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Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr. 2n = 2x = 40, essentially a self-pollinated oil seed crop, family Leguminosae), also known as a miracle crop with on average 40% protein and 20% oil and one of the globally “Four Big Crops” namely rice, wheat, corn and soybean. As per FAOSTAT-2016, global soybean acreage, production and productivity are 121 million ha, 335 million tons and 2755 kg per ha for the year 2016. As per this statistics, top ten soybean producing countries are USA (108 million tons), Brazil (87 million tons), Argentina (53 million tons), China (12 million tons), India (10 million tons), Paraguay (10 million tons), Canada (6 million tons), Ukraine (4 million tons), Bolivia (3 million tons) and Uruguay (3 million tons).

Groundnut also known as peanut or monkey nut (Arachis hypogaea L. 2n = 4x = 40, allotetraploid, a species of the legume or bean family, Fabaceae, essentially self-pollinated, with genome 1C=2891 Mbp) is one of the five major oilseeds, namely, soybean, sunflower, groundnut, cottonseed and rapeseed. The global acreage, production and yield during 2018-19 have been 27.49 million hectares, 46.81 million tons and 1700 kg per hectare. The preliminary corresponding figures for 2019-20 have been 26.75 million ha, 45.87 million tons and 1710 kg per ha (USDA, 2000). India and China with more than 4.5 million ha each account for nearly one third of total global acreage and fifty percent of global production (China, 17 million tons and India, 6.69 million tons). Other countries in descending order in terms of area are Sudan, Nigeria, Senegal, Myanmar, Niger, Chad, Guinea, Uganda, Congo and Mozambique. Productivity-wise, USA tops the list (4480 kg/ha) followed by China (3750 kg/ ha). India with 1400 kg/ha is at the average position.

Oilseed Brassicas also referred to as rapeseed-mustard, an important group of oilseed crops in the world, comprise eight cultivated crops of tribe Brassiceae within the family Cruciferae (Brassicaceae). The word ‘rape’ and ‘mustard’ have been derived from the word rapum meaning turnip and European practice of mixing the sweet ‘must’ of old wine with crushed seeds of black mustard [Brassica nigra (L.) Koch] to form a hot paste (Hemingway, 1976).

During 2019, the global acreage of biotech/GM crops was 190.4 million ha and India planted 11.9 million ha GM cotton having insect resistance (Bt-cotton, having two commercialized events, namely, cry1Ac, MON-531, MahycoMonsanto, popularly called by trade name Bollgard-I, single gene event, commercialized in 2002 and cry2Ab2, MON-15985, Mahyco-Monsanto, popularly called by trade name Bollgard-II, double gene event or stacked trait event, commercialized in 2006) stood at the fifth place after USA, Brazil, Argentina and Canada (ISAAA, 2019). Four more events related to Bt cotton (cry1Ac, Event-1, JK Agri-Genetics, commercialized in 2006, fused genes cry1Ab and cry1Ac, GFM Event, Nath Seeds, commercialized in 2006, cry1Ac BNLA-601, UAS, Dharwad and CICR (ICAR), commercialized in 2008 but discontinued and synthetic cry1C, MLS-9124, Metahelix Life Sciences-now Tata Rallis, commercialized in 2009 but not placed in the market) were approved for commercialization but the products could never reach to the market.

Insects are the most successful arthropods in animal kingdom. They are found in almost all habitats on earth except for the frozen polar environments at the highest altitudes and in the immediate vicinity of active volcanoes. They are the only invertebrate animal (animals without backbones) with wings. The success of insects on the planet is due to their ability to fly and rapidly colonize new habitats. The study of insects is called entomology and entomologists are those scientists who study about insects.

Characters 

Three orders i.e. protura, diplura and collembolan are group together as Entognatha because the mouth parts are withdrawn into the head

Antennal flagellum (if present) are masculated

Characters

Two orders i.e. Archaeognatha & Thysanura are grouped together as Ectognatha because the mouth parts are more or less exposed and not covered by cranial fold.

Characters

Palaeoptera world derive from New latin word pale means old and ptera means wings

Two order i.e Ephimeroptera and Odonata comes under this grops because wings can not fold over abdomen at time of rest.

Characters

Mouthparts biting type

Wing venation usually well developed with numerous cross veins.

Cerci present

Common characters

Modification of mandiblate mouth parts into sucking-piercing or suctorial type.

Absence of anal lobe in hind wing.

Wings develop internally 

Metamorphosis complete 

Immature stages (larvae) differ from adults in structure, habitat and feeding habits 

Pupal stage present, e.g. all holometabolus insects

Why Make an Insect Collection?

An insect collection helps develop personal identification skills. 

An insect collection can be used to display insects or insect features so that others may learn about them.

An insect collection can allow you to better observe details of insect structures and how they function.

9.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1 Which insect order is close related to Diptera?

a) Hymenoptera b) Orthoptera

c) Plecoptera d) Zygentoma

Rust

The rust of wheat has been studied more than any other disease in the world. In India, K.C Mehta and his associates studied this disease with exemplary zeal. Three rusts of wheat are known. These are Black stem rust, caused by Puccinia graminis tritici, Brown rust (leaf rust), caused by Puccinia recondita, and Yellow rust, caused by P? striiformis. Brown and yellow rusts cause more damage thant the black rust, because of early appearance in the season.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Practically all above ground parts are affected, but stalks are the main targets of stack.

• Spindle leaves (third or fourth) starts drying.

• Further stalks becomes discolored and hollow.

Diagnostic Symptom

• Circular to oval, dark brown to black spots appear on the leaves.The spots enlarge into round to irregular spots with concentric rings and coalesce causing blighting and withering of leaves.

• These are surrounded by chlorotic zone with grey white necrotic center.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Intially chlorotic (yellowed) lesions and sometimes galls appeared on the upper leaf surface.

• There are corresponding white blister-like dispersal pustules of sporangia on the underside of the leaf.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• At first pale-green chlorosis, typically appear on lower leaves and extending up the plant.Leaves eventually take on a dull-yellow colour, wilt and the plant collapses and dies.

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptoms can occur at both the seedling and plant developmental stages and appear as patches in the field

• It usually occurs near or at the reproductive stages (flowering to podfilling) of crop growth

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease affects the crop at all stages.

Powdery Mildew

Erysiphe polygoni

Diagnostic Symptoms

• At first symptom appears on leaves.

• White floury patches appear on both surface of leaves as well as tendrils, stem and pod.

Anthracnose

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease produces symptoms like leaf spot, blossom blight, withertip, twig blight and fruit rot

• Symptoms on leaves show as gray to brown spots with dark margins and a yellow halo. The spots later enlarge and coaleasce to form sizable necrotic areas.

Gummosis

Phytophthora spp

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Dark water soaked large patches appear on the basal portions of the stem near the ground level.

Downy Mildew

Plasmopara viticola

• Downy mildew of grapes was catastrophic in France in 1878.

Scab

Ventruia inaequalis (Spilocaea pomi Fr?)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptoms generally noticed on leaves and fruits.

Leaf Curl

Taphrina deformans

Disease Symptoms

• Initially yellowish to reddish areas appear on leaf blade of young leaves in the spring.

Leaf Spot

(Mycosphaerella fragariae teleomorph, Ramularia brunnea Peck anamorph)?

Disease Symptoms

• Older leaves usually show purple spots (3-6 mm in diameter) on the upper surface, sometimes with a slightly darker halo

Late Blight

Phytophthora infestans

• Phytophthora in Greek means “plant destroyer”(phyto=plant, phthora= destroyer).

Downy mildew

Pseudoperonospora cubensis

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Yellow, angular spots restricted by veins resembling mosaic mottling appear on upper surface of leaves .

Purple blotch

Alternaria porri

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease symptoms occurs on leaf and flower stalks.

Anthracnose or Fruit Rot and Die Back

Colletotrichum capsici

Diagnostic Symptoms

Dieback symptoms

• Small, circular to irregular, brownish black scattered spots appear on leaves .

Leaf spot

Colletotrichum capsici

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Initially oblong brown spots having about 4-5 cm in length and 2-3 cm in width with grey centres surrounded with yellow hallo are found on the leaves .

Stem gall

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Symptom appears in the form of tumor-like swellings of leaf veins, leaf stalks, peduncles, stems as well as fruits.

• Infected veins show a swollen hanging appearance to the leaves.

Botrytis Gray Mould

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Appearance of a gray, fuzzy mold on flowers, leaves or stems of or plants. Also called, “gray mold”.

Powdery mildew

Sphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae (Sphaerotheca pannosa)

Diagnostic Symptoms

• A white, powdery fungal growth on the upper, lower or both leaves and shoots.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Food Preservation 1782 ó Canning of vinegar was introduced by a Swedish chemist.

1810 ó Preservation of food by canning was patented by Appert in France. ó Peter Durand was issued a British patent to preserve food in ìglass, pottery, tin or other metals or fit materials.î The patent was later acquired by Hall, Gamble, and Donkin, possibly from Appert.

Who discovered bacteria?

a) Leeuwen hock b) Ledge berg

c) Walkman and Zinder d) None

The fungi are usually:

a) Parasites or saprophytes b) Lithophytes

c) Epiphytes d) Insectivorous

According to Pasteur statements which one of the following is true

a) Living organisms discriminate between stereo isomers

b) Fermentation

c) Living organisms doesnít discriminate

d) Both a and b

The method to preserve foods in sealed glass bottles by heat in boiling water was developed by one among the following scientist?

a) Edward Jenner (1798) b) Francois Nicolas Appert (1804)

c) Lazzaro spallanzani (1765) d) None of the above

Nisin is produced by strains of

a) Streptococcus lactis b) Pseudomonas

c) E. coli d) Clostridium

The term nanotechnology, buzzword of present day science owes its origin from the Greek word ‘nano’ literally meaning dwarf. When it is expressed in terms of dimension one nanometer equals to one billionth of a meter (1nm = 10-9 m). A nanometer is a thousandth of a thousandth of a thousandth of a meter, about 60,000 times smaller than a human hair in diameter or the size of a virus, a typical sheet of paper is about 100,000 nm thick, a red blood cell is about 2,000 to 5,000 nm in size, and the diameter of DNA is in the range of 2.5 nm. Therefore, nanotechnology deals with matter that ranges from one-half the diameter of DNA up to 1/20 the size of a red blood cell. 

It all started after the famous lecture, “There is plenty of room at the bottom” given by Richard Feynman on December 29, 1959. Nanomaterials are intermediate between macroscopic solid and of atomic and molecular systems. Nanomaterials have certain properties which make them different from that of the bulk materials, including large fraction of surface atoms, high surface energy, spatial confinement, and reduced imperfections. Nanotechnology deals with various structures of matter having dimensions of the order of a billionth of a meter (Ray Unmesha. 2018). From the advent of nanotechnology, people realized that certain materials can exhibit different properties based on its size and shape.
 

Biological diagnostic methods rely on the transmission and amplification of the pathogen in indicator hosts that develop symptoms. These methods test the biological properties of pathogens and early successes in the control of intracellular pathogens were largely due to the diagnosis of the causal agents by biological tests. The sensitivity of biological/serological tests is usually determined by the minimum number of pathogen propagules required to initiate infection. Inoculation with fewer particles could lead to false negative results. Biological techniques for disease diagnosis and pathogen detection are usually highly accurate but too slow and not amenable to large-scale application. 

Agri-nanotechnology is a new branch of biology that has originated due to the compatibility of nanosized inorganic and organic particles with biological functions. Based on enhanced effectiveness, the new age drugs are nanoparticles of polymers, metals, or ceramics, which can facilitate several biological applications. Plant diseases are caused by pathogens including fungi, bacteria, mycoplasma, viruses and viroids, nematodes, parasitic plants, and protozoa. 

With the development of improved systems for monitoring environmental conditions and delivering pesticides appropriately, nanotechnology can further improve our understanding of the biology of different crops and thus potentially enhance yields. It can offer routes to plant disease diagnostics, insect-pest management and efficient pesticides utilization. Nanostructure catalysts will help in increasing the efficiency of pesticides allowing lower doses to be used. 

Biocompatible, biodegradable, intelligent and responsive materials are currently an emerging area of interest in the field of efficient, safe, and green pesticide formulation. Using nanotechnology to design and prepare targeted pesticides with environmentally responsive controlled release via compound and chemical modifications has also shown great potential in creating novel formulations. Special attention was paid to intelligent pesticides with precise controlled release modes that can respond to micro-ecological environment changes such as light-sensitivity, thermo-sensitivity, humidity sensitivity, soil pH and enzyme activity (Huang et al., 2018).

Nanoscience and nanotechnologies are set to transform the global industrial landscape, but the debate on how to regulate environmental, health and safety risks is lagging behind technological innovation. Current regulatory efforts are primarily focused on the national and regional level, while the international dimensions of nanotechnology governance are still poorly understood and rarely feature on the international agenda. With the ongoing globalization of nanosciences and the rapid expansion of international trade in nanomaterials, however, demand for international coordination and harmonization of regulatory approaches is set to increase. However, uncertainty about nanotechnology risk poses a profound dilemma for regulators and policy-makers. Uncertainty both creates demand for and stands in the way of greater international cooperation and harmonization of regulatory approaches. Falkner Robert and Jaspers Nico (2012) reviewed the emerging debate on nanotechnology risk and regulatory approaches, investigates the current state of international cooperation and outlines the critical contribution that a global governance approach can make to the safe development of nanotechnologies. 

Nanotoxicity is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials that focuses on how the size and unique properties of nanoparticles influences their impact on plant helath, human health and the environment. Plants are essential fundamental components of all ecosystems and the interaction between nanoparticles (NPs) and plants is an indispensable aspect of the risk assessment. NP phytotoxicity, an important precondition to promote the application of nanotechnology and to avoid the potential ecological risks was reviewed (Jie Yang et al., 2017). 

Nanotechnologies are being spoken of as the driving force behind the new industrial revolution. The mass production of these nano materials and their applications mean a dramatic increase of workers dealing with Engineered Nano Materials (ENM) and becoming possibly exposed to resulting hazardous effects and increased environmental burden of the environment due to the leaks of these materials from industrial processes. It is, hence, essential to consider the importance of ENM safety and their new applications and understand that it is important for these materials and products to be safe to enable successful promotion of nanotechnology for useful applications (Eman M Osman, 2019).