eChapters

Sapota or sapidilla or bully tree or chiku (Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg) is a delicious tropical fruit crop, was introduced from tropical America. Among lesser-known fruits, area expansion and production of sapota have been observed spectacular. During as the area under sapota is fast increasing and this crop is attaining the status of major fruit crop.

PRESENT STATUS

India is considered to be the largest producer of sapota in the world, though it is considered to be a minor crop in India (Bal, 1997). The area under sapota in India during 2000-01 was 69,400 ha with a production of 6.74 lakh tonnes, while during the year 2012-13, it was 164000 ha with a production of 14.95 lakh tonnes (ICAR-DataBook 2014). The area under sapota is increasing so rapidly owing to a wider range of adaptability. In many regions, cultivation of sapota is preferred over mango (Bal, 1997). The important sapota growing states are Maharastra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana. Recently, our country has made a beginning in export to Middle East countries.

11.1 Biodiesel Chemistry

Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of long chain fatty acids like lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic and so on. It is produced by the transesterification of animal fats and vegetable oils – all of which belong to a group of organic esters called triglycerides. Typical examples are rape/canola oil, soyabean oil, sunflower oil, palm oil and its derivatives, etc. from vegetable sources, beef and sheep tallow and poultry oil from animal sources and also from used cooking oil. The chemistry is basically the same irrespective of the feedstock. The chemistry of biodiesel is given in Fig. 11.1.

15.1 Fuel Cell

Fuel cell is a electrochemical device that convert chemical energy of a reaction directly into electrical energy. The basic physical structure of a fuel cell consists of an electrolyte layer in contact with a porous anode and cathode on either side. A schematic representation of a fuel cell with the reactant or product gases and the ion conduction flow directions through the cell is shown in Fig. 15.1

ABSTRACT

Genetic improvement of crop plants through conventional plant breeding has made tremendous contributions to the breakthrough in the global agricultural production. Recently, an array tools and techniques in the field of molecular biology has become available for supplementing the conventional genetic approaches. Consequently, new integrated approaches are being designed. One of the approaches employs molecular markers for genome mapping, gene tagging and marker assisted selection (MAS). With the complete sequencing of whole plant-genomes and a large number of random cDNAs in many different crop species, newer opportunities are emerging. This presentation is an attempt to briefly describe the current applications of molecular markers and to highlight their future prospects.

Molecular markers

Molecular markers are heritable differences in nucleotide sequences of DNA at corresponding position on homologous chromosomes of two different individuals, which follow a simple Mendelian pattern of inheritance. These differences are detected employing two basic techniques: (a) Southern blot hybridization and (b) Polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is the first molecular marker system to be conceived and developed. It is based on the southern blot technique. Markers such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), sequence tagged site (STS) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) are generated by enzymatic amplification of DNA by extension of oligo nucleotide primers and therefore, are based on PCR. Single/simple nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers are based on DNA sequence differences as revealed by sequencing and assayed by various techniques.

ABSTRACT

Of the total production of the crop yield, only 63 per cent is available for human consumption. The remaining is lost in more or less equal proportions to weeds, pests and diseases. Prior to genetic engineering, the exchange of DNA material was possible only between individual organisms of the same species. In the field of agriculture for instance, farmers have continuously modified naturally occurring species through seed selection and controlled breeding. With the advent of the recombinant DNA technology, it has however been possible to identify specific genes associated with desirable traits in one organism and transfer those genes within and beyond the boundaries of species into other organisms.

1. Genes for herbicide resistance

Modern agriculture has developed a range of effective herbicides to tackle the effects of weeds on crop yield. Some of the most useful of these are broad-spectrum herbicides because they are active against a wide range of weeds. However, these can only be used at times when the crop is not itself vulnerable to herbicide action. The development of herbicide-resistant crops therefore offers the opportunity to spray crops at the most effective time to kill weed species without damaging the crop plants. By definition, herbicides are much more toxic to plants than to animals. Therefore, it is not surprising that they generally affect ‘plant-specific’ biological processes. The herbicidal activity of many herbicides has been found to result from the specific inhibition of a single enzyme/protein. The following are four distinct strategies for engineering herbicide resistance: i. Overexpression of the target protein, ii. Mutation of the target protein, iii. Detoxification of the herbicide, using a single gene from a foreign source and iv. Enhanced plant detoxification.

ABSTRACT

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is an important crop in the tropics and subtropics for export of fruits and above all, for local consumption. Cultivation of papaya faces with problems due to its heterozygosity, dioecious nature and susceptibility to a large number of viral diseases. Crossing between two hermaphrodites will produce the highest ratio of fruit bearing female trees, which is of homozygous dominant andromonoecious types which are always letha l due to po st fertilization barriers leading to their abortion. The gynodioecious varieties of papaya have the M1M1 forms while selfing and hence for explant selection , gynodioecious varieties like Sunrise solo and CO7 were prefered Embryo culture is one of the earliest forms of in vitro culture applied to solve practical problems and is probably the tissue culture techniques that has proven of greatest value to breeders. Ovule culture is practised in a case when small (or) young embryos that abort at early stages of development and are difficult to isolate. This necessiates the development of a protocol for initiation, multiplication and regeneration of ovular callus of papaya.

ABSTRACT

Centella asiatica (Linn.) previously Hydrocotyle asiatica belongs to the family Apiaceae.It is commonly called gotu kola and is rich in triterpene glycosides such as asiaticoside and madecassoside. Health claims range from enhanced memory and longevity, to the treatment of leprosy. It is also used in the treatment of various skin diseases, ulceration, chronic rheumatism, malaria, fever, epilepsy and enlargement of glands. Inspite of its wide range of uses,it is still collected from the wild and commercial cultivation is lacking. A good tissue culture protocol therefore would be useful for commercial propagation and thereby saving the plant from extinction. Of the various explants, nodal segment gave the best response. For direct shoot regeneration from nodal segments, BAP 2.0 mgl^-1, and BAP 1.0 mgl^-1 with Kinetin 1.0 mgl^-1 was found optimum. Callusing was observed in nodal segments and leaf bits when 3.0 mgl^-1 NAA along with 0.3 mgl^-1 BAP was used. ½ MS medium supplemented with IBA 0.5 mgl^-1 and NAA 0.2 mgl^-1 induced rhizogenesis of the regenerated shoots. Rooted plantlets survived well in a combination of pot mixture (1 sand: 1 soil: 1 FYM) and Vermiculite in the ratio of 1: 1.

ABSTRACT

In last twenty years, molecular biology has revolutionized conventional plant breeding techniques in many areas. The use of molecular markers in conventional breeding techniques has also improved the accuracy of selection and allowed breeders to produce varieties with combined traits that were difficult before the advent of DNA technology. Among vegetables, onion (Allium cepa L.) is the most important cash crop of India. Onion productivity in India is much lower (11.38 tones / ha.) compared to other countries (44.1 tones / ha. in Japan). Purple blotch disease (PBD) caused by Alternaria porri (Ellis) Ciferri decreases the yields by up to 50 percent. Genetically resistant onion varieties are the most economical, simple and eco-friendly mode of disease management. The advent of mo- lecular markers provided the opportunity to understand the genetic resistance more pre- cisely. In this paper we present our successful efforts in developing PCR based markers linked to purple blotch disease resistance, so that such markers can be easily integrated into PBD resistance breeding program in onion. Onion germplasm was screened for PBD resistance. Line PBR 287 was identified as a good source of resistance and the genetics of inheritance of resistance in this line was worked out. The protocols for isolating good quality DNA and PCR amplification conditions were standardized. 37 polymorphic mark- ers were identified between resistant and susceptible parents. Crosses were made between resistant and susceptible parents. Parents, F₂ and individual F₂ progenies were subjected for analysis of genetics of resistance and RAPD marker analysis. F₂ individuals segregated in 3:1 ratio for resistance. DNA from resistant and susceptible F₂ individuals was pooled separately for Bulked Segregant Analysis (BSA). BSA identified one RAPD marker of 900bp being linked to resistance. Further Chi-square test for detecting the deviation of segregation of this 900bp marker confirmed segregation with classical Mendalian ratio 3:1 for a monogenic trait. Identified marker is of great practical utility to the plant breeders to screen large number of populations for purple blotch disease resistance at the early stages of the crop even in absence of the pathogen.

ABSTRACT

The investigation aimed at to examine the diversity among nineteen wild and cultivated germplasms of the genus Vigna namely, V. trichuriensis, V. hainiana, V. radiata, V. aconitifolia, V. minima, V. sinensis, V. radiata var. sublobata, V. radiata var.setulosa, V. umbellata, and allopolyploid of BR3x T9 at DNA level follwing Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. Ten random decamer primers were used in amplification reactions, five of that were reproducible and clear. The five primers constituted 55 bands of, which 9 are polymorphic. The similarity index based on 0 and 1 matrix of banding was calculated and dendrogram following UPGMA was constructed. The germplasms formed altogether 4 clusters on the basis of 0.375 linkage distance. The first and second cluster consisted of single genotype of V. hainiana. and V. minima respectively. The third cluster comprised wild and cultivated types of V. sinensis. The 4th cluster on the otherhand, consisted of genotypes belonging to V. radiata, V. radiata var. sublobata, V. mungo, V. radiata var. setulosa, V. trichuriensis and allopolyploid of BR3 and T9. The wild forms of different species were found to exist in the same cluster as their cultivated form. The three mungbean genotypes namely B105 (V. radiata), B1 (V. radiata) and BR3 (V. radiata )are crossable within themselves and they belonged to the cluster -IV.The intercluster cross between different clusters would like to generate new genotypes with wide variability. Based on limited range of accessions tasted in the present investigation, the approach holds promise for the classification of Vigna germplasm, identification of Vigna and marker assisted breeding in Vigna.

ABSTRACT

Amajor goal of plant biotechnology is to develop effective and lasting means to reduce crop losses due to stress caused by biological organisms. In Indian context, fungal diseases are rated as the most important factor contributing to yield losses. Although, conventional programmes towards development of disease resistant cultivars have been successful , they suf fer from limitations of human health consequences, potential degradation of environment etc. In this scenario, introduction of specific genes encoding for disease resistance through genetic engineering seems to be a viable alternative. Among the various genes that are induced in response to plant defense, chitinases are the most widely studied and used for development of transgenic crops. Keeping this in view, attempt was made to isolate chitinase genes from four fungal species viz., Trichoderma harzianum, Metarhizum anisopliae, Nomuraea rileyi and Alternaria solani by designing primers based on sequence information available in the database. RT-PCR was done using the RNA isolated from the fungal species using the designed primers. Amplified products were eluted, cloned into pTZ57R vector and sequenced. Characterization of sequenced cDNA was done using the BLAST (x) programme of NCBI site. The amplified product (261 bp) from T. harzianum showed 90 per cent homology to endochitinases from T. asperellum and T. viridae. Using this cDNA, full-length chitinase gene of 1556 bp from T. harzianum could be accomplished through RACE (Rapid amplification of cDNA Ends). In M. anisopliae the amplified product of 1500 bp matched the full length gene of 1500 bp and showed 99 per cent homology to M. anisopliae and 96 per cent homology to M. flavoviride. In other two fungal species, viz., Nomuraea rileyi and Alternaria solani, the amplified products did not show any homology to chitinase gene

ABSTRACT

There has been conscious effort to discover and apply biological pesticides for the control of insect predation. Insecticidal proteins/ genes from Bacillus thuringiensis have been deployed as sprays and through transgenic route for crop protection against insect attack and have been successful in protecting the crop damage and environment pollution. However, impending fear of development of resistance to Bt proteins by insects has prompted search for new insecticidal proteins. In this context we are exploring and analysing components of insect immunity as targets for restricting insect feeding behaviour. Insects encounter several microbes during different stages of growth and development. Incidental entry of these microbes elicits a host defense response, which mainly consists of a phenoloxidase (PO) pathway. The invasion of the microbe is recognized by a specific protein, which activates the PO pathway consisting of prophenoloxidase (PPO) & prophenoloxidase activating enzyme (PPAE). Understanding the mechanism of insect immunity will allow us to discover potential targets for inactivating the mechanism of immune action in insects and make them vulnerable to natural microbial infection.

An agronomically important polyphagous pest, Heliothis armigera (Bollworm) was chosen in the present work for studying the components of insect immunity. H. armigera is the most important insect pest of the developing world accounting for heavy damage on various crops including cotton, vegetables, tobacco, potato, groundnut, chickpea and pigeon pea. We have isolated full-length cDNA encoding prophenoloxidase (PPO) and a partial cDNA encoding PPAE from haemocytes of 5th instar larvae of H. armigera. The open reading frame (ORF) of PPO gene is 2.1 kb, which encodes for a 698 amino acid protein with a molecular mass of 77 kDa. Computer-assisted analysis revealed the presence of 60 amino acid long propeptide at the N terminus of protein and 2 copper binding motifs but no signal peptide was detected. The gene was cloned and expressed in a bacterial expression vector pET43b under the induction of IPTG. The SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the protein is expressing in the supernatant in its native form. The expressed enzyme is catalytically active on 4-Methylcatechol upon activation by cetyl pyridinium chloride (CPC). The regulatory role played enzyme in insect immunity is being examined.

ABSTRACT

Rapid optimization and improvement of papaya transformation necessacitates, a quick, non-destructive marker, which permits early detection of transformed tissue. We assessed the ability of a modified version of the green fluorescent protein gene (GFP) to act as the reporter. Transgenic papaya (Carica papaya L.) plants were developed using immature zygotic embryo as the expl ants and Agrobacterium tumefaciens as the transformation inducer. GFP gene (pBIN35Smgfp-ER) under the control of the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus (CaMV) 35S promoter was used as the reporter gene. Media P (modified MS basal medium with B vitamins supplemented with picloram 1 mg/l) and BN (modified MS basal medium with B vitamins supplemented with BAP: NAA 1:0.1 mg/l) supplemented with kanamycin (50 mg/l) were used for regeneration of transgenic papaya under selection pressure. GFP gene expression was detected at the juvenile stages viz. at early stages of somatic embryogenesis. 35S promoter driven GFP gene activity was also detected in the epidermis and the vascular tissues of the leaf petiole. Visualization under microscope and subsequent DNA analysis (Southern hybridization) showed that kanamycin resistant plants carried and expressed the GFP transgene. Expression of the GFP as green fluorescence served as a useful non-destructive indicator of successful transformation.

ABSTRACT

The black pepper, ‘the king of spices’ cultivation fetches foreign exchange worth millions of rupees annually, has been constrained by the quick wilt disease caused by the fungal pathogen Phytophthora capsici. Peptides with systematic variations in cationicity, hydrophobicity and amphipathicity were designed based on Chou-Fasmann parameters and sequential alterations of amino acids were tested for antifungal activity against Phytophthora. The antifungal properties of these biodegradable and ecofriendly peptide peptides were evaluated following in vitro microplate titre assay using Phytophthora zoospores. Two peptides LD1 and LD4 showed very low MIC value as compared to that of well-known antifungal peptides and standard chemical fungicides. Fluorescent staining technique using fluorescent brightener-28 and propidium iodide dyes has revealed that the site of action of the designed peptides is the cell membrane. These peptides showed very low haemolytic potential inspite of their potent antifungal activity. The in vivo evaluation of the peptides on fungi infected detached pepper leaves has demonstrated their high antifungal potential.

ABSTRACT

Biological lipids are chemically diverse group of compounds. Lipids serve two major biological roles namely a structural one as component of membrane, and storage function, particularly in certain seed tissues. Fats and oils are the principal stored form of energy in many organism, and phospholipids and sterols makeup about half of the mass of biological membranes.

An experiment was conducted to study phospholipids composition qualitatively as well as quantitatively in the roots of mung bean seedlings. Among the four solvents used for phospholipids isolation, solvent II (methanol) and solvent III (chloroform: methanol: NH₃ salt) were proved to be the major phospholipids eluting solvents. The results indicated that Phosphatidyl Choline (PC), Phosphatidyl Inositol (PI), Phosphatidyl Serine (PS), Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine (PE) and Di Phospho Glyceride (DPG) were present in significant amount in the roots of ten days old mung bean seedlings. These phospholipids were also identified by their Rf values using thin layer chromatography. Among all the phospholipids isolated, PI showed the minimum Rf value, whereas PS showed the maximum Rf value. On the basis of column chromatography, four fractions of phospholipids were isolated. The highest amount of phospholipids was found in fraction II and the lowest in fraction I. Fraction II and fraction III contained the maximum phospholipids. In the fraction II PC showed the highest content (μg g-1) and one unidentified phospholipids showed the lowest content (μg g-1), whereas in fraction III, PI showed the maximum content (μg g-1) and PS showed the minimum content (μg g-1).

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

1.1. Sources of Error in Soil Chemical Analysis

Different sources of error involved starting from soil sampling to chemical analysis of a sample can be divided into three main groups:

1. Sampling error : This error results from variability among the different samples drawn from same soil unit with respect to the objective of sampling.
2. Sub-sampling error : This error is due to variability introduced among sub samples of the same soil sample.
3. Analytical error : This error introduced due to variability from one chemical determination to another on same sub sample.

10.0. Introduction

Food processing is an important sector in agriculture, the scope of which has increased manifold that can help to prevent wastage of perishable commodities to a great extent. But, at the same time, food processing industries generate a large quantity and variety of food products, provide employment to a large number of people and uplift their economic status. The production, processing and preparation of food, all results in generation of huge quantity of waste material causing health hazards due to environmental pollution. The waste material may be in the form of leaf/ straw, waste during harvesting, food preparation waste, after processing waste, unused material as waste, food processing operation waste etc. The huge wastage of the food material is due to lack of control on such agri-economy practices. So, the disposal of waste material has become a challenge to the processors, as different agencies are pressurizing for an environment friendly treatment of waste material. The utilization of waste for the production of value added products is very important in the management of food processing waste. Different types of food industries wastes are: i) fermentation industry waste, ii) fruit and vegetable industry waste (Table 10.1) iii) Sugar and starch industry waste, iv) diary industry waste, v) meat processing industry waste, vi) coffee industry waste and vii) palm oil industry waste, viii) fish processing industry waste. So, there is great need to find out options which have positive values of food waste. The options having positive values are: i) minimization of the waste generation, ii) development of value added products. Most of fruit and vegetable wastes are a rich source of vital constituents like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, fibres etc. Mango seed kernel is rich in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals; orange, melon and pumpkin seeds can provide fats and mineral matters. Apricot kernels are rich source of oil (45%) and proteins.

Introduction

The concept of food security having relevance at global, national, regional, state, household and individual level is well understood as a core issue over the last three decades in the world. The World Food Conference of 1974, organized in the wake of the world food crisis of 1972-74, was largely concerned with global food security. It was felt as the common responsibility of all nations that international approaches were needed to achieve the goal of improved world food security. The food security at national level means arrangements for providing physical supply of a minimum level of food during all periods including those having harvest failures. FAO (1983) had formulated that the basic concept of food security implied that all people at all times have physical and economic access to the basic food they need. The World Bank (1986) has modified this formulation to indicate that food security is access by all people at all times to enough food for an active healthy life.

In this direction, the conference on Environment and Development held in Rio (1992), the Joint FAO/WHO Conference on Nutrition held in Rome (1992), the World Conference on Human Rights held in Vienna (1993), the International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo (1994), the World Summit on Social Development held in Copenhagen (1995), the Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing (1995), the Habitat II Conference held at Istanbul (1996), the World Food Summit held in Rome (1996), etc. deliberated on various facets of food security like food security and sustainable development, right for nutritionally fit and safe food, population growth and food production, global measures to satisfy the food needs, campaign against hunger, women in food production, rural-urban linkages and so on.

Introduction

In India, per capita cereal consumption has been declining since the early seventies, despite a significant increase in per capita cereal production (Radhakrishna and Ravi, 1992 and Rao, 2000). Cereal consumption per capita per month fell from 15.35 kgs in 1970-71 to 12.70 kgs in 1999-2000 in rural area and from 11.40 kgs to 10.40 kgs in urban area during same period. It might be due to shifting of consumers’ choice from food to non-food items; from cereals to non-cereals within the food group and from course to fine cereals within the cereal group. The decline in cereal consumption has been higher in the rural area due to development of rural infrastructure and availability of job opportunities which ultimately helped in improving their level of income (Rao, 2000). Despite spectacular growth in food production during last 30 years the problem of malnutrition still persists across different regions in India because increase in food grain supply alone cannot conquer hunger and malnutrition.

The consumption pattern and nutritional status have also experienced a significant change during last two decades in Bihar. Cereal consumption per capita per month has declined from 476 gms in 1983 to 455 gms in 19992000. The situation is more alarming in poor households who constitute about half of rural population in north Bihar. There is lack of research on consumption pattern, nutrient intake and nutritional status based on household data, particularly in context of Bihar. In view of the above observations the present study is undertaken to analyze the consumption pattern and nutritional status of poor households in north Bihar.

• A machine is a device which receives some sort of energy and does some work.
• A rigid link is one, which does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion.
• A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the transmission of motion.
• A structure is an assemblage of a number of resistant bodies having no relative motion between them.
• A turning pair has a completely constrained motion.
• Cam and follower includes higher pair.
• The lower pairs are self-closed pair.

For development of agricultural engineering machineries, materials and manufacturing techniques play a very important role. Functionality, efficacy, life span, economics and aesthetic of any machine or structure are affected severely by the material of fabrication process. The manufacturing processes discussed in this chapter also include the pretreatment to manufacturing and structural materials. Wood and some kind of ferrous alloys had been the choice of materials for fabrication of agricultural machines in past few centuries, whereas these materials along with mud, bamboo, some agricultural residues and some earthen materials were the materials of choice for agricultural structures. Engineering materials are available with wide range of properties and characteristics. There are many properties, which are inherent in the materials, and some of them can be changed during processing and manufacturing.

Measurement also forms a basic element of any control process. The measurement of discrepancy between the actual and desired performance of a system is central to any control process. Electronic instrumentation provides the solution to many and varied problems of measurement and control. It is often required to change or transduce a measurand into a corresponding electrical signal. The elements which changes/converts the physical variable in electrical signal are termed as sensors or transducers. For a measurement to be useful it must be reliable. That is where question of accuracy or uncertainty of a measurement arises. This may be dealt with clear understanding of measurand and measurement system.

• Spray Angle — The angle subtended at the final orifice by the edges of the spray pattern.
• Variation in discharge rate between first and last observation shall not be more than 5 percent.
• The volumetric efficiency requirement for roller vane type pump shall be minimum 80 percent.
• The volumetric efficiency of piston, plunger type pump shall be minimum 80 percent.
• If the droplet size is reduced from 2 mm to 1 mm, number of droplets produced will increase by 8 times from the same volume.

This chapter “Research Methodology” deals with methods and procedures followed in conducting the study. The chapter contains three parts. The first part deals with the sampling technique and the second part covers the empirical measures of different variables and last part describes details of data collection and statistical measures used in the study.

8.1. Ecological Soundness

Conservation of natural resources essentially means maintenance and improvement of ecological status and not permitting them for further degradation. The natural resources are soil, water, forest, mountain and animal resources. An attempt was made to find out whether the respondents adopt certain recommendations for preservation of these natural resources irrespective of source of advice.

i. Soil Health

Soil is considered as an important ingredient of ecological soundness of an area. Adoption of soil health measures, like adding of organic manures, following of crop rotations, use of balanced chemical fertilizers, green manure and bio- fertilizers are some of the recommendations to maintain soil health. While examining the adoption of these measures, the following results were obtained.

Introduction

Accuracy and uncertainty analysis is an important step in preparation of surface map through geostatistical techniques or digital soil mapping approach. It is because that we rely on a map based on how much accurate it is and the degree of uncertainty associated with the estimates while the map was prepared. Any stakeholder for a soil map especially policy makers is interested in accuracy and uncertainty of the map before taking suitable land management decisions involving soil map as an input. Again the level of accuracy and uncertainty depends on the properties for which the map has been developed. If the property of interest is sensitive to environment or human consumption, then the accuracy level should be very high while the uncertainty level should be very low e.g. heavy metal concentration in soil, quality parameters of water etc.

Introduction

Soil is one of the vital resource, and is the basis of the existence of mankind. Management of this resource including its conservation and utilization is of crucial importance. It is a base on which all life depends. In the recent past, with burgeoning populations and the national goals of seeking self-sufficiency in food and fibre production, this resource base is slowly being stripped. While natural systems often adapt to stress in a remarkable fashion, some relationships - once destroyed - can never be restored. Soil resources can be assessed and monitored through its spectral signatures gathered through remote sensing.

The term ‘remote sensing’ is commonly restricted to methods that employ electromagnetic energy (such as lights, heat, micro wave) as means of detecting and measuring target characteristics. Sensors acquire data as various earth surface features reflect or e mit electromagnetic energy (EM energy). Remote sensing is the technology that is now the principal method (tool) by which the earth’s surface and atmosphere (as targets or objects of surveillance) are being observed, measured, and interpreted from vantage points. Remote sensing of the earth traditionally has used reflected energy in the visible and infrared, and emitted energy in the thermal infrared and microwave regions to gather radiation that can be analyzed numerically or used to generate images whose tonal variations represent different intensities of photons associated with a range of wavelengths that are received at the sensor.

Introduction

Over the past few decades, soil resources have witnessed many changes driven by demographic pressure and climate change. It is necessary to have up to date soil information to monitor the state of soils health with time. Soil resource inventory provides information about the potentialities and limitation of soils for its proper utilization. Soil survey offers an accurate and scientific inventory of different soils, their properties and extent. An in-depth knowledge of the type of soils and their spatial distribution is a prerequisite for developing rational land use planning. Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about the earth’s surface without actually being in contact with it. On the other hand, proximal sensing refers to remotely sensed measurements that are taken at the field or laboratory level. Both these processes involve an interaction between incident radiation and the targets of interest. Fundamentally, remote sensing data products are a representation of the functional response of objects to energy sources. These are typically spectra, which are acquired as a discrete series of reflectance measurements taken at different wavelength intervals, or bands. In the shorter wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum (visible part), features can be detected by virtue of reflected solar energy, while in the longer wavelengths (microwave, thermal parts), sensing of emitted energy works. Conventional soil sampling, and subsequent laboratory analysis are generally time consuming and costly. In this context, remote sensing plays a crucial role for studying soil resources. The term remote sensing is generally used for airborne and space borne acquisitions, whereas proximal sensing refers to ground-based laboratory and field measurements. Advances in the quantitative disciplines like remote sensing and proximal sensing have laid the foundations for a spatial exploration of soil-system dynamics within a landscape context (Pennock and Veldkamp 2006).

Introduction

Soil is a dynamic natural body, characterized by high degree of spatial variability due to combined effect of physical, chemical or biological processes that operate with different intensities at different scales (Goovaerts 1998). Reports have shown that there is large variability in soil properties, crop yield, disease, weed etc., not only in large-sized fields (Godwin and Miller 2003,Vrindts et al. 2005), but also in small-sized fields (Bhattacharya et al. 2008). Therefore, knowledge of hydro-physical properties of soils is crucial for management practices for all kinds of agricultural practices for efficient utilization of input resources. Plant growth and development is highly related to soil hydro-physical properties, which not only depend on soil intrinsic textural and chemical characteristics (Hamza and Anderson 2005) but also on soil management.

Soil physical properties which change with the variation in soil structure include bulk density, total porosity, pore geometry (size distribution, shape, continuity and tortuosity), penetration resistance and aggregate stability, consequently affecting soil hydraulic properties such as water retention characteristics, plant available water capacity, infiltration capacity and saturated hydraulic conductivity. These soil properties are dependent on seasonal climatic conditions, management practices, crop development and biological activity (Reynolds et al. 2007). The hydro-physical properties of soils, i.e., water retention and water permeability in both saturated and unsaturated zones not only shape soil water balance but also decide the conditions for plant growth, development and yield. They also determine water availability for the plant root system and the transfer of water with chemical compounds dissolved in it into deeper layers.

Introduction

The life support systems of a country and socioeconomic development of its people largely depend on soils. The soils are the most valuable natural resources for the society. It caters the basic needs of mankind by producing food, fibre and timber. It is therefore essential to know the distribution and extent of different soils and their qualities, potentialities and constraints for sustainable utilization of this valuable natural resource (Shyampura and Sehgal 1995). Information on distribution, potential and constraints of major forest soils are essential to design most appropriate soil management systems in order to increase productivity of forests as forests also offer excellent potential for poverty reduction and rural economic growth in India. However, unlike agriculture lands forest soils usually draw less attention and are ignored in spite of the fact that they nourish the lungs of the Earth. Soil quality is the most important factor in forest management decisions. Soils will determine productivity of a particular forest and management strategy. Knowing about forest soils can serve as a basis for forest management decisions, including land acquisition, species selection for planting, site preparation requirements, watershed development, fertilization prescriptions, stand density/ composition, and harvest timing, as well as decisions affecting land ownership and use.

Introduction

High degree of spatial variability in soil properties is observed at different scales. This variability is generally originated from the combined effect of physical, chemical or biological processes operating with different intensities at different scales (Goovaerts 1998). Knowledge of this spatial variationof soil properties is important in several land management applications e.g. variable rate application of nutrient and water in agricultural production system, land suitability classifications, modeling water balance components at landscape scales, precision farming etc. The concept of ‘management zone’ was also evolved in response to this large variability with the main purpose in efficient utilization of agricultural inputs with respect to spatial variation of soils and its properties (Franzluebbers et al. 1996, Atherton et al. 1999, Malhi et al. 2001). Therefore, an appropriate understanding of spatial variation of soil properties is essential. The most important way to gather knowledge in this aspect is to prepare soil maps through spatial interpolation of point-based measurements of soil properties. Here, a case study is discussed where soil water retention at two critical levels e.g. field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) was spatially characterized through geostatistical approaches. Because these two soil moisture contents guide farmers to apply right amount of irrigation water at right time. The study was carried out at the experimental farm of ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India (28°37′-28°39′ N, 77°8′ 30″-77°10′30″ E, 217-241 m above mean sea level). A detailed discussion of the study is available in Santra et al. (2008)

Introduction

Globally, the SOC pool of 1,550 Pg (1 Pg = 1015 g) to 1-m depth is about three times that of biotic and twice that of atmospheric pools (Post et al. 1982, Watson et al. 2000). In arid and semi-arid ecosystems, SOC contents show high degree of spatial variability due to patchiness of vegetation (Wiesmeier et al. 2009). The arid ecosystem might play a key role in mitigation of climate change effects through sequestering carbon in soils (United Nations 2011). Therefore, a suitable land use system having high C sequestration potential for arid ecosystem needs to be identified and promoted. However, the prevailing conditions of arid ecosystems normally does not support dense vegetation. Therefore, low carbon stock is expected in both above-ground vegetation and below-ground soil. Fruit trees are an integral part of arid farming system and played a significant role to improve the nutritional security and employment opportunity of farmers but also have potential role to increase carbon storage both in biomass and soil. To quickly assess the soil carbon restoration programmes, it is important to know how much soil carbon is stored in an agricultural farm through adoption of different land management practices. Therefore, reliable estimates of SOC pools are essential to establish the soil carbon sequestration programmes at different landscape scales.

Since ancient times, agriculture is an outdoor or open field production of crops. Open field production is climate and weather dependent. In fact, growth and development of crops under a particular set of climate parameters defines geographical location, productivity and production period of different crops. The magnitude of impact of climate and weather on agricultural productivity and quality of produce is appreciated by farmers and the scientific community, including horticulturists. Abiotic and biotic factors govern crop production potential and quality of products. Among the major constraints in production of horticultural crops are temperature (hot or cold), sunlight duration and quality, water deficiencies or excesses, atmospheric moisture (relative humidity), weeds, deficiency of nutrients, heavy winds, carbon dioxide and host of diseases and insect pests. There are ecological optima for obtaining production potential of each of the crops. Deviation from these conditions results in yield losses partially and sometimes totally. However, near optimal climatic conditions could be created by controlling the climate with the help of greenhouse using

The article is the Inaugural address delivered by Dr. R.S. Paroda at Indian Society for Protected Cultivation (ISPC-registered in March 2012), New Delhi on 21 March 2013 in a seminar ‘‘Advances on Protected Cultivation’’ at NASC, Complex, Pusa, New Delhi different protected structures/methods/devices and such cultivation under controlled environmental conditions is termed as as protected cultivation.

Greenhouse refers to a structure which provide relatively better environment for plant growth. The goal is to create congenial temperature and relative humidity in desired range. The greenhouse covered with polythene sheet, also called as polyhouse, has polythene sheet (UV stabilized 200 micron LDPE sheet) as covering over a relatively rigid frame (made of GI pipes, angle iron, boomboo or wooden) which entraps the solar energy to increase the temperature and provide light for plant propagation. A normal greenhouse has four basic components: 1) frame made from rigid material like GI pipes, wood or bamboo; 2) glazing material, which is transparent to provide enough light for plant propagation; 3) climate control system, which may be natural ventilation or forced ventilation using fans with or without cooling pads, shading nets, pigment painting, etc. and 4) plant growing medium (soil or artificial media like cocopeats) with needful arrangement for supplying inputs (water, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.). The design of greenhouse involves structural design of frame with enough climate control mechanism. It mainly depends on shape, size, material of frame, local climatic conditions, wind pressure, and desired height from crop production point of view. Fabrication of greenhouse should be such that it provides enough structural stability with wind pressure and other factors, perfect joints, anchoring of polythene, and minimum hindrances in crop production practices.

Tomato varieties produced 50% in plastic house cover more than what they produce in open air (Diez et al., 1985). Nevertheless this production increase is not, by itself the reason for the use of protected cultivation which requires higher expenses. The key factor is the cost increase of final product obtained during off-season, which created an interesting margin in spite of high production costs. The effect of cost of seed in total cost is negligible, which permitted the use of hybrid seed. The new hybrids have brought about production increases which can be calculated to be over 50% more than what the greenhouse varieties produced with the cost of hybrid seed giving an effect on total production costs of only 6-7%. So that under these circumstances, production increase associated with hybrids is certainly very advantageous, apart form other benefits to be derived from hybrids.

Kerala has a tropical humid weather characterised by high rainfall and humidity. The intense rainfall during June-September is a limiting factor for vegetable cultivation. High cost of labour, rapid urbanisation, small size of holdings and quality conscious consumers are some of the factors favouring protected cultivation in Kerala. Rain shelters and modified naturally-ventilated polyhouses are recommended structures for protected cultivation of vegetables. The important vegetables grown are cucumber, yard long bean, Capsicum, okra, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower and leafy vegetables. The conventional saw-toothed structure has been modified to suit Kerala weather by making variation in height and improving the roof and side ventilation so that temperature variation inside the structure is only 1°C compared to the ambient. The Kerala Agricultural University has also developed an ad-hoc package for protected cultivation of vegetables, considering the soil and weather parameters and is providing necessary technical support to growers and extension officers. The technology for large-scale production of virus-free vegetable transplants in pro-trays has also been standardized. There is a growing demand for quality, disease-free seedlings and technology can be scaled up into a profitable agri-entreprenurial model. Open field precision farming through fertigation and mulching is profitable compared to conventional system of cultivation. Besides maximising water-and nutrient-use efficiency of the crop, this technology offers scope for mechanisation in vegetable cultivation saving human labour requirement by almost 50%. Rain shelters are useful for year-round production of vegetables in homestead for small growers.

5.1. INTRODUCTION

Mean and standard deviation summarizes the salient features of a data set. But they do not describe adequately the full characteristics of the data. For an adequate description of the characteristics of a data set, a convenient method is to plot a frequency distribution curve. Such curve is constructed by first drawing a frequency polygon, which may then be smoothened to a frequency curve, indicating the distribution. The frequency curve or distribution of specific biological variables generally has a specific form and plays a very important role in statistical theory and practice. It is customary to describe a curve in terms of its symmetry or assymmetry and its flatness or peakedness.

The following types of distribution are commonly seen in the biological world:

Green energy can be classified as any form of energy resource that results in zero greenhouse gas emissions and zero toxic byproducts. These constitute the alternate source of energy such as Solar, Bio, Hydrogen, Wind, Water etc. Renewable Energy is energy that is not depleted or expen- ded. Previously the pressure to reduce CO2 emissions dictated the energy sourcing. With recent findings from experimental evidence, global warming may not be attributable to CO₂ emissions in relation to other over-weighing causes. However the pressures to develop renewable sources continue since the cost of Oil is increasing in many countries. It is desirable and a necessity to develop renewable non-toxic energy resources. The global economy and welfare of all earth depends on it even if CO₂ is not the cause of global warming (GW). There are some factors not in the control of even the most technologically advanced society. These are solar activity such as sun spots which have huge and tremendous influence on the Earth’s climate. However we should strive not to cause any undue imbalances in the proportion matter and composition of Earth’s atmosphere. Although CO2 is a small contributor to GW in comparison to H₂O, we still have responsibility to maintain the right balance of the gases in the atmosphere by not causing undue changes to the Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen cycles! We are far way off from a Oil-free technology. Most transportation is still petrol driven.

Symbolic to its nomenclature, ’PULSE’ (P = people, U = umbrella, L = livestock, S = soil and E = energy) is a superb group of agricultural crops extending an energy umbrella to people (as a major source of dietary protein), livestock (as a green nutritious fodder and feed) and soil (as a builder and restorer of soil fertility through biological N₂ fixation). On account of these qualities, pulses have occupied a unique position in the Indian farming system. Crop diversification with greater inclusion of legumes is essential to alleviate declining factor productivity, input use efficiency and increasing cost of cultivation for realizing sustainable use of natural resources. Pulses are increasingly becoming a component of the intensive cropping systems as intercrop, substitute crop or catch crop. In upland situations, pulses play an important role as intercrops and ensure more income and efficient use of resources. While analyzing the reasons of low productivity of pulses in various parts of the country, it is observed that non availability of high yielding disease resistant varieties, cultivation on marginal and sub-marginal lands under deficit moisture and fertility and poor pest management are the major constraints in realizing optimum yield potential.

Lentil is one of the most nutritious cool season food legume and ranks next only to chickpea. It is grown throughout the northern and central India for grains, which are used as dal (wholeor dehulled) andin various otherculinarypreparations. Lentil contains about 25% protein, 0.7% fat, 2.1% mineral, 0.7% fibre and 59% carbohydrate. It is a rich source of phosphorus and carotene. It is generally grown as rainfed crop during rabi season after rice, maize, pearl millet orkharif fallow. It is also grown as intercrop with barley, linseed, mustard and autumn planted sugarcane. In North-eastern parts of the country, lentil is also cultivated as paira crop with rice in which seeds of lentil are broadcast in the standing crop of rice 7-10 days before its harvest. It is grown on a wide range of soils from light loamysand to heavy clay soil in northern parts and moderately deep black soils in central India.

To set up a soil-testing laboratory the minimum requirements are as follows:

8.1 Laboratory floor area

Minimum four rooms are needed. They are as follows:

1. Office room, floor size: 18’x 12’

This room is used for registration of the soil samples received, recording recommendations along with soil test results in laboratory book and in report sheet, their dispatch, accounts etc.

Introduction

In view of the accepted importance of analysis, the workload on soil, plant and water testing laboratories has increased considerably in recent years. Therefore, analytical methods have needed to be accelerated through the automation of instruments. Almost all instruments either contain inbuilt computers or can interface directly with micro processors, thereby simplifying instrument operation and providing versatility for the analyst. Most operations can be performed through keyboard commands. This type of instrument automation enables:

ABSTRACT

Shivaliks are highly fragile ecosystem of Himalayas threatened by problems like soil erosion, loss of tree cover, decreased productivity of fuel, fodder and food, to name a few. These problems are further being complicated due to ever increasing anthropogenic pressure. Maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility is not only vital for food security and environmental sustainability in the Shivalik hills, but all over the globe. Agroforestry is frequently proposed as a solution to problems of land and water degradation as well as an answer to shortages of food, fodder and fuel in the Shivaliks, and the same holds true for Jammu Shivaliks. Substantial environmental benefits accrue from planting trees. Suitable tree crop combinations as well as their management practices need to be worked out. Growing of trees and grasses in agroforestry systems such as agrihorticulture, silvipastoral, agrisilvipastoral are specially suited for Shivalik hills keeping in view their role in soil and water conservation. Additional agroforestry component i.e, animals can further hasten the ameliorative effect of agroforestry. In all, combination of trees, crops and/or animals on the same unit of land holds great potential for contributing to sustainable land use system which can help in conserving soil and water besides providing innumerable socio-economic benefits.

ABSTRACT

Survey and research trial conducted for the selection of promising tree based farming system in Paonta valley region of H.P. have been summarized in the manuscript. Tree based farming innovations with intercropping, their planting technology and geometry around field/ farm, pure plantation , block plantation of trees grown with agricultural/fruit crops for better productivity per unit of land have been suggested for improving socio-economic condition of the regional farmers.

ABSTRACT

The paper discusses the problems of soil and water erosion in the Shivalik foot hills and suggests strategies for improved land use planning and the role bamboo species can play in mitigating the problems. The paper also discusses the various bamboo species of the Shivalik foothills, their regeneration, planting practices, management and utilization pattern in detail.

Soil is defined as the thin layer of earth’s crust made up of disintegrated and decomposed rocks, complex mineral compound, organic matter, water/air and living organism like bacteria, fungi, insects and worms and serves as the natural medium of growth of plants.

• It provides nutrients, moisture, anchorage (support) and provides air to root system.
• There are different soil groups found in varied regions of India.
• Each group differs from other in physical and chemical properties.
• The variation in behaviour is mainly due to the nature of the parent material from which the soils are formed.
• Parent materials are Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
• Physical properties like structure, texture, colour, water holding capacity, depth etc. are to be noted. Chemical properties like the presence of various plant elements, pH, EC, CEC, acidic or alkaline, etc. are considered.

Harvesting: “Removal of entire plant or economic parts after maturity from the field" is called harvesting. It includes the operation of cutting, picking, plucking or digging or a combination of these for removing the useful part or economic part from the plants / crops. The portion of the stem that is left in the field after harvest is called as stubble. The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant.

Harvest Index: (H.I): It is the ratio of the economic yield to the total biological yield expressed as percentage.

H.I = Economic yield / Biological yield x 100

Time of Harvesting: If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture and more immature ill filled and shriveled grains. High moisture leads to pest attack and reduction in germination percentage and impairs the grain quality.

Late harvesting results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting during rainy season and breakage during processing.

India shares 17.4% of the world population, while its land is only 2.4% of the total geographical area of the world. Naturally, the pressure on the land is often beyond its carrying capacity. Therefore, the productive lands, especially the farmlands in India are in the constant process of various degrees of degradation and are fast turning into wastelands. At present, approximately 63.85 million hectare area of the land is lying as wastelands in India (NRSA, 2005). Out of these lands, about 50% lands are such non-forest lands, which can be made fertile again if treated properly. In the last 50 years India’s lush green village forests and woodlots have been deforested to the maximum. To restore this ecological imbalance by developing the degraded non-forest wastelands, Government of India had created the Department of Wasteland Development during July, 1992 under the Ministry of Rural Development, which has been subsequently reorganized and renamed Department of Land Resources, with a broader mandate.

National Wasteland Development Board was established in 1985 mainly to tackle the problem of degradation of lands, restoration of ecology and to meet the growing demands of fuelwood and fodder at the national level. The Board was reconstituted in August, 1992 and was made responsible for development of wastelands mainly in non- forest areas in totality by involving local people at every stage of development. It aims at creating a scenario where the Government acts as a facilitator and the people at the grass root level become the real executioner of the programme. The degradation of environment in the fragile Indian subtropical ecosystem is basically attributed to the following factors.

The main objective of any cropping system is to utilize available resources efficiently viz., land, water, solar radiation by maintaining stability in production in order to obtain higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time. The objective of traditional agriculture was to increase the production by two means

1. By increasing area under cultivation
2. By increasing the productivity per unit area of the crop

But two more dimensions are added to modern agriculture

1. To increase the production per unit time
2. To increase the production per unit space

In the traditional cropping systems, mixtures and rotations were developed by the farmers over years of experience by trial and error to suit specific ecological and sociological conditions to attain yield stability, whereas modern scientific cropping has three pillars viz.

Biointensive IPM incorporates ecological and economic factors into agricultural system design and decision making while addressing public concerns about environmental quality and food safety. It provides suitable guidelines and options for the effective management of pests and beneficial organisms in an ecological context in a holistic self-sustaining manner. The flexibility and environmental compatibility of the Biointensive IPM strategy make it useful in all types of cropping systems particularly in an agro-biodiversity rich ecosystem.

Introduction

Banana (Musa sp; family: Musaceae) is the second most important fruit crop in India next to mango. Its year round availability, affordability, varietal range, taste, nutritive and medicinal value makes it the favorite fruit among all classes of people. It has also good export potential. Banana evolved in the humid tropical regions of South East Asia with India as one of its center of origin. Modern edible varieties have evolved from the two species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana and their natural hybrids, originally found in the rain forests of S.E. Asia. During the seventh century AD its cultivation spread to Egypt and Africa. Banana and plantains are grown in about 120 countries. Total annual world production is estimated at 86 million tonnes of fruits. India leads the world in banana production with an annual output of about 14.2 million tonnes. Other leading producers are Brazil, Eucador, China, Phillipines, Indonesia, Costarica, Mexico, Thailand and Colombia. In India banana ranks first in production and third in area among fruit crops. It accounts for 13% of the total area and 33% of the production of fruits. Production is highest in Maharashtra (3924.1 thousand tones) followed by Tamil Nadu (3543.8 thousand tonnes). Within India, Maharashtra has the highest productivity of 65.70 metric tones /ha. against national average of 30.5 tonnes/ha. The other major banana producing states are Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Assam.