eBook Chapters

? Oxalic acid is an organic dicarboxylic acid that readily forms insoluble salts with cations like calcium & magnesium.

? Sodium, potassium or ammonium salts are highly soluble and can induce toxicity in animals.

Source

? Ingestion of large quantity of oxalate containing plants.

? For toxicity plant should contain > 10% oxalic acid on dry weight basis.

? The form in which oxalate is present in plant mainly as acid oxalate (Oxalis sp., Rumex sp.) or oxalate ions (chenopodiacae).

Method I
Reagents
    1.    20% sodium carbonate.
    2.    Conc. hydrochloric acid.
    3.    4% sodium hydroxide
    4.    10% calcium chloride
    5.    Ammonium hydroxide
    6.    Potassium permanganate (0.05 N)

Procedure
Take 2-5 g of powdered sample in a beaker without spout, and add 40 ml of water and boil for half an hour. In case of faeces, add 40 ml of 4 percent NaOH instead of 40 ml of water to form silicates. Now boil, for half an hour with cold water flask over the beaker, then add 10 ml of 20 percent sodium carbonate solution and boil for  another half an hour. During these two cooking processes, the following changes take place.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

An understanding of the processes of oxidation and reduction in soils and the associated changes and practical implications requires a knowledge firstly of soil respiration and the movement of O₂ and CO₂ in soils, and secondly an appreciation of the significance of the changes which occur when, as a result of the use of all the O₂ in a given zone of the soil, respiration changes from aerobic to anaerobic. This results in marked changes in the biochemistry of the system. A basic knowledge is therefore needed of the microbiology and biochemistry of aerobic and anaerobic respiration and of the physics of gas movement, as well as of the chemistry of the system.

Introduction

Lipids are among the major components of food of plant and animal origin (food lipid). There is no precise definition available for the term lipid; however, it always includes a broad category of compounds that have some common properties and compositional similarities. Lipids are materials that are sparingly soluble or insoluble in water, but soluble in selected organic solvents like benzene, chloroform, ether, hexane, and methanol. Together with carbohydrates and proteins, lipids constitute the principal structural components of tissues (Erwin Wsowicz et al., 2004). Lipid oxidation is one of the major reasons that foods deteriorate and is caused by the reaction of fats and oils with molecular oxygen resulting in off-flavours that are generally called rancidity. Exposure to light, pro-oxidants and elevated temperature will accelerate the reaction (Velasco, J et al., 2010). Rancidity is related to characteristic off-flavour and odour of the oil. There are two major causes of rancidity. One occurs when oil reacts with oxygen and is called oxidative rancidity (Ribeiro et. al., 1993). The other cause of rancidity is by a combination of enzymes and moisture. Enzymes like lipases liberate fatty acids from the triglyceride to make di and monoglycerides and free fatty acids and such liberation of free fatty acids is named hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is additionally caused by chemical process that’s prompted by factors like heat or presence of water. Rancidity caused by hydrolysis is called hydrolytic rancidity. Oxidation cares mainly with the unsaturated fatty acids. Oxidative rancidity is off interest because it results in the event of unfavourable off-flavours which will be detected early within the development of rancidity, more so than in the case of hydrolytic rancidity. Oxidation can alter the flavour and nutritional quality of foods and produce toxic compounds, all of which may make the foods less acceptable or unacceptable to consumers. Oxidation products typically include low relative molecular mass compounds that are volatile also as undesirable off-flavour compounds (Food lipids).

Introduction

The present trend in the search for new drugs is to look at natural sources, which are safer for humans and ecofriendly. Of late there has been increased awareness about the detrimental effects of synthetic food supplements, food additives and drugs, and the search for natural alternatives in plants has intensified. In this regard, horticultural crops are particularly appealing since they are not only edible, but also have diverse nutraceutical effects. Nutraceuticals (often referred to as phytochemicals or functional foods) are natural, bioactive chemical compounds that have health promoting, disease preventing or medicinal properties (http://foodsci.rutgers.edu),such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antimicrobial effects, to name just a few. Most of these properties are attributed to the secondary metabolites present in plants, various phytochemicals including flavonoids, terpenoid, lignans, sulfides, polyphenolics, carotenoids, coumarins, saponins, plant sterols, curcumins, phthalides etc. The medicinal value of our horticultural crops is not a new knowledge, it has been exploited by the traditional systems of medicines like Ayurveda, folklore medicines and ‘kitchen remedies’ since time immemorial.

A functional food is similar in appearance to, or may be, a conventional food that is consumed as part of a usual diet, and is demonstrated to have physiological benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions, i.e. they contain bioactive compound.

A nutraceutical is a product isolated or purified from foods that is generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with foods. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease.

7.1. INTRODUCTION

Abiotic stress is a major limiting factor in crop productivity. Several stresses, such as high temperature, high light intensity, osmotic stress, heavy metals, and several herbicides and toxin lead to over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing extensive cellular damage and inhibition of photosynthesis (Allen, 1997). ROS is produced in both unstressed and stressed cells. Plants have well developed mechanisms against ROS, involving both limiting the formation of ROS as well as instituting its removal. Under unstressed conditions, the formation and removal of O₂ are balance. Introduction of molecular oxygen (O₂) into atmosphere by O₂- evolving photosynthetic organisms, ROS has been the unwelcome companion of anaerobic metabolism. In contrast to O₂, these partially reduced or activated derivatives of oxygen (O₂¹, O2-, H₂O₂, and HO) are highly reactive and toxic and can lead to the oxidative destruction in tissues during stress.

Abstract

Cyanobacteria  evolved during  the  Precambrian  era and are believed to be the first  one  to  introduce oxygen  into  the  initially  reducing  atmosphere  by  oxygenic  photosynthesis. Thus being the main primary producers of organic matter at that time and thereby contributed to a major global transformation leading to the development of aerobic metabolism and the subsequent rise of higher plants and animal forms. Reactive  oxygen  species  (ROS)  in  cyanobacteria  are  commonly  generated during  normal  growth  and  development.  However  abiotic  and  biotic stresses  enhance  the  level  of   ROS  which  in  turn  pose  the  danger  of oxidative  stress.  Ability  to  perceive  ROS  and  to  rapidly  initiate  antioxidant defenses  is  crucial  for  their  survival.  Therefore cyanobacteria evolved four lines of defense mechanisms to combat the damages caused by oxidative stress. Inretrospect  to  their  ecological  adaptivity, ubiquitous  presence  and  efficient  source  of   compounds  of biotechnological  significance, this chapter aims to elucidate various mechanisms adopted by cyanobacteria to combat oxidative stress.

During photochemical reactions of photosynthesis, takings place in the chloroplast lamellas system, electrons flow from water to NADP resulting in generation of a powerful reductant NADPH. Simultaneously, water is oxidised and O₂ oxygen is released. This reaction is known as Hills reaction. The rate of production of NADPH and ATP in the photochemical reaction is directly associated with the oxidation of water the sole electron donor. So the photochemical efficiency can be measured by measuring the rate of oxygen evolution.

Since oxygen evolution is a good reflection of the photochemical activity of chloroplast, determination of the rate of oxygen evolution can be conveniently adopted to estimate the photochemical activities. Normally oxygen evolution as a measure of photochemical reactions, is measured either in isolated chloroplasts or in the excised leaf discs using an oxygen electrode. An oxygen electrode is a special form of chemical electrode cell in which the current generated is proportional to the activity of oxygen present. This equipment is widely used for determining the amount of oxygen liberated during the photochemical reaction either in isolated chloroplasts or in leaf bits. Though oxygen electrode is the most frequently used technique to determine the rate of oxygen evolution, there are a few indirect methods to quantify the amount of oxygen evolved.

In photosynthesising tissues or in isolated chloroplasts, the rate of oxygen liberation can be determined by using appropriate artificial electron acceptors and donors (artificial electron donor and acceptors are compounds which can substitute the physiological electron transport carriers and helps in understanding the electron transport mechanisms and ATP synthesis). Oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent which means it readily oxidizes another compound and itself gets reduced to water. This property can be effectively used in qualitative and quantitative determination of oxygen evolution in green leaves exposed to light. The oxygen that is liberated during the photochemical reactions can be determined by using an appropriate organic substance which can be readily oxidized by oxygen.

Oxygen therapy has been in vogue for more than century and it is key component in cardiorespiratory care both in human and veterinary medicine. It is recommended in all hypoxemic humans, dogs and cats (peripheral oxygen saturation < 90% to 94% or PaO2 < 70 mm Hg) presented with acute heart failure or respiratory diseases. But oxygen therapy in normoxemic subjects has remained controversial as some studies have shown detrimental effect (increased level of reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, reduction in coronary blood flow and myocardial oxygen consumption) of oxygen therapy in subjects with normal oxygen level.

Introduction

Oxygen uptake of fish(s) displays its basal metabolic status and is taken into consideration as one of the signs of the overall fitness or/and well-being of the fish. It can also be beneficial to evaluate the physiological state of a living organism, facilitates in comparing the susceptibility or resistance potentiality and additionally beneficial to correlate the behaviour of the animal, which ultimately serve as predictors of functional disruptions of population. Analysis of Oxygen uptake machine to assess the primary harm or demand inflicted at the animal that can both boom or lower the oxygen uptake (Neelima et al, 2016).

The maximum vital single issue in transporting fish is imparting an adequate level of dissolved oxygen. Heavier fish transported in warmer water want more oxygen. For instance, if the water will increase by temperature 10°C (e.g., from 10 to 20°C), Oxygen uptake is roughly doubled.

Respiration of air-breathing fishes has fascinated researchers for a minimum of a century; the earliest attempts to measure oxygen uptake (V? O₂) and respiratory partitioning date to the 19th century (Baumert, 1853). The available general respirometry methods have been explained and reviewed by numerous authors (Cech, 1990; Lighton, 2008; Lefevre et al, 2016; Zhang et al, 2019), and researches of the respiration of air-breathing fishes had been reviewed in element within side the iconic book by Graham (1997). Air-breathing fish are generally characterized by a significant reduction in gill surface area with a purpose to keep away loss of oxygen taken up in the air-breathing organ (ABO) at the site of the gills in hypoxic water (Scott et al, 2017; Pelster et al, 2020).

ABSTRACT

The food industry has many the environmental challenges in terms of emerging microbial strains, bacteria, viruses and accumulation of toxic chemicals. Ozone (O₃), environmental bluish gas is an extremely potent oxidant, which is effective solution for disinfection, sanitization for various kinds of products. The application of ozone treatment in agro processing has become green technology with increasing acceptance. It can apply in liquid form, gaseous form to sanitize food, food packaging materials, process water and to disinfect equipments. Ozone can be generated by different methods such as ultraviolet radiation method, corona discharge method etc. In this chapter, ozone properties, its generation, antimicrobial power and advantages with application of ozone has covered. Fruits and vegetables treatment with ozone have shown increased shelf-life and many hazardless advantages of the products. Some products preserved with ozone. Anti microbial activity, no residues in foods, assurance about preservation of sensory, nutritional and physicochemical properties of food have made ozone application as a promising technology for all kinds of food products

1. Introduction

Therapeutic plants have different metabolites in them because of which they are generally utilized in the whole world by individuals to fix different illnesses. India has a rich history of involving many plants for therapeutic purposes. Therapeutic plants are assuming an exceptionally dynamic part in conventional medications for the treatment of different afflictions. India is a rich wellspring of restorative plants because of the varieties in soil, their heights, and other ecological and geological conditions. India’s utilization of plants for medical services goes back nearly 5000 years, when Ayurveda systematized around 8000 natural cures by utilizing plants. Root and tuber crops possess a striking situation in the food security of the creating scene because of their high caloric worth and sugar content. Some of them are as of now under development; however different species are developing wild as a dismissed gathering of financial plants. A portion of the tuberous species is significant due to their restorative as well as modern application. 

P680: Reaction center chlorophyll in Photosystem II (PSII) which absorbs maximum light of 680 nm in its neutral state.

P700: Reaction center chlorophyll in Photosystem I (PSI) which absorbs maximum light of 700 nm in its neutral state.

P870: Form of bacteriochlorophyll in reaction center of pigment system in photosynthetic purple bacteria that absorbs light maximally at 870 nm in its neutral state.

Paclobutrazol: It is a chemical compound which inhibits Gibberellin biosynthesis. It is also a growth retardant commercially used in overcoming alternate bearing of mango.

Palindrome: Inverted repeats of DNA such that the sequence is the same when read forward or backward; e.g., CAGTTGAC, or in the English language, “Madam, I’m Adam.”

Palisade Parenchyma : Palisade parenchyma cells are seen beneath the upper epidermis. It consists of vertically elongated cylindrical cells in one or more layers. These cells are compactly arranged without intercellular spaces. Palisade parenchyma cells contain more chloroplasts than the spongy parenchyma cells. The function of palisade parenchyma is photosynthesis.

Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B₅): An important constituent of coenzyme A which is involved in transacylation reactions.

Paeonia emodi Royle. (Paeoniaceae): Eng.- Himalayan Paeony; HindiUdsalap; Kash.- Mamekh [W]. A shurby perennial, found in W. Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumoan at 2400- 3300 m altitudes. Flowers yellowish white with a bunch of orange-yellow stamens.

P.C. Method of factor analysis: Principal-component’s method or simply P.C. Method of factor analysis, was developed by Hotelling. This \method searches to maximize the sum of squared loadings of each factor extracted. Accordingly P.C. factor determines more variance than would the loadings obtained from any other method of factoring.

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products (Plate 467). Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. “Packaging” play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and micro biological soundless till consumed.

Sugarcane is the most important sugar crop contributing more than 62% of the world's sugar production. With increasing human population in the world, sugar requirement has also gone up. Molasses is an important by-product of sugar industry. It is used for the production of alcohol by the distillaries. Alcohol serves as a base material in pharmaceuticals and several other industries. The manufacture of gur (jaggery) and khandsari as alternative sweetening agents in India from sugarcane also plays considerable role in the Indian economy, particularly in rural area. Nearly 40 % of the sugarcane produced is utilised for manufacture of gur and khandsari. Sugarcane is bound to play a greater role in the Indian economy in the years to come by offering a stable income to the farmers by way of cane price, by providing employment to rural masses, by realising excise duty, Cane Cess/ purchase tax and foreign exchange earning.

Acreage and production

Sugarcane is grown in tropical and sub tropical regions. Brazil has largest area and production of sugarcane.India is second to Brazil in sugarcane production. It is followed by Cuba and China. Other important cane growing countries are Pakistan, Mexico, South Africa, Australia, Indonesia etc. So far, as average sugarcane productivity is concerned Peru ranks first in average sugarcane yield. To meet the sugar requirement of increasing population in future, it is essential that sugarcane production is stepped up. Since there is no scope at present to bring additional land under sugarcane, productivity of sugarcane, the targets have to be achieved only through increased productivity.

Packaging is a tool that is used to contain the product, protect the product from environmental hazards and help in marketing the product. Examples of ideal natural packaging systems are that of a banana, orange, coconut and egg, where the packaging is provided by nature. The major step forward in the food processing arena has been the ability to protect and preserve products with packaging and hence ensuring the availability of fresh and processed products out of season and over long distances in various forms. Milk is a highly perishable product and is not uniformly available round the year to the whole country due to geographical and genetic variations. If dairy products are to be available all the year round the country, irrespective of the season and area, it must be presented in packages that are convenient to purchase and use.

Packaging has additional responsibilities of providing convenience, safety and facilitating, besides handling, storage and distribution of products. It should prevent spoilage of food by microbial or insect attack. It also preserves the quality and nutritive value of many foods by the exclusion of oxygen and the control of moisture loss or gain. It increases the shelf-life and ensures longer availability and contributes to the product image through structural and graphic design. Product information is also given out through the medium of labeling, which acts as a tool for marketing and advertising.

Packaging means a coordinated system of preparation of goods for distribution, storage, merchandizing and shipment at optimum cost compatible with the requirements of the product. It also includes the art, science and technique used, preparatory to and during transportations and selling of goods and technical methods and work processes related to the above preparations.

The broad range of dairy products necessitates that packaging equipment and materials encompass nearly all types from flexible to rigid and from high to low barrier. The general types of packaging and equipment are discussed below with a focus on fluid products but it must be recognized that other dairy products such as cheese have their own particular packaging requirements and technologies.

Role of packaging in distribution and sale: The essence of what makes milk and dairy products important source of human nutrition also causes rapid deterioration and high perishability. The major role of dairy packaging is to retard the deterioration by preventing microbial recontamination and excessive chemical deterioration. Fluid products are especially susceptible to microbial, enzymatic and chemical degradation. In addition to retarding quality loss, packaging must provide containment, facilitate use, identify products, communicate, and appeal to consumers, all with maximum production efficiency. The large volumes and low unit value means that these functions must be met with minimal economic cost and environmental impact. Because food packaging is generally highly regulated, legal requirements must also be understood and met.

Packaging is an integral part of fruit and vegetable processing. It has  major influence on storage life and on marketability of fresh as well as processed products. Packaging fulfills several functions including containment, facilitating transportation, protection of fruit/vegetable from further damage, protection of environment from contents of package (for example, if the contents are dirty), marketing, product advertising, and stock control.

Packaging

Packaging is a mean or system by which a fresh or processed product will reach from the production center to consumer in safe and sound condition at an affordable price.

Objectives of packaging and packaging materials

The primary objective or packaging is to protect the contents during storage, transportation and distribution against deterioration. It may be physical, chemical or biological. However, followings are objectives of packaging and packaging materials.

India’s bakery market at 49.5 billion tonnes makes it the third largest market in Asia Pacific, only after Japan and Australia. 72 The bakery industry in India comprises of organized and unorganized sectors. The organized sector consists of large, medium and small-scale manufacturers who produce packaged biscuits and bread. The unorganized sector consists of small bakery units, cottage and household type manufacturing their goods without much packaging and distributing their goods in the surrounding areas. Bread market is estimated to be growing at around 7% p.a. in volume terms, whereas the biscuit market has witnessed a higher growth at around 8–10%. Within the biscuit category, cream and specialty biscuits are growing at a faster rate of 20% p.a. The per-capita consumption of biscuits in India is around 900 gm as compared to 15–20 kg. for developed countries. The consumption of biscuits is equally divided between the urban and rural population. Demand for biscuits in 2003–2004 is likely to exceed 1.2 million tonnes.

Introduction

Packaging and storage are two most important operations in post harvest supply chain of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. The self-life, damage, loss, sale and profit from commodities depend on storage and packaging parameters. The primary objective of packaging of fruits and vegetables is to protect the contents during storage, transportation and distribution against deterioration, which may be physical, chemical, or biological. Packaging is hence provided at the point of production or processing or at distribution centers. Though packaging forms the last link in the chain of production, storage, marketing and distribution, it still plays an important role in delivering the contents safe from the ‘‘farm gate to the consumer plate.’’ Increase in production can have an impact on the consumer only when the food is wholesome, unadulterated and available under hygienic conditions at an economical price.

In may cases, it becomes necessary to send the cells from one laboratory to another laboratory within or outside the country. The ideal method is to fill the flask containing cells at log/exponential phase with growth medium, tightly close the cap, seal it with parafilm and tape and pack it properly with polythene containing tissue paper and cotton. The tissue paper and cotton is used to soak the medium in case of accidental breakage. The polythene containing tissue culture flask having the adherent cell sheet should again be packed with thick paper. Finally, it is to be kept in a wooden/metal box or container.

Introduction
 
The emerging functional foods market presents a considerable challenge to all manufacturers to keep abreast of the use of adequate packaging materials for their products. The interest in functional foods is intrinsically linked to the potential health benefits of their bioactive components. Preserving these bioactive components is, therefore, a crucial factor to providing the anticipated health benefits of functional foods. However, recurring failure in maintaining the quality of functional foods has been reported. Functional foods include a wide variety of products such as prebiotics and probiotics, dried foods (fibers, probiotics, tea, herbs, etc.), fermented products (yogurts, kefirs, vegetables), and fresh fruits and vegetables.

Introduction

Packaging is an integral and pervasive part of contemporary world. Packaging makes material handling convenient, economical and effortless and modern consumer marketing will seem virtually impossible without packaging. For an engineer or food scientist, packaging is specialized arrangement of matrices fabricated for the delivery of safe food products with maintaining high quality and food safety, at every step of distribution chain including procurement of raw material to manufacturing of finished product; packaging of product; storage; transportation and distribution to wholesaler, retailer and consumer and even for recycling operations [17].

Packaging of food is imperative in a world dominated by marketing-based economy The fact that 73% of purchase decisions are made at point of sale highlighted the importance of a good package design in marketing. During scanning of food package, consumer made quick and rapid perception about the inclusion of a particular food based on the various verbal and nonverbal attributes embodied on food package [25]. Designing is an indispensable are of food packaging. It is medium to attract potential buyers and distinguished the product from the competitors. The presence of visual attributes on package design will not only ameliorates the food product and glamorizes the packets but also defines its authenticity and peculiarity. Therefore, a quality package design is characterized as communication channel between the manufacture and consumer, and unless performed correctly the market image of the brand and product suffers and influence consumer’s perception.

Abstract

Packaging industry is considered to be one of the world’s largest industrial sectors. In the past few years, food processing has undergone several paradigm changes with respect to production, distribution, storage, processing and retailing. This increasing dynamism in the food industry, while on one hand placing a lot of challenges on the packaging industries, is on the other hand opening up opportunities for entrepreneurs to foray into food processing and also packaging industries and develop appropriate solutions in response to the needs of the market and environment. This study aims at exploring the state of packaging industry and packaging technologies in developing countries, with special emphasis on India, against the backdrop of increasing concern for prevention of food losses and therefore highlighting the need for new innovative ideas for food packaging. The authors posit that customer awareness about safety of processed food has given rise to tremendous possibilities of entrepreneurship opportunities in the area of safe and hygiene packaging. However market preferences, state reputations and cost benefit analysis play major roles in packaging of processed food products.

India is the second largest producer of fruits However, the export potential of fruits and vegetables is very negligible. This is because of improper knowledge to the farmer about proper post-harvest infrastructure facilities. Fruits have a high-water content ranging from 70-95 per cent. They dry quickly under any normal atmospheric condition. These causes loss of rigidity and shrinkage of the cells cause wilting and shrivelling. Appropriate packaging ensures prolonged the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by preventing moisture loss and thereby wilting. Transportation is a critical phase in the fruit supply chain that can significantly affect the quality of fruits. Several factors during transportation can lead to quality degradation such as temperature/humidity fluctuations, mechanical damage, transit time etc. To mitigate the adverse effects of transportation on fruit quality, best practices ie, real-time monitoring, temperature and humidity control, loading/unloading techniques can be employed. Quality evaluation is a critical component in the fruit industry, encompassing a range of assessments to ensure fruits meet the desired standards for consumer satisfaction, shelf life, regulatory compliance, and market competitiveness. It involves a comprehensive approach that includes physical, chemical, and sensory assessments, supported by advanced technological tools, to maintain and enhance the quality of fruits throughout the supply chain. This book chapter deals with the effective packaging, transportation, and quality evaluation of fruits, ensuring that consumers receive fresh, high-quality produce.

INTRODUCTION

Packaging is an important aspect in modern life and in fact the word ‘packaging’ developed a literal value indicating presentation of an issue or material in a comprehensive and compact manner. Food packaging has become a revolutionary trend and plays a dominant role in the promotion of marketing of various fresh and processed food products. The reason could be a number of aspects inclusive of protective, legal and aesthetic elements. The industrial revolution in the late 18th century caused major impact on manufacturing process. Without appropriate packaging no food is acceptable and even in the common household food packaging is being practiced in its own way to render food safety and convenience for various culinary operations. Therefore, food packaging needs to be considered as an essential element of food processing and marketing and it is one of the key areas in food technology making rapid strides in research and development.

11.1. Introduction

Food packaging is the integral part of the food industry. Packaging may be defined as the enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance. If the device or container performs one or more of these functions, it is considered a package. The major roles of the packaging of food are the containment and preservation of foods by protecting the food from physical, chemical and microbial spoilage. Besides, packaging performs some other functions like communication which means giving the information about the product, transportation of the food production and so on. Food products are classified as perishable, semi- perishable and non-perishable food based on the spoilage. Selecting appropriate packaging material and packaging technique for various food products like meat and poultry, fruits and vegetables, milk and milk products, bakery and confectionery and beverages is essential to maintain the quality of food product. Selection of the ideal packaging material for specific food requires prior knowledge about the packaging materials and its properties, type of the food products and specific spoilage mechanism of the particular food. Above all, from economical point of view, packaging material cost and capital for the establishment of the packaging technique also plays crucial role in selection of a particular packaging material or technique. 

Packaging : Packaging of fruits, vegetables, flowers or any other commodity is chiefly done to assemble the produce in convenient units of different sizes, shapes & types for storage, transportation, marketing and distribution. The size of units may vary depending on the requirement e.g for retail marketing smaller units are preferred and for bulk transportation and storage, large units would be more convenient.

Why do we Require Packaging?

Imagine there is no packaging material and technology available. How we are going to transport apple, mango etc. to distant markets? Definitely as loose. Then how can we weigh or count the fruits being transported or marketed? This would be very difficult. Had there been no packaging the commodity would have suffered great physical, chemical and microbiological losses. It would have been very difficult to handle, manage, transport and market the produce as loose and unpacked. Therefore, the packaging of fresh as well as processed commodities was needed to contain, unitize and protect the produce.

Introduction

Food and nutraceuticals are obtained from various agricultural resources available in this planet. Many types of bio-active compounds are available in small quantities in the plants and animals which are evidenced to improve performance of various organs, increase in immunity and cure for some diseases. Last decade evidences several advancements in developing phytochemical formulations which can be used as a cure for many diseases as well as helps in boosting immunity in human being. Such materials exist in different form, structure and chemical compositions. Examples of such chemicals are phenolic and organosulphur compound (Pascall 2011). The vegetables, fruits and seeds are used without further processing. Some plants are subjected to cooking before its consumption. Many industries are carried out extraction of bioactive compounds and developed products in the form of tablets, powders and liquids which are available in the market. In order to make commercial process more economic and feasible, long term storage of plant residues (Raw materials) as well as the prevention of the extracts emerges as essential requirement for the industries. Moreover, the products requires suitable packaging solution to increase its self-life, preventing it from the influences of environment, and to make viable solution for easy access which makes it more user-friendly. Suitable packaging solution is required for mainly the three reasons: (i) prevention. (ii) protection and (iii) presentation. Prevention is required in-order to avoid deterioration of the packaged items due to microbial growth, loss in moisture and enzymatic action. Protection is required for the purpose of protecting the packaging materials from the contamination as well as from the environment impact and rough handling. Presentation is equally important to provide it an aesthetic look to make it more approachable to the consumers. Moreover, packaging also offers “labelling for easy identification, warnings, instructions, and nutritional information, ease of transportation” (Pascall 2013).

Food packaging is an essential technique for preserving food quality and minimizing food wastage. It is a scientific technique of containing food against physical, chemical and microbiological contaminants. In addition package also display the product in most appropriate manner and provide product information to the consumers while at the same time allowing convenient handling and efficient distribution. The packaging of meat and meat products are particularly important because meat is highly nutritious food and provides good medium for the growth of micro-organisms. Meat and meat products are also susceptible to bacterial growth due to their high water activity. Exposure of meat and meat products on atmospheric temperature and sunlight leads to various types of deteriorative changes. For example when cut meat surfaces exposed to ambient air provide excellent breeding grounds for most bacteria. Minced meat is even more at risk due to the large exposed surface area. Packaging provides protection of food against external and internal factors but once food gets deteriorated it can not be controlled by packaging. For this reason rigorous hygiene in all processing and pre-packaging steps is vital for packaging of perishable food items like meat and meat products.

The packing methods practiced by nurserymen for transport of nursery plants to distant places in India are neither uniform nor efficient. In different parts of the country, various practices are followed which are claimed to have been evolved by long experience of the local nurserymen. They vary according to nature of the plant, the season and the cheapest packing material available at the time of packing.

In many parts of the country, citrus nurserymen uproot plants, tie them in large bundles (with or without soil), keeping the plant tops exposed to air and roots tightly packed or tied in the gunny cloth. The pomegranate and guava plants prepared by air layering are packed as such if they are not already potted in small pots.

Many nurserymen pack the rooted or newly lifted plants in a ball of sticky clay. The ball of earth is then covered with grass and tied as firmly as possible, thus securing the roots against drying. A number of plants, thus prepared, are filled closely in light locally knit bamboo baskets. The baskets are covered thinly with coconut leaves as protection against injury during railway shipment. Mango grafts in pots are packed in light baskets with some cushion of grass to reduce the impact while loading and unloading the parcels on their long journey by rail and road.

Some nursery men use large baskets, woven out of coconut leaves with limp walls or sides. Plants such as coconut, chikoo, guava, mango are packed tightly in these baskets and shipped by truck or rail. This packing is done irrespective of plant containers such as pot or a ball of earth, with or without grass covering. The plants packed in all such fashions are usually damaged and some of them do not survive, unless care is taken during or after transplanting them in the permanent places. For better success, it should be seen that the roots of grown up plants do not get irreparable injury while removing from the bed or the pot. During transport, loss of water by transpiration should be kept at minimum, while the plants are awaiting dispatch or delivery at the railway platform, precaution should be taken against pilferage or damage by animals.

From the earliest time, man had to conserve and preserve his food, so that surplus at harvest following a successful crop can be stored for use throughout the year. Prime agricultural products in general and more so with fruits and vegetables which are being processed world wide or preserved to a more stable form so that they can withstand transport, handling and storage over a long period. As civilization developed, man learnt to preserve fruit and vegetable products with salt, spices and by drying , smoking or cooling which could extend their shelf life. Later by experience, he learnt that by protecting it from environmental factors such as air, moisture and light, the shelf life of these processed products could be further increased. He tried to keep them dry and covered to protect from insects and rodents. As with solid foods, primitive man experimented with beverages also. It is likely that the first beverage known to him after water was fruit juice. This undoubtedly led to the discovery of wines made from the fermented fruit juices. Later on, preservation methods and development of packaging materials underwent drastic changes.

The semen storage technology and glass ampoules were earlier developed in USA and French, Danish and West Germany introduced straw technique and in the mean time Japanese scientists developed pellet freezing method. 

1. Ampoule method 

The diluted semen is filled in ampoules after labeling, sealed, frozen and preserved in liquid nitrogen. For insemination, the ampoule is thawed in warm water of 37^ºC until liquidation then ampoule is cut and semen is drawn into glass catheter with the help of a sterile syringe and used for insemination. In this method, semen may not be contaminated and identification of semen is easy. However, the semen is frozen in a larger volume so the freezability and fertility are less and it requires more storage space in cryocan. About 8-10% of semen is lost while thawing, loading and insemination.  Use of glass catheter for insemination is risky because chances of breaking and chances of injury to cow or inseminator and passing of catheter in the cervix.

Product Characteristics and Packaging Requirements:

The key raw materials for sugar confectionery are sugar (60 - 65%), glucose, citric acid and flavoured essences. Confectionery is hygroscopic in nature and requires protection against the ingress of moisture, and exposure to high temperature (as far as possible).

A candy or confectionery product may be adversely affected by many things. Hard candy, brittles and crunch products are most sensitive to moisture and absorb water vapour fairly rapidly from the atmosphere. Various gums are less sensitive while some creams tend to lose moisture considerably.

8.1. Packaging

• One of the important steps in long and complicated j oumey from grower to consumer.

• Bags, crates, hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk bins, and palletized containers are convenient containers for handling, transporting, and marketing fresh produces.

8.2. Packaging points

• Recyclability / Biodegradability

• Variety

• Sales appeal

• Shelflife

• Containment

• Protection

• Identification

? To provide information on produce name, brand, size, grade, variety, net weight, count, grower, shipper, and country of origin.

? Universal Product Codes (UPC or bar codes) is included as part of labelling.

? UPC is used in food industry which consists of a ten digit machine readable code.

Introduction

“The World Packaging Organisation’s (WPO) slogan, “Better Quality of Life Through Better Packaging”, sumps up the important place that packaging occupies in a modern economy.

As the economics of many countries are increasing, the consumers have started using more processed food. As a matter of fact global food processing and packaging business has reached to multi trillion dollars. In today’s world of global markets and stiff competition in every product along with increasing consumer demand, it becomes imperative for companies to explore ways to improve their productivity in terms of maintaining safety, using sustainable packaging materials, implementing flexible and standardized technology, and adopting proven management. Towards this end, companies have been striving to improve the efficiencies of their operations through improvements in the processes. Reducing wastes and shortening lead times becomes all the more imperative in the food industry due to the perishable nature of the product. Moreover, recent advances in technology such as Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and nano-materials afford companies greater opportunities to streamline the processing, packaging, and manufacturing schemes.

Packaging is an important consideration in vegetable and fruit market. The use of properly designed containers for transporting and marketing of vegetables is significantly reduce losses and maintain their freshness succulence and quality for longer period. Packaging also provides protection from mechanical damage and undesirable physiological changes and pathological deterioration during storage, transportation and marketing.

Many vegetables are transported in gunny bags and bamboo baskets. Packaging material such as polythene films, paper boars, and boxes lived with polythene and other materials can effectively prolong the shelf life of vegetables. By using plastic films vegetables can be protected from dry air. Polythene packaging provides modified atmosphere and consequently reduces decay, softening, and loss of solids. The thickness and permeability to CO₂, O₂ and water vapour of films needs to be standardized for each vegetable.

1. Introduction

Packaging is the integral part and cornerstone of food processing industry. The development of food processing industry goes hand in hand with advancement of packaging technology. Packaging Institute International has defined packaging as “enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance”. Lockhart has defined packaging as “a socio-scientific discipline that operates in society to ensure the delivery of goods to the ultimate consumer of those goods in the best condition intended for their use”. Food packaging technology has came a long way from use of anything in hand for wrapping up a product to becoming a key element in product development and design.

23.1 Dry Flower Packing

Careful packing is one of the most important aspects of any product. Dry flower packing is the simplest way to capture the essence of summer flowers till long. Dry flowers should be packed nicely to avoid any damage. They should be packed alone in appropriate sized carton loosely cushioned with paper.They should be packed in a manner to keep them away from direct sunlight leaving some room for air. Packing material should be stable and firm to hold the dry flowers well without any damage during storage or transportation. Dry flowers can be packed in a variety of ways: in poly bags, window box, cardboard box, or in a sachet.

Introduction

Packing and transportation forms an important component in fish trade whether live fish, fish seed, fresh fish, iced fish or dried fish. There are few reasons necessitating packing and transportation.

    ·    The movement of fry/juvenile for stocking into farms or restocking into natural environment.
    ·    The movements of fish to markets for sale selling/consumption.
    ·    The movements of ornamental aquarium live fish for trade.
    ·    The movement of aquatic animals for research purpose.

Most of the horticultural produce is of perishable nature and must be protected from postharvest losses, which start from the field itself. Therefore, adoption of proper packing house operation plays a very crucial role in minimizing postharvest losses

Although, we have reached new heights in the production of fruits comparable to China, Brazil and USA and in vegetables to China, yet we are far behind in postharvest management of these perishables, primarily due to lack of appropriate infrastructure. Test studies conducted in Australia have indicated that the distribution cost of perishable horticultural produce is assumed 5 to 9 times, the production cost. Further, packaging accounted for 25-50% of the wholesale price of fruits and vegetables. In India, huge losses of horticultural produce (25-30%) after harvest are encountered mainly due to non-existence of packing house concept.

Packing house operations essentially begins with the use of proper field containers, field transport, temperature protection of harvest produce, sorting, sizing, grading, packing, which are essential preparatory steps to storage, shipment and subsequent marketing. Depending on the kind of produce, additional activities viz. degreening, curing, washing, ripening, waxing, precooling etc. are done. The sequence of activities varies with the crops. A considerable quantity of postharvest losses of horticultural produce could be minimized by adoption of various packing house operations described below:

Early research in field of semen storage and delivery systems was conducted in USA. The straw technique for the storage of frozen semen was evolved by work of French, Danish and German workers whereas the pellet system of storage of semen was devised by Japanese scientists. The different packing systems of frozen semen are:

    9.1    Ampoule method
    9.2    Pellet method
    9.3    Straw method

9.1 Ampoule Method
In this method the semen is placed in a glass ampoule and is subsequently sealed and frozen in liquid nitrogen. The ampoule is thawed just before insemination and is then cut open. The semen is withdrawn into glass catheter and used for AI. Since the ampoule is sealed there is no risk of contamination during storage. The relevant details can be marked on the ampoule.

Various systems were developed to take produce from field to consumer and selection of a particular method depends on several factors, including perishability and value of crop.  One method is to harvest the crop and take it to a packhouse for various unit operations like grading, cleaning, post-grading treatments, and packing for transport and marketing. When deciding upon where to locate a packinghouse, access to field and market point, adequate space for vehicles to enter and leave  packinghouse and ease of access to labor will all be considered.
 
In the simplest packinghouse, produce is delivered in picking containers, immediately after harvest, directly to packers.  Packers then sort, grade, size and pack the produce directly into appropriate transport containers. In this case, each worker must be aware of produce defects, grade and size requirements, and packing methods.

Aim

To knw the method of softening the ring of the perpendicular Thomas splint to avoid direct trauma of the metal wire with the skin.

Materials required

Jute /thin gunny bag,bandage roll,cotton threads

Introduction

Pain management in poultry is an important aspect of animal welfare and overall production efficiency in the poultry industry. Poultry birds, such as chickens and turkeys, can experience pain due to various reasons including routine management procedures, injuries, and diseases. Managing pain in poultry is crucial not only for ethical reasons but also because pain can lead to decreased productivity and increased susceptibility to diseases. For the better management First step is identification of pain in birds which can only be possible with the thorough knowledge of their behaviour. Second step is the selection of appropriate analgesics and their dosing’s as there are various species of birds. Commonly used analgesics for birds includes, NSAID’s, opioids etc.

1. Routine Management Procedures: Many routine procedures in the poultry industry, such as beak trimming, toe clipping, and wing clipping, can cause pain and distress to birds if not done properly. Beak trimming, for example, is often performed to reduce feather pecking and cannibalism in crowded conditions but can cause acute pain if not done correctly. Proper techniques and pain management strategies must be employed during such procedures to minimize pain and distress in birds.

Palaeontology is the science that deals with the life past geological periods. It is just the opposite of neontology which deals with the systematics of recent organisms. Fossils are the remains or parts of animal or plants that lived thousands of years ago which have turned into rock. They are preserved traces of living organisms in the earth crust.

Fossil History of Insects

Occurrence of insects in fossilised state provides a clear idea of the main order of insects. The oldest known insects’ fossil appears to be of Apterygota and blattids seem to be the oldest living insects, which have almost lived without undergoing large scale evolutionary changes from the Carboniferous to the present day.

Some of the earliest apterygotes might have developed from the Permian or lower Carboniferous. The richest collection of fossil insects is from the vegetable deposits like coal, lignite peats and in amber entangled in the raisin. Most of the insects are known only through their wings, resulting in the study of venation. However, the amber fossil of Miocene presents a clearer picture. The best known epoch is undoubtedly the Permian while Triassic provides richest discoveries of the insect fossils.