eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

Wine is the alcoholic product obtained by fermentation of fruits like grape, plum, peach, pear, apple and apricot (see chapter 25). Different types of wine which can be made from various fruits are:

• Table wines
• Fortified wines
• Sparkling wines

In preparation of table, fortified and sparkling wine many steps are common. It is out of scope of this text to discuss these specialized wines. But the general steps involved to in wine making are described here.

1. INTRODUCTION

Wild fruits are highly nutritious and contain vitamins, carbohydrates, protein and minerals in higher quantity than majority of other common cultivated fruits. They are also a rich source of several bioactive substances, compared to the cultivated fruits. In India,these wild fruit trees grow abundantly across an altitudinal gradient of Himalaya and the majority of them bear fruits during summer. Fruit varieties are consumed by the local inhabitants of the region. At the same time, there are numerous under exploited species of wild fruits having high potential for exploitation viz., Bael (Aegle marmelos CL.), Berberis asiatica DC, Seabuckthorn (Hippophae sp.,) Rubus sp., Prunus armeniaca L., Karonda (Carissa carandas L.) Bitter Almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch Smith), Feijoa sp. Among the wild fruits, Hippophae sp.was found to be economically efficient, followed by Aegle marmelos, Rubus ellipticus Smith, respectively. Wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), a semi-domesticated and less utilized fruit of the higher Himalaya, provides better economic returns on an annual basis. Attempts have been made to utilize these wild fruits as a source of income, particularly for poor rural inhabitants and unemployed youths of the region by making a variety of edible products such as jam, jelly, juice, squash, sauce, wine etc. Here in this article, production of wine, vermouth and brandy from wild fruits would be focused. But before discussing preparation of wine and brandy in detail, we shall be describing the general process of wine and brandy making first, then the products from the specific wild fruits.

1. INTRODUCTION

Wine is an ancient fermented product as revealed by the wine jugs recovered (Plate 1) during excavation from different places. Wine is made all over the world and wine produced in each region from different parts of the world has different characteristics. Development and implementation of practices and policies for sustainable growth of grapes and other fruits is the most essential component for the growth and development of wine industry. The science dealing with wine production, evaluation and consumption is known as 'Oenology'. For the introduction of wine, several aspects influence the wine quality are style, the consumer perception and finally, the marketing are taken in account. Factors related with fruit growing, ripening, micro organisms and other verification factors need to be considered in wine production.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food processing industries are engaged in production of different types of processed products and generate various types of wastes. These wastes, whether solid or liquid, on one hand are a direct loss to the producer or manufacturer and on the other hand create environmental pollution, if not disposed properly. Therefore, the processors would always like to minimize these wastes. The generation of wastes not only cause economic losses but would also require additional cost for their management and disposal. As a matter of fact, it is often estimated that proper use of efficient machinery and careful handling during various operations can lead to more than 50% reduction in losses.

In general, the wastes from the food processing industries are either not utilized or primarily utilized as animal feed, fertilizer and in preparation of by-products on a limited extent. Many of the wastes such as cuttings and shreds from the fruit and vegetable processing industry can be used as animal feed. Fruit and vegetables wastes can also be used for extraction of starch, pectin, natural colouring matter, fat, essential oils etc. Wheat and maize bran alongwith palm kernel are used for the production of feed for chickens. Various oils and oleoresins having enormous pharmaceutical properties can be obtained from the spice processing industry.

Fermentation is a cheap and energy efficient means of preserving perishable raw materials. It commonly does not require any sophisticated equipment, neither is the storage of fermented products a big issue. Fermented foods play an important role in providing food security, enhancing livelihoods and improving the nutrition and social well being of millions of people around the world, particularly the marginalised and vulnerable population across the developing countries.

1. INTRODUCTION

With diverse agro-climatic conditions, India produces a wide variety of horticultural crops and out of these crops and out of these apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) occupies a prominent position in India. It is processed into different products like juice, concentrates, wine, cider, canned slices etc. Apple processing is one of the major industries in countries of the world including India, where it is processed in different states like H.P, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttarakhand. Apple pomace is a left-over residue after juice extraction containing peel, seeds and remaining solid parts and represents about 25-35% of the weight of the fresh apple processed. At prasent, it is a waste and its disposal is a major environmental problem (Plate 1). Being precious natural resources its utilization is a challenge and opportunity to the scientists and technologists. It may be a good substrate for the pectin esterase enzyme, animal feed, citric acid, ethanol and biocolour production. It could be a good substrate for the production of microbial colours under SSF which otherwise require a costlier medium for its production. Different products using solid state fermentation of apple pomace forms the subject matter of this chapter. Here the efforts made to utilize apple pomace especially to explore the possibility of making value added products using Solid State Fermentation (SSF) have been summarized.

1. INTRODUCTION

Stone fruits belonging to family Rosaceae (sub family-Prunoideae) include several important fruit crops like peach, plum, apricot, cherries, nectarines etc. The World production of these stone fruits is approximately 45.49 million tones; out of which 39.61 million tones stone fruits are grown in Asia and India contributes 6.67 million tones of stone fruits annually. Among all the stone fruits Peach, Plum and Apricot production in world is 24.98, 12.05 and 4.11 million tones, respectively whereas India alone produces 287778, 261903 and 17862 metric tones of peach, plum and apricot, respectively (Table 1). These stone fruits are grown extensively in USA, Spain, France, Italy, Turkey, Morocco, Iran, Africa and Australia. In India, these are grown in J&K, Himachal Pradesh sub-mountainous tracts of Punjab, Uttarakhand, North East States and to the limited extent in the Nilgiris hills. Primarily, these stone fruits are used for table purposes or processed to prepare various types of value added products like jam, jelly, marmalades, preserves, baby foods, nectar, juices, squashes, concentrates, ready-to-serve beverages, wines and also processed into dried products.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food additives have been used for centuries in food processing practices such as smoking and salting of meat. Prior to the advent of refrigeration, food grown in the summer had to be preserved for the winter. Salt, sugar, and vinegar were commonly used preservatives. Additives serve many roles and their common uses includes maintaining product consistency and palatability, providing leavening or controlling pH, enhancing flavour and imparting colour. A food additive can be defined in many ways. The Codex Alimentarius Commission, which develops international regulatory guidelines for food additives, provides the following definition of a food additive:

"Any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself, and not normally used as a typical ingredient of the food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food results, or may reasonably be expected to result, (directly or indirectly), in it or its by-products becoming a component of or otherwise affecting the characteristics of such food. The term does not include contaminants or substances added to food for maintaining or improving nutritional qualities".

F.A.O and W.H.O in 1956 defines food additives as non-nutritive substances added intentionally to food, generally in small quantities, to improve its appearance, flavour, or storage properties. The definition did not include vitamins and minerals. Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FASSI) in 2011 defines food additives “as any substances which is added to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation or treatment of such food and affects the characteristics of such food, but does” not include contaminats or any substance(s) added to the food maintaining or improving the nutritional values. Food additives are those added intentionally to foods and are not naturally a part of a food but can be a part of food unintentionally.

1. INTRODUCTION

Enzymes are proteins with highly specialized catalytic functions responsible for many essential biochemical reactions in microorganisms, plants, animals and human beings. Enzymes play an important role in many aspects of life since the dawn of civilization that have used enzymes for thousands of years without understanding what they were or how they work. Food processing through the use of biological agents/enzymes is historically a well-established approach. The earliest applications go back to 6000 BC or earlier, with the brewing of beer, bread baking, cheese and wine making. Whereas the first purposeful microbial oxidation dates back 2000 BC, with vinegar production. In the late 19^thcentury, Christian Hansen reported the use of rennet for cheese making and production of bacterial amylases was started at Takamine (latter became part of Genencor). Pectinases have been used for juice clarification in the 1930s and during World War II, invertase was also employed the production of invert sugar syrup in a process that pioneered the use of immobilized enzymes in the sugar industry. Still, the large-scale application of enzymes could only be really established in the 1960s, when the traditional acid hydrolysis of starch was replaced by an approach based in the use of amylases and amyloglucosidases (glucoamylases) and glucose (xylose) isomerase. From then onward, the trend for the design and implementation of processes and production of products by the use of enzymes has steadily increased.

Food and beverages and household care industries represent the largest application areas of enzymes, followed by animal feed, biofuels, textile and other technical industries. Recently, several new developments have taken place in the application of enzymes in fruit and vegetable processing. Fruits and vegetables are consumed as fresh or processed into different type of products. Commercial enzyme preparations are used as processing aids in fruit and vegetable processing to improve the process efficiency and product quality, because enzymes show activity on specific substrates under mild processing conditions. Therefore, there has been a striking growth in the enzyme market for applications in the fruit and vegetable industry.

1. INTRODUCTION

Colour affects every moments of our lives, strongly influencing the cloths we wear, the furnishing in our house and garden, and the appeal of foods. Not only this, colour aids the recognition of food and also has psychological appeal on the enjoyment of food. It is also one of the first characteristic perceived by our senses and help in determining acceptability, judging the quality and basic aesthetic value of food. Addition of colour to the food ensures the uniformity and intensifies the naturally occurring pigments in our food. To achieve this, historically natural or bio-colours have been used extensively till the end of 19^th century, when synthetic colours called ‘coal tar dyes’ were developed that acquired a widespread acceptability. But unfortunately, these are not totally safe for human consumption; for example high levels of erythrosine intake causes thyroid tumors, while Ponceau 4R, tartrazine and sunset yellow were found to be allergic. Many dyes used as colourant have been proved to be carcinogenic. The consumer wants to see the food looking natural as the synthetic colours have been proved to be carcinogenic to humans. Thus, increasing consumer awareness for natural products with almost no chemical additive and certified dyes (which was earlier considered safe) has necessitated the need to exploit food colourants of natural origin. Natural colours are generally extracted from materials of biological origin like fruits, vegetables, seeds, roots and microorganisms, and are often called as ‘Biocolours’. Microorganisms like Rhodotorula, Sarcina, Chromobacter have been proved to be a good source of biocolour.Colour has also been successfully produced from microorganisms using apple pomace as a base for the growth medium of biocolour producing microorganisms.

1. INTRODUCTION

Flavour is a distinctive property of a substance affecting the gustatory sense. It may be defined as “The sum of those characteristics of any material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell, and interpreted by the brain.” Flavour perception is a complex process which requires the particles to be mixed with saliva and salivary enzymes to promote the release of flavour. Flavour molecules are very diverse in nature. More than 5000 compounds in food have been identified as flavour components which can be detected at very low concentration and are thus, used in products at very low levels. Hexenols and hexenals, characteristic of green taste of fresh fruits and vegetables, can be perceived at a concentration of about 1 part per million (ppm). Naturally occuring flavour compounds are present at a very low concentration ranging from parts per trillions (ppt) to parts per millions (ppm) level. Majority of these compounds are volatile, with boiling points in the range of 20-300 °C. Most of these compounds are lipophilic and possess a great diversity of chemical group and structure with molecular weight ranging between 50-250 g/mol.

Flavour and fragrance compounds are a part of expanding industry with an estimated cost of nearly $27 billion. These comprise of diverse molecules with unique structures and functional groups that contribute to varied aroma and flavour, ranging from floral to fruity notes. The processing operations modify the equilibrium between the different components in raw food that might weaken the original flavour, which require subsequent supplementation. These flavour supplements can be natural or chemically synthesized. Of all the available flavour compounds, around 80% are produced by chemical synthesis whose use is limited due to formation of racemic mixtures and lack of substrate specificity. The growing awareness of consumers towards chemicals supplemented to food has led to the development of the flavouring compounds of biological origin referred to as natural flavours or bioflavours. The first major source of flavour compounds was primarily from plants. Identification of microbes producing vital food flavourants paved the way for alternative low cost, efficient and flexible method for the commercial production of flavour compounds.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food processing involves the use of wide range of unit operations and technologies to transform the raw, bulky and perishable food into more shelf-stable, palatable and marketable food products. Food processing is one of the most effective solution to reduce the wastages, improves the quality and safety aspects of food products, increase the food availability and marketability. Fruits and vegetables are considered as an integral part of any dietary system as these are rich sources of vitamins, minerals and dietary fibres. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables after Brazil and China which contributes 10 % of world fruit production and 14 % of world vegetable production. Fruits and vegetables are more prone to spoilage as compared to cereals due to their nature and composition. The spoilage can be occurr at the time of harvesting, handling transportation, storage, marketing and processing that results in lot of wastage in the form of seeds, pulps, peels etc. Efficient management of these wastes can help in preserving vital nutrients of fruits and vegetables, and bringing down the cost of production of processed foods, besides minimizing pollution hazards. In India, processing of fruits and vegetables is extremely low as compared to the developed countries.

Biotechnology can help in the bio-processing of fruits and vegetables for the production of novel products having better sensory and nutritional qualities, improved shelf life. Bio-processes involve the use of different micro-organisms and enzymes along with modern biotechnological techniques like genetic engineering.

1. INTRODUCTION

Packaging waste forms a significant part of solid waste and has caused increasing environmental concerns, resulting in strengthening of various regulations aimed at reducing the amounts generated. A wide range of oil-based polymers is currently used for packaging of various products by different industries including the food industry. These are virtually non-biodegradable and some are difficult to recycle or re-use as they are complex composites having varying levels of contaminants and pose serious health concerns. In the recent years, the use of bio-based and biodegradable products as packaging material has generated a lot of interest amongst researchers as they bring out a significant contribution to sustainable development with a wider range of disposal options.

Bioplastics are polymers that are capable of undergoing decomposition into CO₂, H₂O and inorganic compounds or biomass through predominantly the enzymatic action of microorganisms. Some of these polymers can also be compostable, which leads to their decomposition in a compost site at a rate consistent with known compostable materials. The market for these environmentally friendly materials is expanding rapidly, at the rate of 10–20 per cent per year. The global market for biodegradable polymers exceeds 114 million pounds and is expected to rise at an average annual growth rate of 12.6 per cent to 206 million pounds by 2020.

Bio-based packaging materials are mostly used to pack short shelf-life products, like fresh fruits and vegetables, and long shelf-life products, like pasta and chips, which do not require very high oxygen and/or water barrier properties. However, the inventory of films shows a wide variety in properties, which could make them applicable as a packaging material for other food products with stricter conditions, like MAP packaging. One of the challenges faced by the food packaging industry in its efforts to produce bio-based primary packaging, is to match the durability of the packaging with product shelf-life. The bio-based material offers great potential for the packaging industry. However, it is important to realize that a thorough evaluation of the functional properties of a bio-based material is essential before it can be used as an alternative for the traditional film materials.

1. INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Sensory evaluation is one of the important methods of evaluation of the quality of food. Without the sensory evaluation of a product whether it is fresh or processed, it cannot be launched in the market. All the other methods like physical, chemical and microbiological fails for the product development if sensory evaluation is ignored as the final acceptance can come from the sensory evaluation only. So sensory evaluation has got an upper edge as compared to the other methods of food quality evaluation. However, a collective approach of quality evaluation of a product that includes the physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory evaluation is the most acceptable approach today.

In the past, human sensory perception had been the only mean of assessment of product quality as illustrated by the classical examples of cooks who knew how to mask the off-notes long before the microbial assessment of quality came into existence. Everybody relied on the sensory evaluation of food as a criterion of quality assessment. In the past, even the kings depended upon “tasters” to assure that the food was suitable for their consumption in the past. The role of sensory organs in sensory evaluation of food is shown in Table 1. But later on, with the development of instrumentation, sensory analysis was overlooked and the instrumental methods were preferred as they were supposed to provide absolute measures of quality. Consequently, the product quality was traditionally determined by physical, chemical and microbiological criteria with the assumption that the products meeting the prescribed specifications in the above parameters would automatically meet the desired sensory quality. However, soon it was realized that without sensory evaluation, the acceptability of a product cannot be determined.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sensory science is the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation and includes our basic understanding of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could unfold the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) methodology was first described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be the impediments in solving “the problem of flavour characterization” Further, new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by the food industry, but much more needed in be done if it is to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food and it is taste plus odour. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volatile tastants by the tongue while in other words, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all the possible flavour stimuli that could be encountered is as vast as the galaxy.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables are increasing in popularity in the daily diet of people of both the developed and developing countries. Product quality and quality evaluation methods are extremely important. The decisions concerning harvesting, maturity, ripeness and quality are based mostly on subjective and visual inspection of the external appearance of the fruits. The quality of fruits and vegetable is mostly based on size, shape, colour, gloss, flavour, firmness, texture, taste and freedom from external and internal defect. Many techniques for evaluating the external quality parameters are now available commercially. Internal quality parameters such as sugar content, acidity, oil content and internal defects however, are difficult to evaluate. Methods are needed to predict the internal quality of fruits and vegetable better without destroying them. Recently, there have been an increasing interest in non-destructive method of quality evaluation and a considerable amount of efforts has been made in this direction. The development of science and technology, especially of information technology has made available many non-destructive methods of analysis of materials which can also be applied to fruits and vegetables. The fruit industry needs non-destructive techniques for online sorting and certifying high quality fruit.

Non-destructive method can be classified according to the principle used to detect fruit properties; mechanical, acoustic, optical and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (MRI) Techniques.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism’s cells in an effort to produce energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. A food contains some non-nutrients, some of which may even have a detrimental influence on the consumers, while some may be inert and have no effect. Nature has endowed many plants with the capacity to synthesize a wide variety of chemical substances that are known to exert a deleterious effect when ingested by animals and are called as antimetabolites. These substances are also referred to as antinutritional factors when they are present in food/feedstuffs and influence a metabolic pathway when introduced into and/or eaten by an organism.

There is a wide distribution of biologically-active constituents throughout the plant kingdom, particularly in plants, used as animal feed stuff and as human food. The knowledge that these compounds elicit both toxic and advantageous biological responses has given rise to several investigations in recent times as to their possible physiological implications in various biological systems. It is well known that plants generally, contain antinutrients acquired from fertilizer and pesticides and several naturally-occurring chemicals. Some of these chemicals are known as ‘‘secondary metabolites’’ and they have been shown to be highly biologically active. They include saponins, tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, trypsin (protease) inhibitors, oxalates, phytates, haemagluttinins (lectins), cyanogenic glycosides, cardiac glycosides, coumarins and gossypol and the list is inexhaustible. Some of these plant chemicals have been shown to be deleterious to health or evidently dis-advantageous to human and animal health, if consumed in appropriate amounts. Most of these secondary metabolites elicit very harmful biological responses, while others are widely applied in nutrition and as pharmacologically-active agents. The pharmacological and other beneficial effects of these antinutritional factors in plants have been reviewed here.

1. INTRODUCTION

Marketing is a general term used to describe the activities that lead to the sale of your product. It is the process of planning and executing pricing, promotion and distribution programs to satisfy customer needs. It involves collecting information, analyzing alternative market outlets, developing different product forms, pricing products to compete in the marketplace, defining the scope of the proposed market area and meeting consumers’ needs. So marketing is more than just selling a product or service. It is an essential part of any business. Without a good marketing program, even the best businesses fails.

Value-added agricultural groups typically don’t pay enough attention to marketing. Selling agricultural commodities usually only involves hauling the commodities to a market where there is usually a willing buyer. So farmers often spend their time analyzing brick and mortar issues associated with processing and manufacturing (making the product rather than marketing the product). Often the attitude is that, if we make the product, someone will come along and buy it. So value-added agricultural businesses consistently fail because they do not understand the importance of designing and implementing a good marketing program.

As a first step, ‘A Marketing Primer and Marketing Basics’ will help you with a basic understanding of marketing. Successful marketing involves designing and implementing a marketing strategy for your product. Marketing Strategies provide generic strategies for various types of products and product buyers. In a simple term, marketing activities and strategies result in making products available that satisfy customers while making profits for the companies that offer those products.

Beverage is a drinkable product which includes all drinks fermented or unfermented, sweetened or unsweetened. It may be fruit based or non-fruit beverage. Fruit based beverage is the fruit juice that has been considerably altered in its composition before consumption e.g. drink, squash, nectar etc. In this chapter, preparation of RTS drink and squash has been discussed.

1. PREPARATION OF READY-TO-SERVE (RTS) DRINK FROM FRUITS

Theory: RTS is a type of fruit beverage which contains at least 10% of fruit juice and 10 degree Brix as Total Soluble Solids (TSS) with 0.3% acidity. It is not diluted before serving, hence it is known as ready-to-serve beverage. It can be prepared from fresh/preserved pulp/juice of various fruits like mango, litchi, apricot, guava, lemon etc.

PRACTICAL 1: PREPARATION OF READY-TO-COOK MUSHROOM PASTA

Pasta is a product originally made from wheat and is of different shapes and sizes. It is generally rich in carbohydrate but is deficient in protein especially amino acid balance. Therefore, addition of spices and dried vegetables may solve this problem. Moreover, fortification of pasta with tomato, garlic, mushroom or spinach makes it nutritious for consumption. Since instant foods are widely becoming popular and consumed throughout the world and is also a fast growing sector of the noodle industry because of busy life schedule of people.

FRUIT TOFFEES

Fruit toffees can be prepared from different fruits like apricot, plum, apple and other fruits. Concentrate the fruit pulp to about half of its volume by cooking with sugar and other ingredients. Milk powder should be added in the form of paste. Heavy stirring is required till it hardens enough on cooling.

EXPERIMENT: MINIMAL PROCESSING OF CAULIFLOWER (FREEZING PRESERVATION AND STEEPING PRESERVATION)

Materials and reagents

Material : Fresh cauliflower, glass jars, polythene pouches

Reagents: 15% sodium chloride

EXPERIMENT

TECHNOLOGY FOR EXTRACTION OF KERNEL OIL FROM STONE FRUITS

Apricot, peach, plum, cherries, nectarines etc are the important stone fruits belonging to the family Rosaceae. These fruits are known to contain stones/pits i.e., apricot (6.0-11.5%), peach (7.5-11.5%), plum (4.5-7.0%) and these stones are reported to contain kernels (%) apricot (28.0-32.0%), peach (5.7-5.9%), plum (10.0-20.8%), almond (28.0-30.0%). These kernels can yield an oil yield of (42.5-45.5%), (38.5-41.5%), (39.2-40.6%) and (52.0-58.9%), respectively. Thus, these stone fruit kernels can be utilized for extraction of kernel oil by using the improved technology developed for extraction of oil. The developed technology consists of mechanical decortication of stones by the use of mechanical decorticator, kernel separation by using specific gravity separation technique, oil extraction by using table oil expeller and oil filtration through oil filter press followed by packing in PET bottles and PE pouches.

Mechanical decorticator: The mechanical decorticator is a type of roller crusher consisting of two rollers moving in inward opposite directions with the help of 3 HP motor and is provided with a hopper and feeder assembly. The clearance between two rollers is adjusted according to the respective size of stones.

Table oil expeller: Oil expeller is a 24 patti screw type oil expeller driven by 7HP motor, in which the kernels are fed into the moving hopper at pre-determined flow rate, which are pressed in between rollers (worm) and side walls of the expeller. The kernels are then, passed through the expeller 3-4 times until a thin slice of press cake is obtained.

1. INTRODUCTION

During fermentation, the fruit wines have to be monitored for different parameters to know the progress of fermentation and to control the quality of the finished products. It is essential to maintain the quality of the products, for which it is necessary to keep a complete record of wine fermentation. One such form is the fermentation control record or fermentation logbook, which is kept to monitor and record fermentation progress. It includes the name of fruit, variety, original characteristics of juice/pulp, amelioration, tank number, inoculum type and quantities, sampling time, date of start of fermentation and completion. It should also have daily record of temperature of fermentation, total soluble solid or ^oBrix reading, titrable acidity and volatile acidity, racking time/date and other comments on the fermentation. Fermentation control records should be completed and all new wines be entered in the bulk wine book inventory, the annual supplemental records can be kept in a file entitled, for example ‘Vintage season 2018’.

During the last decade organic agriculture has emerged as a dynamic alternate farming system. This has been necessitated as a consequence of resource degradation because of to achieving high yields in various crops to meet the increasing demand of food by the burgeoning population. These have resulted in change in soil structure, imbalance in soil micro-organisms and organic matter, resistance among various weeds to weedicides, increased salinity, sodicity and have affected the water holding capacity of the soil and brought in health and environmental problems. Organic farming is a specified form of diversified agriculture that not only aims to produce nutritious food of high quality but also lead to the generation of more income and employment opportunities for rural population. In true sense, organic farming is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, growth regulators, livestock feed additives and pesticides. Moreover, it relies on agronomic management practices like crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farming organic wastes and aspect of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity.

The inability of Indian agriculture to meet the demand for food in the country during the two and half decades immediately after independence had been a matter of concern at those times. The system of our agriculture based on the traditional knowledge and practices handed down from generation to generation could not produce enough to feed the increasing population. The ignominy of our dependence for food on the western developed nations and the politics of food aid practiced by them added to our determination to be self-sufficient in food production by modernizing agriculture. The green revolution fulfilled our aspirations by changing India from a food importing to a food exporting nation. However, the achievement was at the expense of ecology and environment and to the detriment of the well-being of the people.

Plant breeding is described as an art and science of changing the genetic architecture of plants with a goal towards betterment of mankind. Apart from this generalized concept, plant breeding is accomplished through inter-disciplinary mode assorted from simple selection in a variable plant-population having some desirable traits to the application of biotechnology and more. Worldwide, cultivars of different crops are routinely manufactured by Multinational and National level Industries, Government Institutions, Universities, Crop specific Organizations, professional plant breeders and even by the individuals such as gardeners and farmers.

Plant breeding is basically operated by the principles of Genetics where selections are practiced from a variable population and the selected variation needs to be inherited. Three categorized broad goals of plant breeding are 1) high yield 2) uplift in quality and 3) resistance against biotic and abiotic stress.

Spice crops are known to add nutritive value and increase the palatability as well as quality of food. Therapeutic uses of spices are also well recognised. The spice industry in India and trade has shown stunning progress over the last 5 years with 120% increase in revenue which is very close to touch $ 3 billion. East Asia is the major market for spices, followed by America and the European Union and the world spice trade has almost touched $ 17 billion by 2020. So, increased production is of paramount importance across the world and the potential is increasing. On the other hand, quality improvement is one of the primary objectives of spice crop breeding apart from achieving high yield. Cultivar and species diversity are the principal components of diversity of spices (Sasikumar et al. 1999; Krishnamoorthy et al., 1997; Prasath and Venugopal, 2004). A good amount of variability is found in many important Indian spices like black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, curry leaf, ginger, garcinia, tamarind and turmeric. A number of cultivars have been released followed by intra-germplasm evaluation and selection in spices. Contribution of recombination breeding is less in spice crops with regard to other field crops and a number of valuable varieties have been bred by clonal and seedling selection (Peter, 2008). Deployment of high yielding, water use efficient, climate resilient genotypes and technologies are also necessary.

A. General Morphology

2.1 The Root

It is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil.The root is best defined as the non-leaf, non-nodes bearing parts of the plant’s body. However, important internal structural differences between stems and roots exist. Root spices are, rather surprisingly, rare. Some popular examples of spices having roots are: Apium graveolens (Celery), Armoracia rusticana (Horse radish), Coriandrum sativum (Coriander), Ferula asafoetida (Asafetida), Glycyrrhiza glabra (Licorice), Levisticum officinale (Lovage), (Petroselinum crispum (Parsley), etc. All of the mentioned plants have aromatic roots.Roots of gingiberaceae are adventitious and storage roots arise from among the nodes of these scales.

Since historical times, Indian spices have been contributed not only to the country’s wealth and prosperity but also to the subcontinent itself as a whole. Spices precisely witnessed many wars, bloodshed, armoury alongwith the glowing accounts and adventurous voyage by Pliny, Ptolemy, Marco Polo, Vasco da Gamma and other travelers. The Southern parts of India, especially the Malabar Coast, with its abundance of the World’s best pepper, cinnamon and ginger was enormously creating impact of a plethora of spices which attracted the foreign trade and continue even today by creating a unique brand value globally. In the past, invaders travelled to India by overcoming many odds and barriers with the prime focus on capturing spice trade and dominating the trade scenario of those days throughout the world. As a result, gradually Indian spices travelled far and wide to traditional destinations by providing flavor, aroma, pungency, taste and colour to a variety of foods and beverages.

It was the end of 18^th century, from when scientific research began on the idea of origin of cultivated plants. The pioneers of this field were Darwin, Alphonse de Candolle, N.I Vavilov and many more. Charles Darwin wrote his famous book ‘On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection’, or the ‘Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life’ published on 24^th November 1859. According to him, cultivated plants may have originated from its wild form after a series of intense modifications. Afterwards, a Swiss botanist Alphonse de Candolle studied 247 cultivated plant species and documented his work in the book “Origin of cultivated plants” in 1886. Later, Vavilov first identified the Centres of origin. He could determine the origin of plants by analyzing the pattern of variation and proposed that, crop plants have been evolved from their wild species in the geographic region of the greatest genetic diversity of that particular plant. That area is known as the primary centres of origin of the particular plant. But, some crop species were found to show substantial genetic diversity even though they did not originate there. Such areas are known as secondary centres of origin for that particular species.

Cultivated plants in general including the spice crops observed today have been evolved through selections from their weedy and wild types. Apart from this, there had been another force which could bring the wild forms into cultivated forms named human intervention which is actually the process of domestication. Natural mutations and genetic recombination after selfing and crossing also played a significant role in the entire process. Whereas, natural forces take a long time to come into act, the techniques of plant breeding was devised and fine tuned throughout passing of times, essentially to accelerate the speed of evolution using these natural phenomenons. It was, therefore, mandatory for us to know the modes of reproduction and pollination to create variability in natural population and make all thise happen to what we see today in organised cultivated forms. Moreover, knowledge on reproduction of different plant species helps the breeder to choose the right breeding procedure to be used for crop improvement. Modes of reproduction help to evaluate the genetic constitution of crop plants by determining the extent of homozygosity or heterozygosity which, in turn, are unanimously applicable to any plant. To comprehend modes of reproduction in spice crops effectively, understanding about the floral biology is absolutely necessary. Plant reproduction, a process by which one species gives birth to its offsprings, may be of two types

Pollination

Pollination is the act of transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organ of a plant to the female reproductive organ of same or another plant.

Pollination is of two types

5.1 Self Pollination

It is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower from where the anthers have been generated. Thus, self pollination happens to be denominated as autogamy where auto means “same” and gamy means “union”. Obviously, self pollination is found in bisexual flowers. But self pollination also occurs when pollen is transferred from one bisexual flower to the stigma of another bisexual flower of the same plant. This kind of autogamy is known as geitonogamy. So, self pollination has to be defined keeping the parent plant on the main focus not the flower. If genetical consequences are considered, self pollination promotes the occurance of purelines or homozygotes. Self pollinating species developed themselves evolutionary fit due to homozygous balance and do not exhibit significant inbreeding depression.

6.1 Introduction

Plant breeding is the indispensible component of elevating production and productivity of spices by evolving high yielding and/or with good quality type. Thereby, the practice of identification and selection of desirable traits and introgression of those characters in a single plant is being done since the beginning of organized agricultural activities by humankind. The act of plant breeding was reshaped and got a momentum with a scientific basis after the discovery and rather rediscovery of Mendel’s laws. Worldwide, humankind could enjoy the direct benefits of methodical plant breeding during green revolution. Manipulation of genetic architecture for creating variation in the population and successive selection is the basic of all kinds of crop breeding. But the process of creation of variability and selection differs from crop to crop depending on their mode of reproduction. It is comparatively easier to get a new homogeneous population in self pollinating plants. Therefore, segregating generations are handled differently in these two categories of self and cross pollinated crops.

7.1 Plant Tissue Culture

Spices have great socio-economic impact in moden food habit of human but loss of resources day by day due to various reasons (industrialization, high population pressure) make the access of these valuable spices limited to people. Low production is general phenomena of common spices due to lack of high yielding varieties. Hence there is a need to improve the propagation method to meet the gap between demand and supply. Conventional vegatative propagation method is common approach for propagation but low multiplication rate, seasonal dependency and susceptible to abiotic stresses and diseases are major problems to achieve the optimum productivity. To overcome these drawbacks scientists have chosen the plant tissue culture technique (a modern approach of biotechnology which deals with the propagation the valuable/endangered plants under laboratory condition). Details about this technique and its role on spices are given below.

Plant Tissue Culture: Basic Components and Objectives

The technique of growing of a whole plant cell, tissue or organ under an aseptic condition in suitable synthetic medium is termed as plant tissue culture (Thorpe, 2007). De-differentiation and re-differentiation are two essential fundamental processes which help in the physio-morphological development of the plant.

8.1 Black Pepper Breeding

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L., family:Piperaceae), known as the ‘King of Spices’ and “Black gold”, is one of the important spices since time immemorial and perhaps the oldest spice regarded globally. It is a perennial climber grown for its fruits that are used as spice with plethora of medicinal properties. Black pepper is also very important in traditional medicine (Ravindran, 2000). However, it is mainly valued for its characteristic pungency and flavour, as an ingredient in food preparations and also as a condiment.

Genetic Resources

World’s largest collection of black pepper germplasm is maintained by the Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR) at Kozhikode, Kerala, containing local cultivars, wild forms collected from the area of origin and related species. At present there are about 3466 accessions, consisting of 1266 wild relatives, 2062 cultivars, in addition to 9 exotic collections maintained in India. These collections were characterized and evaluated to estimate the genetic diversity for various yield and quality characters. Cultivar diversity is one of the principal components of diversity in black pepper. The cultivars are evolved directly from the wild P. nigrum.

Oilseed Crops consist of those groups of plants cultivated for substantial quantities of the oil, vegetable fat obtained from the seeds (endosperm) of the plants.

The major oilseeds grown world over are soybeans, sunflowers, rapeseed – mustard (or canola in USA & Canada), groundnuts (peanuts) and linseed. Seed oils from flax (linseed) and castor beans are used for industrial purposes. These Oilseed crops including oilseed bearing trees are the basic biological systems that produce oils, contributing to renewable energy production, help stabilize greenhouse gases, and mitigate the risk of climate change (Jaradat, 2016)

The oilseed crops are of heterogeneous group of plant species not having any common morphological and genetic features except production of seed oil. Crops like groundnut, sesame, castor bean, soybean and niger are grown during the rainy season and the others like rapeseed and mustard and safflower are grown in the post rainy season. Sunflower, however, may be grown in both the seasons. Hence the individual crops forming the conglomerate of Oilseed crops have to be treated differently for their improvement and production. Nevertheless, all of them produce a common end product viz., oil or vegetable fat, the importance of which is growing in product development, commerce and human and farm animal nutrition. The oilseed bearing crops have to be treated as a unique group in terms of research and development to come up with strategies for their judicious exploitation in the national farm economy. From the scientific point of view, the oilseed crops are energy rich and offer impressive potentials in terms of realizable production levels and valuable product development. In India good progress has been achieved so far in research and development of some oilseed crops; but there exists a need to scale to newer heights in terms of realising the hidden potentials of oilseed crops through basic and strategic research, with an integrated approach.

Introduction

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important traditional oilseed crop of India contributing to 3.9 million tons of global vegetable oil ranking the sixth in the sequence of oilseed crops. Added to its importance as an oilseed, groundnut is also an important food legume cultivated in an area of about 22 million hectares worldwide leading to a production of 38.6 million tons as per the FAO statistics of 2011 (ICRISAT, 2017). China and India are the leading groundnut producers followed by USA and Nigeria. Africa with 12.40 m ha area and 11.54 m tons of production, and Asia with 11.87 m ha and 29.95 m tons, together account for 95% global groundnut area and 91% of global groundnut production. There was a substantial increase in global groundnut production by about 5 m tons in 2013, from 40 m tons in 2012. In the last decade, 2004–2013, global groundnut production increased by 24%, contributed by 7% increase in groundnut area, and 16% increase in yield. The projected global demand for groundnut and its related products is expected to increase and so there is a need to further increase production and productivity to meet the demand.

Among the different oilseed crops grown in India, groundnut is the major crops grown in kharif / monsoon season. Among different states if India, Gujarat is the prominent state growing groundnut.

Groundnut has a long history of cultivation since the plant was domesticated and cultivated by the indigenous tribes such as Incas of Peru in South America for more than 1500 years. It is believed that the cultivated groundnut was introduced into India by the Spanish colonizers (Krapovickas, 1968). Groundnut is believed to have been introduced into the USA by the African slaves. Groundnut crop has found an ecological niche in the tropical and warm temperate zones of world, due its impressive adaptability.

Introduction

Mustard and rapeseed crops were grown since 3000 BC in the Indus valley and their use has been mentioned in the Ayurveda Simhata. Use of mustard oil is recorded in the last few centuries of the pre Christian era.

The global production of rapeseed-mustard is at 72 million tons (USDA), while that of the oil is 24 million tons. Currently China is the largest producer of mustard in the world. China, India and Pakistan grow about 90% of the world production of mustard. Rapeseed and mustard form the third important group of oilseed crops in the world after soybean (Glycine max) and palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq).

The word ‘rape’ and ‘mustard’ have been derived from the word rapum meaning turnip and European practice of mixing the sweet ‘must’ of old wine with crushed seeds of black mustard (Brassica nigra L. Koch) to form a hot paste, respectively (Hemingway 1976). Among the seven edible oilseeds cultivated in India, rapeseed-mustard (Brassica spp.) contributes 26.2% in the total production of oilseeds. In India, the rapeseed-mustard group is the third most important edible oilseed after soybean and groundnut, sharing 27.8% in the India’s oilseed economy. In India rapeseed and mustard are grown during the post-rainy winter season over an area of 7.49 million ha. Around 20% of the total area under rapeseed-mustard in India is totally under dryland cultivation subject to vagaries associated with dryland agriculture.

Introduction

Soybean has earned a place of prominence in world agriculture as one of the most important food crops contributing to protein and oil production. Pertaining to the family Fabaceae, soybean is a legume with over 42% protein and 20% oil in its seeds. The crop fits into the production system of monsoon rainy season of India during the period from June to October and can be grown on wide variety of soils; but performs best on fertile heavier soils of clay and silt.

Soybeans originated in Southeast Asia and were first domesticated by Chinese farmers around 1100 BC. By the first century AD, soybeans were grown in Japan and many other countries. Soybean seed from China was planted by a colonist in the British colony of Georgia in 1765.

Introduction of soybean to Indian subcontinent dates back to 1000 AD through silk route from north-eastern India and Himalayan mountains. The black-seeded soybean has been traditionally grown in North and north-eastern regions of India and further spread to different parts of the country. This black-seeded soybean, Kalitur, was the vehicle for soybean revolution in India. The major initiative on soybean cultivation was undertaken during 1963-64 by G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology (GBPUAT), Pantnagar and JNKVV Agricultural University, Jabalpur in collaboration with University of Illinois, USA. The cultivation has further picked up after the researchers took advantage of yellow-seeded material to develop high-yielding varieties that suited Indian conditions. Soybean cultivation got momentum during the 1970s as the vast monsoon fallow lands of Madhya Pradesh provided appropriate niche for its cultivation. Presently soybean is cultivated on nearly 10 million ha land with likely production of above 10 million tonnes.

Introduction

Cultivated sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), has originated in India (Bedigian,1984; Bedigian et al., 1985; Bedigian and Harlan,1986) and is considered to be the oldest oilseed crop known to man (Ram et al 1990). Archaeological records indicate that it was known and used in India for more than 5,000 years and is recorded as a crop in Babylon and Assyria some 4,000 years ago (Borchani et al., 2010). Sesame crop is being grown in many parts of the world. Sesame seed is an important source of edible oil and is also widely used as a spice and condiment. The seed contains 50-60% oil which has excellent stability due to the presence of natural antioxidants such as sesamolin, sesamin and sesamol (Brar and Ahuja 1979).

Sesamum indicum L., belongs to the family Pedaliaceae, which contains sixteen genera and sixty species under the generic name Sesamum. The other species related to sesame viz., Sesamum angustifolium, Sesamum radiatum and Certotheca sesamoides (false sesame) are cultivated in Africa. The fact that the crop is cultivated in India from times immemorial is testified by the excavations of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro of undivided India (Watt,1966). The crop was introduced into Brazil by the Portuguese (Weiss, 2000).

World production of sesame seed didn’t show any marked increase for the past three decades, although sesame oil is used largely in Asia and Africa. The current world production of sesame stands at 6.1 million tons as in the year 2016. The sesame production declined world over since the crop had to face a tough competition against other oilseed crops (Weiss, 2000). Most of the world trade on sesame revolves around the seed. The shipments of seed cake and oil are negligible.

Introduction

The Heliantheae are the third-largest tribe in the sunflower family (Asteraceae). With some 190 genera and nearly 2500 recognized species, only the tribes Senecioneae and Astereae are larger. The name is derived from the genus Helianthus, which is Greek for sunflower.

This is one of the large and predominantly flourishing flowering botanical groups occurring in almost all parts of the world. Except for three species in South America, all other Helianthus species are native to North America and Central America i.e., Southwest United States-Mexico area (Heiser, 1976). The common name, “sunflower”, typically refers to the popular annual species Helianthus annuus, or the common sunflower, whose round flower heads in combination with the ligules look like the sun. This and other species, notably Jerusalem artichoke (H. tuberosus), are cultivated in temperate regions and some tropical regions as food crops for humans, cattle, and poultry, and as ornamental plants.

The species H. annuus typically grows during the summer, post summer rainy season and later in post-rainy season too with the peak growth during pre-summer season with temperatures ranging from 28^oC to 35^oC in India.

Domestication of sunflower started around 4,000 years ago in Eastern North America by the native tribes of American continent (Blackman et al., 2011). The current annual oilseed yielding sunflower was cultivated originally by local inhabitant tribes (Weiss, 2000), who used the seed as a source of food. The adaptations in annual sunflower to human cultivation include a dramatic increase in apical dominance, an increase in seed size, the loss of natural seed dispersal and seed dormancy, and the loss of self-incompatibility (Wills and Burke, 2007).

Introduction

Safflower belongs to the family Asteraceae, which is also called Compositae, the aster, daisy, or composite family of the flowering-plant order Asterales.tribe Cardueae (thistles) and subtribe Centaureinae . With more than 1,911 genera and 32,913 accepted species of herbs, shrubs, and trees distributed throughout the world, Asteraceae is one of the largest plant families. The species of the family are annuals and perennials of worldwide distribution, consisting of ornamentals, vegetables and spice or medicinal plants.

The genus Carthamus L., contains about 25 valid species distributed from Spain, North America and West Asia to India. Many are indigenous to the Mediterranean region, but only one viz., Carthamus tinctorius L. (safflower) is cultivated for oil. Safflower is a diploid species (2n=24). The probable origin of cultivated safflower is the area bounded by the Eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf.

Safflower is grown as edible oil crop in pots, as strip crop, on field borders or around home-steads in the tropical Asia, Africa, Russia and China. Safflower is more drought resistant than other oilseed crops and can yield well on drylands, exploiting sub-soil moisture. (Lovelli et al., 2007). Safflower is also salt tolerant and can be grown on soils affected by some degree of salinity (Bassil and Kaffka, 2002).

The safflower plant has a history of long domestication, initially for orange red dye obtained from florets of the plant. The plant was identified as growing in Egypt in 2000 BC, introduced from Euphrates (Weiss, 2000). Safflower oil has unique variation in fatty acid composition (Knowels, 1969). In general, linoleic acid is the dominant fatty acid ranging from 70 to 78% in local types. In improved types oleic acid ranges from 70 to 75%.

Introduction and History

Niger, Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass. [Asteraceae] is commonly known as nigerseed [English]; noug, guizotia oléifère [French]; verbesina da Índia, abisin, negrillo, ramtilla [Spanish]; ramtil, nigersaat [Dutch]; [Amharic];[Chinese]; Ram-til[Hindi]; Gurellu [Kannada]; Verri-nuvvulu (Telugu) Karalle[Marathi] and Jhusetil [Nepali] Niger’s other synonym is Guizotia oleifera DC., Polynya abyssinica L. f.

Niger (Guizotia abyssinica (L. f.) Cass.) is an oilseed crop cultivated in Ethiopia and India for its edible oil. Niger plant is originated in highlands of Northern Ethiopia (Weiss, 2000). The crop is reported to have been introduced into India from Ethiopia during around2000BC. The Ancient Agau people of Ethiopia had a well-developed agriculture, who traded with Egypt which facilitated the exchange by barter that included Niger too (Weiss, 2000). Currently, Niger is an important oilseed crop of Ethiopia. Ground niger seeds and chillies are the main components of the traditional stew known as wat of Ethiopia. Niger is the most important oilseed crop of Ethiopia contributing to 50% of the country’s oilseed production. Although the crop is grown throughout the country, the main production centres are Begemdir, Gojam and Welaga (Weiss, 2000). Since the Ethiopian government actively supports the oilseed industry, production was on steady increase till 1974. With the fall in the production post-civil war in 1974, most of the niger produced is consumed domestically and the exports got dwindled.

Introduction

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), also known as common flax or linseed, is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. Linseed is an annual oil crop that is grown either for its fibre (fibre flax) or for its oil. The area under annual cultivation is 3 million hectares, accounting for 1% of the total world production of plant oil. The five major flax-producing countries are Canada, China, India, the United States, and the European Union.Canada with 614,000 metric tonnes of flaxseed produced in the year 2013-2014, is the world’s largest producer of flax and accounts for nearly 80% of the global trade in flaxseed (Oomah 2001; Bhatty, 1995)

Flaxseed, of Mesopotamic origin, has been cultivated in Mediterranean region and India since 5000 BC, being used principally for the fabrication of cloths and papers (Soni, et al., 2016).

With the adoption of cotton as a fibre crop for cloth preparation, fibre flax production declined and the major use of flax was switched from stem fibre to seed oil. It is a food and fibre crop cultivated in cooler regions of the world. Textiles made from flax are known in the Western countries as linen, and traditionally used for bed sheets, underclothes, and table linen. Its oil is known as linseed oil. In addition to referring to the plant itself, the word “flax” may refer to the unspun fibres of the flax plant. The plant species is known only as a cultivated plant and appears to have been domesticated just once from the wild species Linum bienne, called pale flax. (Allaby et al.,2005). Fibre flax is currently grown in the cool-temperate regions of China, the Russian Federation and Western Europe while linseed cultivars are grown in Canada, India, China, the United States and Argentina (Green et al., 2008).

Introduction

Castor plant (Ricinus communis L) is an age old crop of India which has been in use in Ayurvedic medicine since 2000 BC, when the oil was used in lamps and also in local medicine particularly as a laxative and also to cure arthritis. The seeds of the crop yield non-edible viscous oil which has a number of applications in industry apart from its medicinal properties, which are well documented in Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani medicine. The word Ricinus in the scientific name of the castor plant has cropped due to the appearance of its seed resembling dog’s tick!

Castor is cultivated on commercial scale in an area of 1,296,855 ha in 30 countries with global castor seed production at 1,396,104 MT (FAO STAT, 2019). India is the world’s single largest producer of castor seed accounting for more than 85% followed by China with about 7% and Brazil with about 5% of world castor seed output. There has been a consistent increase in output primarily on account of rise in yield levels in India. In recent years, however, Brazil and China have experienced stagnation in castor crop. Castor is widely grown in Ethiopia too. Among oilseed crops of India, castor crop has registered positive and high growth rate along with soybean (Mohapatra 2017).

Introduction

Indian oilseeds scenario has been able to surmount the crisis of prolonged stagnation with increased production in the decades of 1980s and 1990s (Prasad 1991). Nevertheless, in the face of growing demands of vegetable oil both for human consumption and industrial use, there is every need to augment the oilseed production to new heights of sustainability (Prasad 1994a).

Apart from the traditional sources of vegetable oils from annual crops like groundnut, rapeseed-mustard, sesame, sunflower, safflower, niger, linseed, castor and soybean besides cotton seed and rice bran, more than 100 species of domesticated or wild plant species of India are known to contain oil in considerable quantities (Prasad, 1994c). In addition to the production from nine traditional oilseeds mentioned above, 3 million tonnes of vegetable oil is being harnessed from secondary sources like cottonseed, rice bran, coconut, Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs) and Oil Palm. Subramanian et al., (2005) reported that there are over 300 different species of trees which produce oil bearing seeds. Thus, there is a significant potential for non-edible oil source from different plants for biodiesel production as an alternative to petrodiesel.

It is estimated that TBOs have the potential to contribute more than 3 million tons of oil; but only a fraction of the potential is realised currently. Seeds of many of the oil bearing trees have been used by the ethnic communities for different purposes. Apart from seed oil, the trees yield valuable by-products including cake, which have industrial applications (Hocking, 1993; Chakravarty et al., 2012).

There are many species of plants found wild or cultivated inside as well as outside the forest areas containing sizeable amount of vegetable oil having domestic and industrial utility. Out of these species.The country has enormous potential of oilseeds of tree origin like Mahua (Madhuca indica and M. longifolia ), Sal (Shorea robusta), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Simarouba (Simarouba glauca), Karanj (Pongamia pinnata), Ratanjyot /physic nut (Jatropha curcas), Jojoba (Simmondsia chinesis), Cheura (Diploknema butyracea), Kokum (Garcinia indica), wild Apricot (Prunus armeniaca), wild Walnut (Aleurites molucana), Kusum (Schleichera oleosa), Undi ( Calophyllum inophyllum), Tung (Verniciafordii) etc. which can be grown and established on the wastelands and under varied agroclimatic conditions.

In recent years, oilseed crops are being increasingly exploited for production of pharmaceuticals, surfactants, plasticisers, emulsifiers, detergents, lubricants, adhesives, cosmetics, oleo-chemicals, biofuels apart from their demand for their healthy vegetable oils and livestock feeds (Metzger and Bornscheuer, 2006). The increased interest resulted in an 82% expansion of oilseed crop cultivation areas and about a 240% increase in total world production over the last 30 years (Rahman and Jimenez., 2016).

1.1 Introduction

Irrespective of caste, creed, culture, sex, age or religion people like garden. A well-maintained garden serves as lungs of the city or locality as it is a prime source of plenty of oxygen and people enjoy the surrounding and feel happy by fresh air. In holy books of Hindu religion, the importance of plants as well as gardens are explained very beautifully. In the holy Bible it is mentioned that Adam and eve lived in garden. In Quran it is explained as the paradise on earth. So, scriptures of all religions explain about gardens. It shows gardens and plants are closely related to human from the origin of human belief.

2.1 Introduction

Generally, gardens are divided into different sections as per the rules and regulation followed in the placement of different elements and features in it. On the basis of this garden types are divided into 4 categories such as

3.1 Introduction

Many gardens follow strict rules. So those are known as formal gardens. Generally formal gardens include:

Italian gardens

French gardens

Persian gardens

Mughal gardens

4.1 Introduction

Many styles of gardens do not follow strict rules and so those are known as informal gardens. Some gardens evolved as informal garden in due course of time as per the choice of people but some gardens are informal in nature from origin. Informal gardens are:

English garden

Japanese garden

Hindu garden

Buddhist garden

5.1 Elements of Landscape Gardens

5.1.1 Introduction

Elements of a garden are the basic units of any visual design which form its structure and convey visual messages. Elements are based on the art principles of landscaping. Process of landscape design includes concepts and elements of landscape designing. Generally, elements of a garden are divided into 2 types

6.1 Introduction

Garden design encompasses the aesthetic beauty, artistry, knowledge of plant growth and development with basic maintenance of plants and other elements as required. Principles are the basic rules of designing a landscape. The basic principles of garden design are very simple; however, each is often referred to by more than one name. Principles of landscape garden keeps the garden lively and beautiful. The principles of gardening should be kept in mind always while designing a garden.

6.2 Axis

It is an imaginary line in landscape designs around which the garden is created striking a balance. In a formal garden the central line is the axis.