forms 3.9 million tons and the inland sector 4.5 million tons. As against this, the current fish production is 5.96 million tons i.e., 2.89 million tons from marine sector and 3.07 million tons from inland sector (Vannuccini, 2003). The per capita fish availability in India is 4.7 kg/year (Laurenti, 2002).

1 Application of lime reduces plant minerals namely

a) Ca b) Zn

c) Mn d) All of the above

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the necessary component for vitamins.
2. _____ is vital for seed formation.
3. _____ is essential for protein synthesis.
4. _____ is essential for nut development in peanuts.
5. _____ is the key element for chlorophyll production.
6. _____ is the integral part of amino acids.
7. _____ is essential for seed and cell wall formation.
8. _____ catalyzes several plant processes.

Nutritional deficiencies can result from a lack of specific nutrients in the diet, adverse interactions between nutrients in seemingly well-balanced diets, or the influence of specific anti-nutrients. The latter two scenarios are particularly challenging to diagnose because dietary analysis may suggest that nutrient levels are adequate. Micronutrients such as vitamins and trace minerals are typically added to diets through standalone micro premixes, making classic signs of individual nutrient deficiencies rare. Instead, the effects are often a combination of various metabolic conditions. Accurate diagnosis often requires comprehensive information about the diet and management practices, clinical signs in affected birds, necropsies, and tissue analyses. However, tissue analysis, especially of the liver and serum, can be misleading. Following the onset of a deficiency, birds may sequester nutrients in the liver, leading to falsely high liver assay values even when the diet is deficient. This effect is particularly significant for minerals such as copper. A diet that appears to contain sufficient levels of certain nutrients based on analysis may actually be deficient in those nutrients to some extent. Stressors such as bacterial, parasitic, or viral infections, as well as extreme temperatures, can interfere with nutrient absorption or increase the nutritional requirements. Toxins or microorganisms may destroy or render unavailable specific nutrients that appear to be present in adequate levels according to conventional chemical or physical assays. Consequently, many trace minerals and vitamins are included in the diet at levels significantly higher than the actual requirements to account for these potential issues.

Introduction

Poultry production is practiced at levels ranging from subsistence to large scale commercial operations. Commercial operations depend on hatcheries for the supply of day-old chicks while the subsistence farmers hatch their chicks by natural incubation. The hatchery plays a central role in the poultry production chain. Optimization of hatchery and breeder farm management can lead to improvement of the result throughout the production chain (Heier and Jarp, 2001). Generally, the success of hatchery management is monitored by the percentage of eggs set that are hatched (hatchability) and the number of chicks that are placed for grow-out (saleable chicks). 

Proper nutrition is essential for the health and well-being of dogs at every stage of life. The nutritional needs of a dog change as it grows, so it’s important to tailor their diet according to their age, size, and health status. Below is a comprehensive guide on the nutritional needs of dogs, broken down into different age groups: puppies, adult dogs, and senior dogs.

1. Puppies (0-12 Months)

Puppies are in a rapid growth phase and require a high level of nutrients, including proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals, to support the development of muscles, bones, organs, and the immune system.

Nutritional Needs

Protein: Puppies require high-quality animal-based protein to build muscle and tissue. Around 22-30% of their diet should be protein-rich. Chicken, tur key, fish, and eggs are excellent sources.

Healthy body maintains a healthy mind. Fruits and vegetables are said to be protective food as they provide proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, roughages, organic acids, enzymes and energy for normal growth and sustenance of physiological activities of human beings. Fruits and vegetables provide palatability, taste and improve appetite. It also provides fiber to prevent constipation. They reduce the ill-effect of acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty acids. Thus, they protect the human body from various deficiency disorders.

Important fact is that most of the Indians are vegetarians. The incorporation of fruits and vegetables in daily diet is essential as body building elements and calorie yielding foods for good health. Comparatively fruits and vegetables are the cheapest source of natural nutritive foods and are an important component of a balanced diet Balanced diet is a diet which contains body building elements and calorie yielding foods in an appropriate proportion for normal growth and well-being of a person. According to ICMR, New Delhi; 120 g fruits and 280-300 g vegetables should be consumed per day per capita. Vegetables include 80-100 g of leafy vegetables, 100-125 g of tubers as energy source and remaining as other vegetables.

Significant achievements have been made in the food availability throughout the world over the last few decades. The estimated number of people in developing regions suffering from chronic malnutrition has declined (from 946 million people in 1969-71 to 870 million people in 2010-12), as the proportion of malnourished people from 36 percent to 20 percent, even though the world population has increased. Global food supplies (if distributed according to individual requirements) are sufficient to fulfill the energy needs. An estimated 20 percent of the people in developing world are chronically under nourished, consuming too little food to meet even the minimal energy needs. Approximately 192 million children under the age of five years suffer from acute or chronic protein energy malnutrition. According to WHO, 6.9 million children under the age of five died in 2011, from direct or indirect result of hunger and malnutrition. Moreover, more than 2 billion people, mostly women and children are deficient in one or more micronutrients, babies continue to be born mentally retarded as a result of iodine deficiency, children go blind from vitamin-A deficiency and enormous number of women and children are adversely affected by iron deficiency.

The overall growth in food availability resulting from the green revolution over the last two decades has eliminated the threat of famine for India’s entire population. Country’s production of food grains has reached over 257.07 million tonnes. However, malnutrition is still a serious problem in this region. Evidences suggest that micronutrient deficiency is far more prevalent in the area than protein energy malnutrition. The International Food Policy Research Institute has reported a rising trend in micronutrient deficiencies, which is becoming more serious than malnutrition from lack of major nutrients. Thus, the emphasis is now shifting from supply of basic food (calories & protein) towards supply of balanced diet (calories, protein & micronutrients which includes vitamins and minerals).

Introduction

Climate change is one of the biggest environmental threats to food production, water availability, forest biodiversity and livelihoods. Warming of climate system of the earth is a unanimously accepted reality and probably one of the most prominent challenges for scientists, development workers, policy makers and other relevant stakeholders regarding development and sustainability in international and national arena during past several years. Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPPC) has described climate change as any anthropogenic or naturally occurring alteration in the climate over time. It is widely believed that developing countries such as India will be impacted more severely than developed countries. Climate change is emerging as a big threat to sustainable development of agriculture including animal husbandry and to the livelihood of people. Extreme events such as cold waves, heat waves, ?oods and high intensity single day rainfall events are on increasing trend during the last decade (Dikshit and Birthal, 2010). It is probable that by 2030 the impacts of climate change will be noticeable, although not dramatic and will be largely manifested through changes in pasture growth and quality, and greater inter-annual variability in pasture production. Livestock contribute to climate change by emitting methane through enteric fermentation. But they are also affected by climate change it directly and indirectly, hence affecting their economic and social contributions. Various studies suggest that the changes in pasture growth, composition and production will be dependent on the actual combination of CO₂, temperature and rainfall conditions. Livestock productions under both intensive and extensive systems are subjected to so many stresses, where they undergo different types of physiological adjustments to cope up with stressful conditions. Productions are drastically reduced during stress and require managemental interventions both in terms of optimum nutrition and health care (Soren, 2013).

Introduction

Mineral imbalance in the animal body produces several problems. Normal dairy animals experience constantly changing nutrient demands and environmental stress during pregnancy and lactation. In the first part of the cycle the negative balance must be held to minimum, later the reserves must be replenished through fine tuned nutritional support for optimum production of the dairy animals. Inadequate blood calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), or potassium (K) concentrations can cause a dairy animal to lose the ability to rise to her feet as these elements are necessary for nerve and muscle function and are therefore of particular concern in the newly calved dairy animal. Mechanisms for maintaining blood status of these elements concentrations perform efficiently most of the time but occasionally these homeostatic mechanisms fail and metabolic diseases such as milk fever occur. Understanding about cause and predisposing factors behind the same may be helpful to develop strategies to avoid these disorders.

Macro elements have a significant role in normal functioning of the body, including proper reproduction and production. Imbalance of these elements in the body of a peri parturient animal creates severe problems to the animal body and even the productivity of the animal gets seriously affected. Among the macro elements calcium, phosphorus and magnesium with cation-anion balancing elements (sodium, potassium and chlorine) play an important role in normal health of dairy animals during the parturition period.

Introduction

Goat farming plays a significant role in supporting rural livelihoods, contributing to food security, and generating income through milk, meat, and fiber production. However, achieving sustainable goat productivity requires scientific management, wherein, nutrition is a critical factor that makes profound effect on overall performance and production. With increasing global demand for goat-derived products, optimizing nutritional strategies has become essential to improve both production efficiency and sustainability. Globally, the sector is shifting from subsistence-oriented backyard farming to more commercialized systems, driven by increasing demand for goat meat and dairy products. India, which ranks first in goat population with 148.88 million goats (DADF, 2019), is experiencing rapid changes as goat farming evolves from a low-input livelihood strategy into a thriving commercial industry (Ramachandran et al., 2019).This transformation is not only economic but also ecological. Goats are known for their remarkable adaptability to harsh environments and climate variability, which makes them crucial in ensuring food security under changing environmental conditions. Their ability to utilize marginal lands and convert low-quality forages into meat, milk, and fiber allows them to thrive in regions unsuitable for other livestock . Shifting towards semi-intensive and intensive systems, farmers can utilize better breeding, nutrition, and healthcare practices to meet growing market demands.

Abstract

Women constitute almost half of the population of modern India. Eighty percent of the women population in India live in the rural areas and most of them are engaged in agriculture and allied activities and play a significant role in domestic and socio economic life of the society. Women play a vital role in ensuring proper development and growth of children. They also contribute significantly towards income generation, food preparation and health of the family members. However it is this women segment which is most neglected and suffers from poor health. Health and Nutritional status of this important and substantial segment of the society is very important. The present study investigates the nutritional profile and morbidity status of women in villages around Bangalore city.

The main micro and macro nutrients associated with microgreens are Fe, Zn, K, Ca, N, P, S, Mn, Se and others. Microgreens are a fantastic source of biological phytochemicals, which can significantly improve both human health and disease. In addition to these mineral components, the key bioactive compounds including ascorbic acid, phylloquinone, tocopherol, beta-carotene, phenolic antioxidants, carotenoids, anthocyanins, glucosinolates and sugar content are said to be present in higher concentrations in microgreens. The numerous bioactive phytochemicals (Table 2) that are present in the various types of microgreens are covered in more detail in the ensuing subsections: