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The remains of animals and plants of past ages preserved in the rocks are known as fossils, the study of which forms the subject of Palaeontology. The conditions for an animal or plant to become a fossil are firstly it must possess skeleton of some kind or some hard parts, since the soft parts are decomposed rapidly, secondly the organism must be covered up by sedimentary layer, otherwise it will soon crumble to pieces.

5.1 Modes of Preservation of Fossils

The conditions in which fossils occur depends, on their original composition and on the material in which they are embedded. The chief types are as follow:

5.1.1 The entire organism preserved

Occasionally the soft parts of the organism are preserved as well as the skeleton, the whole having suffered very little change. Instances of this are the woolly rhinoceros and mammoth found frozen in the mud and ice in Northern Siberia. Insects encased in fossil resin, known as amber, are found in the Oligocene beds in the Baltic shores of Persia, but the soft part of organisms are rarely preserved.

5.1.2 The skeleton preserved almost unchanged

Sometimes where the skeleton alone is preserved, it remains almost in its original condition, except that it has lost its organic matter. Thus the shells in the Pliocene beds of England differ from living ones only in being lighter, more porous and generally colourless. In some instances a certain amount of mineral matter, such as carbonate of lime, has been added to the skeleton, making it heavier and more compact.

Characters

Palaeoptera world derive from New latin word pale means old and ptera means wings

Two order i.e Ephimeroptera and Odonata comes under this grops because wings can not fold over abdomen at time of rest.

1. Introduction

Our Indian traditional medicine depends on herbals which always played an important role in the health problems of many countries. In India, the tribal people are using variety of herbals for effective curing of various ailments. These plants are often used by the local people of that area for treatment of various diseases. Ethnomedicinal studies have offered immense value and opportunities for the development of new drugs. Living close to nature, traditional societies have acquired unique knowledge about the use of wild flora and fauna, most of which are unknown to the people who live away from such natural ecosystem as forests and hills. The hills have been the sources of medicinal plants since the time man realized the preventive and curative properties of plants and started using them for human health care.

Tribal people throughout the world, including India, have developed their own cultures, customs, religious rites, taboos, legends and myths, folk tales, medicine, food, etc., They are the repository of accumulated experience and knowledge of the indigenous vegetation; this can be utilized in tribal development. These days greater emphasis is being laid on this traditional knowledge and on using it in the “bioprospecting” of natural products as a new source of food and medicine.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Pallisentis was erected by Van Cleave, 1928 with P. umbellatus as its type species. The other species reported under this genus are P. gaoes (Mac Callum, 1918) Van Cleave, 1928; P. cleatus Van Cleave, 1928; P. ophiocephali (Thapar, 1930) Baylis, 1933; P. nagpurensis (Bhalerao, 1931) Baylis, 1933; P. nandai Sarkar, 1953; P. colisai Sarkar, 1956; P. basiri Farooqi, 1958; P. allahabadi Agarwal, 1958; P. buckleyi Tadross, 1966; P. pandei Rai, 1967; P. guntei Sahay et al., 1967; P. garuai n. comb. Davendrosentis garuai Sahay et al., 1971; P. magnum (Saeed & Bilqees, 1971); P. tetradontae Troncy, 1978; P. clupei Gupta and Gupta, 1979; P. cavasi, P. fasciati, P. gomtii Gupta and Verma, 1980; P. indica, P. croftoni Mithal and Lal, 1981; P. kalrai Khan and Bilqees, 1985; P. guptai, P. mehrai Gupta and Fatma, 1985; P. fotedari Gupta and Sinha, 1991 and P. jagani Koul et al., 1991.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fish hosts were collected from the study area and brought to the laboratory for parasitic examination. The external body surface as well as the internal body organs were thoroughly examined for the parasites. The collected acanthocephalan parasites were washed and relaxed in normal saline. Then the specimen was fixed and preserved in AFA (alcohol-formalin-acetic acid) solution. To facilitate identification of the worms the parasites were cleared in lactophenol and mounted in glycerine jelly. Diagrams were made with the help of camera lucida and measurements were taken with ocular micrometer. All the measurements are in millimetres. The collected parasites were identified following Yamaguti (1963) and Bhattacharya (2007).

I. General information

The nature of roots

The roots of palms are usually tough and thick, although slender and wiry types are existing. Some roots creep over the soil’s surface, while a few palms even develop aerial roots that may eventually make them appear to be growing on stilts.

A few palms develop aerial roots at or near the base of the trunk or stems. These include Crysophila warscewiczii (Rootspine palm) and Clinostigma exorrhizum. Other palms with aerial roots include Pinanga aristata, Verschaffeltia splendida (Seychelles stilt palm) and Socratea exorrhiza. Some of these develop into stilt or prop roots, which often form a cone and give the palm extra support, they usually occurs on plams native to wet soils and humid conditions, whereas the base of the palms is at risk from decay. Indeed, in a few instances, the lower part of the trunk withers and the palm is entirely supported by these roots.

An unbranched evergreen tree of tropical and warm regions with a crown of very long feathered or fan-shaped leaves and typically having old leaf scars forming a regular pattern on the trunk. Palms have great ornamental value and are planted in the garden for special effects.

Palms are native of tropics and belong to Palmae or Arecaceae family. They are varied in forms, size and habit of growth. Palms do not increase in thickness and also do not show any distinction in bark wood and pith. Flowers are produced on spikes that hanged gracefully in many species. Inflorescences are highly diverse from large panicles with many orders of branching to simply spikes. Flowers may be bisexual or unisexual borne either on the same plant or on separate plant. Whereas, some palms are polygamous.

Palmyra (Borassus flabellifer L.) is a tropical dioecious palm adapted to arid zone tracts. Though it is a versatile plant which yields many edible and non-edible products it is a less exploited species. It is used for sap, fruit, seed, leaf and fiber and timber products. From nutritional point of view, fruit pulp and seed shoot flour are the most important.Successful promotion of these as foods for general consumption depends on subjecting the fruit pulp to a debittering process, and the seed shoot flour, to initial detoxification processes (Thabrew and Jansz, 2004). Palmyra palms are the most numerous palms in the world after coconut palm (Fox, 1977). Despite this, they are the least studied of all the palms.

Botanical Name: Borassus fabellifier
    ·    Borassus flabellifer - Asian Palmyra palm/Lontar palm/Doub palm/Sea Coconut (Southern Asia and Southeast Asia)
    ·    Borassus aethiopum - African Palmyra Palm (Tropical Africa)
    ·    Borassus akeassii - Ake Assi’s Palmyra Palm (West Africa)
    ·    Borassus heineanus - New Guinea Palmyra Palm (New Guinea)
    ·    Borassus madagascariensis - Madagascar Palmyra Palm (Madagascar)
    ·    Borassus sambiranensis - Sambirano Palmyra Palm (Madagascar)

The palmyrah palm exists both in the wild as well as in cultivation, ranging from sea level about 800 amsl. It is usually grown in seasonal tropical or subtropical climates on sandy soils. It is a very adaptable palm, however, growing well in dry areas and is quite drought resistant. It also grows in per-humid areas and survives water logging quite well. The worldwide distribution of natural and cultivated populations of the palmyrah shows that it occupies a band on either side of the equator and extends laterally over a considerable girth. The country wise distribution of the palms are Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Nigeria, Gaban, Congo, Sudan, Tanzania, Madagascar, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Lubeigt, 1977), Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia (Kovoor, 1983). In India, the palms are wide spread in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.  Isolated patches are also seen in Assam, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh (Anonymous, 1948). The palmyrah is considered as a slow grower and the growth rate decreases in regions of higher altitude (Tjitrosoepomo and Pudjoarinto, 1982).

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to the tropical Africa and grows in the Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.

• Palm is widespread in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

• In Tamil Nadu, it is present in Tuticorin, Tirunelveli, Thenkasi, Virudhunagar, Ramanathapuram Madurai, Theni, Salem, Namakkal, Kancheepuram, Chengalpattu, Tiruvallur, Villupuram, Kallakurichi and Cuddalore districts.

• Palm is dioecious in nature.

• Palmyrah was declared as “State Tree of Tamil Nadu” by the Government of Tamil Nadu.

The bio-degradation process dates back to time immemorial when some wild ruminant animals were spotted feeding on the tree –woods in South Chile. The natives of this place called this feed as “Palo Podrido (Huempe)”, meaning – ‘animal feed’, as opined by F. Zadrazilof Germany. Later on, it was found that thiswood was actuallydegradedbycertaintypes offungi undernatural conditions and decomposed to Spent-wood, which turned out to be the animal feed. The scientists started working on these fungi as well as this type of process. Lately, the fungi were found to be belonging to higher basidiomycetes class, called: White-rot-fungi. They mainly degraded lignin of the wood, however cellulose and hemicelluloses to a limited extent only.

But, surprisingly it was found that the digestibility and crude protein content increased to a considerable extent. Later on, the scientists started working on spent-straws too. The cereal straws (lignocellulosics) constituted a staple-feed (basal) in the developingcountries for theseruminantanimals. But, thepresence of lignin (a biological plastic) limits the utilization of these cereal straws in the rumen eco-system. Thus, the concept of SolidState Fermentation (SSF) sparked into this type of investigation. Some examples of such white-rot-fungi were: Pleurotus ostreatus, Coprinus cineus, Sporotrichum thermophile, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Polyporous berkeleyi, Neurospora crssa, Alternaria tenius to name a few. Some examples of substrates upon which such types of fungi grew for SSF were: wheat straw, paddy straw, paddy husks, ground nut shells, sugarcane bagasse, barleystraw, sunflower stalk, aspen wood, birch wood, saw dust etc. The resurgence of interest in the use of straw from cereal and grain crops as animal feed had been witnessed in early nineties to maintain the performance of animals. Following were some of the variations undertaken by different scientific groups:

1. Introduction

Among the various well associated morphological units in plants, the reproductive units demand maximum protection which is achieved in pollen grains (also in spores) by encasing the germplasm with a well organized wall with a unique structure and ornamentation. Apart from its functional significance, the wall bears important characteristics which are of immense diagnostic and phylogenetic values. The morphological diversities in pollen and spore organization are greatly exemplified in the vascular plants. The term ‘Palynology’ was coined by Hyde and Williams in 1944 for the science of pollen studies, which include the study of pollen as well as spores. Although some investigators tend to limit the scope of palynology to morphological investigations but others include pollen analyses of peats, coals, honey, and rocks as well as the resulting conclusions drawn from this information, and in a wider sense it is also connected with the pollen chemistry.

The wall of pollen and spores is a very peculiar substance which is resistant to the destructive action of corrosive acids and alkalis and is readily preserved in nature under suitable conditions. The shape, size, and ornamentation or sculpturing of pollen has been the subject of study since the invention of the microscope. Pollen morphology is therefore greatly utilized in interpretation of ancient floras, for determining authentic species phylogeny, distribution and climatic conditions under which they grew, based upon the pollen content of the matrices. Pollen which lodges in moss tufts and lichen mats, or falls in water and gradually sink, or those that fall on sphagnum and clays particularly under anaerobic conditions, are well preserved. This pollen is not destroyed in the transformation of peats to lignite or clay in shale and thus has been preserved for hundreds of thousands of years.

During the present century pollen morphological studies are substantiated and elaborated magnanimously with the aid of Electron microscopy. The surface configuration and finer details are being accurately analyzed for their proper application in plant taxonomy as well as in microfossil diagnosis.

This process involves building up a coating of sugar and sometimes of other things, layer by layer. Panning is one of those processes that the confectionery and pharmaceutical industries have in common.

The coating of confectionery with sugar using a pan is very ancient. Originally, these products were made in an open pan suspended over a fire by chains. Apparently the operator swung the pan by hand, coating the product with sugar syrup which was then allowed to crystallise. The normal modern small-scale method is to use a rotating dragee pan (Fig.No.19.1).

These are elliptical vessels made traditionally of copper, but now more commonly of stainless steel. The pan is equipped to be rotated and usually there is a system for supplying and extracting air and possibly with a system for spraying in the sugar syrup. Typical pan sizes are between 1.5 and 0.9 m in diameter although smaller sizes are used for small-scale work.

INTRODUCTION

The term ‘ginseng’ is applied to a range of plants from family Araliaceae involving genus Panax. Out of the many species available in nature, Himalayas are also home to a commercially lesser known variety called as Panax psuedoginseng Wall (Nayar and Shastry 1990). In the interior temperate areas of the eastern Himalayas, the species is distributed across Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and extends into China. Keeping in view its high commercial international demand, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (CSIR-IHBT) Palampur has recently taken an initiative to introduce and cultivate Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng) in the Lahaul valley of Himachal Pradesh, in India. This chapter addresses the different biological, chemical, medicinal and cultivation aspects of both the indigenous Himalayan variety (P. psuedoginseng) and the introduced Chinese species (P. ginseng) in particular.

Panchayati Raj is the oldest system of local government in the Indian subcontinent. Panchayati Raj Institutions have been in existence in India for a long time. In the old Sanskrit scriptures, word 'Panchayatan' has been mentioned which means a group of five persons, including a spiritual man. In the Rigveda, there is a mention of Sabha, Samiti and Vidatha as local selfunits. These were the democratic bodies at the local level. The king used to get the approval of these bodies regarding certain functions and decisions.

After independence, as a development initiative, India had implemented the Community Development Programmes (CDP) on the eve of Gandhi Jayanti, the 2nd October, 1952.The National Extension Service followed the Community Development Programme as the vehicle through which idea of Community Development would be worked and to build up an administrative system which can tackle the welfare problems of growth at the local level. The Balvantray Mehta Study Team was appointed in January 1957 to study and to make report on the Community Development Projects and National Extension Service .The Team brought to focus the areas mentioned below:

India has experienced marked changes, both at international and national levels. Technological progress, ICT penetration in rural and urban areas, and changes in current government policies have resulted in changes in the country’s social structure and power relations. The government initiated various programmes like Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), Mahila e-Haat, and Support to Training & Employment Programme (STEP) etc. are there to improve the state of rural women. 

Evolution of Panchayati Raj System in India

In January 1957, the Government of India appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Balwantray Mehta to examine the working of the Community Development Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953), and to suggest measures for their better implementation. The committee expressed concern about the lack of participation of people in these programmes and made a string plea for devolution of power. The committee submitted its report in November 1957 and recommended the establishment of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralization’ through a three-tier system of local government from village to district Level-Gram Panchayat at village level, Panchayat Samiti at block level and Zilla Parisad at district level -which ultimately came to be known as Panchayati Raj in India. The recommendations of the committee were accepted by the National Development Council (NDC) in January 1958. The NDC did not insist on a single rigid pattern of panchayat raj system throughout the country but left it to the states to evolve their own patterns suitable to local conditions. But the basic principles and broad fundamentals of democratic decentralization remained identical throughout the country. Thus, the Panchayati Raj system came into existence in 1959 with two basic objectives. These were (1) democratic decentralization and (2) local participation in planned programmes. The new system of Panchayat Raj Institutions was first adopted in Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh in 1959, followed by Assam, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in 1960, Maharashtra in 1962, and Gujarat and West Bengal in 1963 and 1964 respectively. By the mid-sixties, the hype to strengthen the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) gave way to a growing tendency of centralization and the PRIs descended to ground zero. To revive the working of PRIs, the Janata Government in 1977 appointed a committee headed by Ashok Mehta to study the functioning of PRIs and to suggest measures for improvement. The committee suggested a minor change in the Balwantray Mehta Scheme. Mehta (1978), in the Report of the Committee of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) identified three phases of Panchayati Raj in India

11.1 Introduction

Pandas is an open-source Python Library providing high-performance data manipulation and analysis tool using its powerful data structures. The name Pandas is derived from the word Panel Data - an Econometrics from Multidimensional data.

In 2008, developer Wes McKinney started developing pandas when in need of high performance, flexible tool for analysis of data.

Prior to Pandas, Python was majorly used for data munging and preparation. It had very little contribution towards data analysis. Pandas solved this problem. Using Pandas, we can accomplish five typical steps in the processing and analysis of data, regardless of the origin of data - load, prepare, manipulate, model, and analyze.

Python with Pandas is used in a wide range of fields including academic and commercial domains including finance, economics, Statistics, analytics, etc.

Pandemic : An epidemic occurring over a very wide area (several countries or continents) and usually affecting a large proportion of the population.

Partial Evaluation : Partial evaluations constitute a number of economic study types which consider costs and/or consequences, but which either do not involve a comparison between alternative interventions or do not relate costs to benefits.

Participation bias : People who participate in a study, especially volunteers, may be systematically different from those who do not, in a way that can affect the response to a treatment. For example, if volunteers are chosen to test the effects of a vaccine, one might find a lower incidence of disease in this population simply because they are more health conscious than those who would not volunteer for such a study.

Path dependence : History matters. Where you have been in the past determines where you are now and where you can go in future. Indeed, even small, apparently trivial, differences in the path you have taken can have huge consequences for where you are and can go. In economics, path dependence refers to the way in which apparently insignificant events and choices can have huge consequences for the development of a market or an economy.

Pansy belongs to the family Violaceae, genus Viola and species tricolor. Pansy also known as butterfly flower, cat face. Pansies are annuals or short-lived perennials, grow 15-30 cm tall and have heart-shaped leaves at the base and oblong leaves growing from the stems. The pansy is quite durable and a “flower for all seasons”. The fragrant and edible blooms are desirable in gardens. Pansy popularity increases possible due to its ease of growing. Whether grown from seed or bedding plants, pansies are relatively disease and pest free blooming prolifically for the gardener’s enjoyment.

Pansy belongs to the family Violaceae, genus Viola and species tricolor. Pansy also known as butterfly flower, cat face. Pansies are annuals or short-lived perennials, grow 15-30 cm tall and have heart-shaped leaves at the base and oblong leaves growing from the stems. The pansy is quite durable and a “flower for all seasons”. The fragrant and edible blooms are desirable in gardens. Pansy popularity increases possible due to its ease of growing. Whether grown from seed or bedding plants, pansies are relatively disease and pest free blooming prolifically for the gardener’s enjoyment. The pansy is a group of hybrid plants cultivated as garden flowers. Pansies are derived from Viola species Viola tricolor hybridized with other Viola species, these hybrids are referred to as Viola × wittrockiana or less commonly Viola tricolor hortensis. The pansy is used in phytotherapy. The pansy is the symbol of Free thought. For Viola species, there is strong resistance to cold, flowering early and long flowering period. Also be used to cover a large area on the ground flower beds, its colour range, forming a unique landscape in early spring, but also in the flower bed with the string of red, petunia colour, or for potted plants and planted tank, decorative balconies, bay windows and stairs.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The modern pansy, Viola x wittrockiana, is thought to have derived from Viola tricolor, a native of central Europe. The center of origin for Viola was continental Europe. Viola is widely distributed in temperate areas in the northern hemisphere and in S. America, with centres of diversity in S.E. Europe, E. Asia and S. America; isolated endemics occur in Africa (equatorial high mountains and the Cape), E. Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and Hawaii. V. sororia as defined by McKinney (1992), is widely found across the United States and Canada. Each subspecies has a smaller distribution. V. sororia var. sororia is found in the mid to eastern United States and southern Canada, V. sororia var. affinis, is found in western and extreme northeastern sections of the United States and Canada, V. sororia var. missouriensis is found in the eastern United States, and V. sororia var. novae-angliae is found in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Maine, Quebec and New Brunswick. Of the four varieties only V. sororia var. sororia and V. sororia var. missouriensis are native to New Jersey (McKinney, 1992). V. sororia var. sororia is found in drier areas than the other four subspecies and often in waste grounds (McKinney, 1992) or on the forest floors of open woods in semi-shaded conditions (McKinney, 1992).

Abstract: Viola or garden pansy, commonly known as sweet violet or king of annuals, are widely cultivated worldwide for landscape planting, garden design and container gardening. Today, numerous OP varieties, F₁ hybrids (Europa, Toto, Wasa), F₂ strains, series (Waterford, heat tolerant S series) and cultivars introduced by seed companies are available on the world market. Pansy breeding efforts have been focused on F₁ hybrid seed production, heat tolerance, flower colour, flower size and form, double flowers, earliness, disease resistance, floriferous nature and interspecific hybridization. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern pansy breeders. Research is needed to exploit heterosis for productivity and gene transformation to create new genetic variability.

The papaya (Carica papaya L.) belongs to the family Caricaceae. It is an important fruit of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. It is the most important plant in the home gardens, and where green papaya is also used as a vegetable. Ripe fruits are eaten as dessert, which is available throughout the year.

Papaya is native to West Indies and Central America (Mexico). It is a common fruit in nearly all parts of tropical and sub-tropical world. It is abundantly grown in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, South America, Pakistan, Australia, Mexico, Costa Rica, Hawaii, Kenya, Taiwan, Puerto Rica, Peru, USA, Philippines. It was introduced in India in 16^th Century. In India it is mainly cultivated in Kerala, Assam, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Cultivars: Honey Dew, Coorg Honey Dew, Washingtan, Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Giant, Co. 1 to Co. 7, Arka Surya, Arka Prabhat, Pusa Nanha, Pink Flesh Sweet, Pant 1, Sunrise Solo and Taiwan Red Lady, are the most popular varieties under cultivation in India.

Papaya is one of the fruit crops grown both commercially as well as a backyard crop. Papaya was mainly a backyard crop till recently. It emerged as a main commercial crop during the last decade, because of the high nutritive value. It is a rich source of Vitamin A (2020 I.U), Vitamin B1 (40 mg), Vitamin C (46mg), protein (0.5%) and mineral matters (0.4%). Ripe papaya is a favourite breakfast and dessert fruit available yearround. It is used for making fruit salads, refreshing drinks, jams, jelly, marmalade, candies and crystallized fruits. Green fruits are pickled or cooked as vegetable. Carpine, an alkaloid present in papaya, can be used as a heart depressant, amoebicide and diuretic. It is also grown for the extraction of papain, a proteolytic enzyme present in the latex, collected mainly from the green fruit. In 1875, T. P. Lucas, a British physician discovered the medicinal value of papaya and started a hospital in Brisbane, to treat patients solely with papaya. The people in Papua New Guinea use papaya for the skin and to treat rashes or sunburn or, with repeated applications, to remove the brown spots of aging. They also say that if you put papaya into the compost pile, they grow especially large! Natives in the Pacific Islands use all parts of the papaya tree for medicinal purposes — leaves, skin, seeds, bark, roots, flowers and of course, the fruit. South American women massage their breasts with thin slices of green papaya to stimulate the milk glands. Eating the fruit provides energy and nutrients for both herself and the baby. Papaya bark is used as a toothache remedy and the flowers in teas, to treat bronchial infections. For centuries, teas from the roots were used to expel parasites and to alleviate bleeding, kidney colic, and jaundice.

The papaya, papaw or pawpaw is the fruit of the plant Carica papaya, commonly known as ‘melon tree’ in the genus Carica. It is native to the tropics of the America. This highly loved tropical fruit was reputably called “The Fruit of the Angels” by Christopher Columbus. Papaya is considered powerhouse of nutrients as it is rich in anti-oxidants, vitamins viz. A, B, C, minerals like potassium and magnesium and fiber. Together, these nutrients needed for function of a healthy immune system, promote the health of the cardiovascular system and also provide protection against colon cancer. In addition, papaya contains the digestive enzyme, papain, which helps in digestion and is widely used in industry for various purposes. 

Fruit flies : Bactrocera cucurbitae,Toxotrypana curvicauda : Tephritidae

The fruit flies lay eggs on maturing fruits. The emerging maggots feed in the fruit pulp, causing rotting of the fruits.

AK grasshopper: Poekilocerus pictus: Acrididae

Nymphs and adults of the AK grass hopper feed on papaya leaves and tender bark.  Maximum damage is done during July-August in North India.
 
Aphids : Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae: Aphididae

Nymphs and adult aphids suck sap from leaves. They are more important as a vector of papaya mosaic virus disease. The affected trees die in an year or two.

Genus : Carica 
Species : papaya L.
Family : Caricaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18, 36

The papaya plant is a huge/giant herbaceous plant and in general appearance looks more like a palm although there exists no botanical relationship between them. Papaya is said to be native of tropical America where it is a common fruit however the exact place of its origin is not well determined. Presently the plant is widely distributed and is abundant in India, Sri Lanka and many other countries of the Malaya Archipelago, Hawaii. Papaya fruit as well as all plant parts contain a milky sap called papain. This enzyme resembles animal pepsin in its digestive action and has become an important article of commerce, is utilized in the clarification of beer and its digestive action too has been very well recognized. Another remarkable papaya character is the irregularity which it presents in the sex distribution. Being dioecious, staminate and pistillate flowers are produced on different plants, besides a number of intermediate form have also been observed.

Origin and history: Papaya has long been known as wonder fruit of the tropics and is one of the five major fruit crops of tropical world, papaya fruits throughout the year and a remunerative fruit crop which is grown in almost every part of the country. It gives maximum yield per unit and income next to banana. It is generally grown as fruit plant in kitchen garden, home garden or nutrition garden and later as commercial fruit. It is also planted as a filler plant in a fruit orchard. India is the second largest producer of papaya in the world after Brazil. It is a fruit native to tropical America and commercially grown in many parts of the world viz., Australia, Hawaii, Taiwan, Puerto Rico, Peru, Florida, Texas, California, South Africa, Pakistan, Bangladesh and India. In India, it was introduced by Portuguese in 1611. It is grown in Karnataka, Bihar, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Gujarat, Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh etc.

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) has emerged from the status of a home garden plant to that of commercial orchards and is popular with the farmers because it is one of the few fruits which fruits throughout the year, give quick and high returns, requires less area per tree and adapts itself to diverse soil and climatic conditions. It is an important fruit of tropical and mild subtropical regions of the country. Though India is the leading producer of this fruit, the productivity (43.27 MT/ha) is below it’s potentially (100 t/ ha). In India, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are important centres of its production.

Origin and Distribution

Papaya is native to tropical America, from Southern Mexico through the Andes of South America. It was spread to the south by Indians, and throughout the Caribbean with Spanish exploration. It was spread in 16^th century to other parts of the world. The Spanish also carried it to Europe and the Pacific Islands. By the mid 17th century, papaya was distributed pan tropically. Papaya was introduced to Hawaii in the 1800s, and Hawaii remains the only state in the USA to produce papaya commercially. Now it is grown in all tropical and sub-tropical countries like Australia, Hawaii, Taiwan, Puerto Rico, Peru, Florida, Pakistan, Bangladesh and India. It was introduced in India in 16^th century by Portuguese. There are leading producer countries in the world which are India, Brazil, Mexico, Indonesia, Dominican republic, Nigeria, Democratic republic of the congo, Cuba, Thailand and Venezuela (Bolivarian republic).

India, is the worldwide leading producer of papaya and its principal exportation market is focused on Gulf countries. The papaya cultivation in India was 138 with production 5989 (‘000 hectare production ‘000 metric tones) in 2017–18 and it was 146 with production 6096 (‘000 hectare production ‘000 metric tones) 2018–2019. At harvested area rank, Mexico is the fifth papaya harvester, with 17,500 hectares. The maximum area in Gujarat followed by Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Chhattisgarh; and production is maximum in Andhra Pradesh followed by Gujarat and Karnataka, Anony, 2019.

Yellow pigment in papaya - Caricaxanthin

• The enzyme present in dried latex of papaya (papain) is pepsin.
• Frost is the most limiting factor for papaya cultivation in North India.
• Papaya is a polygamous plant. –
• 20 seeds of papaya weigh one gram
• Carpine obtained from papaya is used as a diuretic and heart stimulant.
• 10% male plants are planted wherein dioecious varieties are calculated.
• Papaya plants are extremely susceptible to waterlogging.
• Papaya is thermosensitive crop.

  Carica candoamarcensis is scientific name for Mountain papaya.

• Papaya has the highest production after banana.
• Sunrise Solo type papaya produces no male plants.

3.1. Introduction

Paper and paper-based packaging is the traditional form of packaging used for various food products due to its various advantageous characteristics. It is less expensive, flexible, lightweight, durable, recyclable and available in various shapes, sizes and colour to meet customer needs. Hence it occupies a vast market in food packaging from primary (i.e., packaging which is first used after manufacture) to secondary (i.e. processing aids of primary packages) packaging and the production of paper has doubled in the last three decades. In the year 2020, china was the leading producer for paper and paper based packaging followed by USA and Japan (Figure 1).

Paper chromatography (P.C.) is the easiest to perform and requires simple and ordinary apparatus. It easily provides qualitative information since components of a mixture can be separated based on their mobilities or molecular weights. It also can provide quantitative information if some special attention and calculation procedures are followed. Paper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a small dot or line of sample solution on to a strip of chromatography paper. The paper is placed in a jar containing a shallow layer of solvent and sealed. As the solvent rises through the paper, it meets the sample mixture, which starts to travel up the paper with the solvent. This paper is made of cellulose, a polar substance, and the compounds within the mixture travel farther if they are non-polar. More polar substances bond with the cellulose paper more quickly, and therefore do not travel as far.

Soils become acidic due to natural  and artificial (anthropogenic) reasons. The natural reasons include their origin from acidic parent materials namely granite, rhyolite, pegmatite and dacite etc. and areas under high rainfall  (rainfall  exceeding evapotranspiration) removing  basic cations through leaching and erosion particularly in coarse textured soils with undulated, hilly and sloping topography. Under natural condition, accumulation of organic matter and its decomposition also releases organic acids into the soil system, turning soils  acidic. The anthropogenic factors    responsible for turning soils  acidic,  are (i) removal of basic cations through crop cultivation, (ii) continuous use of acid forming fertilizers and (iii) acid rain in industrial areas.

Paphiopedilum is a genus of the orchid subfamily Cypripedioideae  and family Orchidaceae. It is derived from Paphos and ancient Greek word “pedilon” means “slipper”. Paphiopedilums are often called “slipper orchids” because of their unique pouch. The pouch traps insects seeking nectar and to leave again they have to climb up past the staminode, behind which they collect or deposit pollinia. Paphiopedilum has a highly ornamental value being the treasure of Orchidaceae. They are easily grown as houseplants and their care is very similar to African Violets.

Paphiopedilum is a genus of the orchid subfamily Cypripedioideae and family Orchidaceae. It is derived from Paphos and ancient Greek word “pedilon” means “slipper”. Paphiopedilums are often called “slipper orchids” because of their unique pouch. The pouch traps insects seeking nectar and to leave again they have to climb up past the staminode, behind which they collect or deposit pollinia. Paphiopedilum has a highly ornamental value being the treasure of Orchidaceae. They are easily grown as houseplants and their care is very similar to African Violets.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The genus name Paphiopedilum was established by Ernst Hugo Heinrich Pfitzer in 1886. Ironically, no paphiopedilum occurs on Cyprus- at least not as the genus is understood today. But it was long mixed up with its holarctic relative Cypripedium, which indeed grows in the Mediterranean region. Paphiopedilum was finally decided to be a valid taxon in 1959, but its use has become restricted to eastern Asian species. The genus is native to Indo-Malaysia (South China, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands) and India. Paphiopedilum armeniacum is found from China (west Yunnan province) to northern Myanmar. It occurs at 1,600 to 2,000 metres above sea level. It is found growing on limestone hills, in semi-shaded deciduous forest, usually on cliffs above rivers.

SPECIES

Over fifty species of Paphiopedilum have been discovered in the far east from the higher, cooler elevations of the Himalayas, across to China and Southeast Asia and down to the warmer, sea-level regions of Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines (Hawkes, 1965). Most species, like Paphiopedilum callosum are terrestrial in nature growing under the shaded and moist conditions of the forest floor (Fitch, 1982). Some species, such as Paphiopedilum niveum are lithophytic found in colonies on the coastal rock formations of the Malaysian islands (Fitch, 1982a). While a few of the larger strap-leaf Paphiopedilum species exposed to the higher light conditions found in their loftier habitats. Paphiopedilum philippinense var. roebelenii and Paphiopedilum lowii provide a strong contrast to such as Paph. lowii, are usually epiphytic Paphiopedilum charlesworthii previously described and serve to illustrate the extent of variation in both plant and flower habit within this genus. Unlike the single-flowered spikes of Paphiopedilum charlesworthii, which are usually around 15 cm tall, those of Paph. philippinense var. roebelenii and Paph. lowii can bear up to a half-dozen flowers and can measure 60 cm or more in length. Paphiopedilums with this kind of flowering habit are referred to as multifloral paphiopedilums (Batchelor). The plants themselves can be quite large particularly in the case of Paphiopedilum lowii, where individual leaves are often well over 30 cm long, though narrow.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originate from North America, in particular Central Mexico.

9.2. Economic importance

• Paprika contains capsanthin and capsorubin.

• Used to season and color rice, stews, and soups, such as goulash, and in the preparation of sausages, mixed with meats and other spices.

• There are six paprika American, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Moroccan, Spanish and Yugoslavian.

• In US, sprinkled raw on foods as a garnish.

9.3. Types and varieties

• Types of bell pepper

? Green pepper: Can be a little bitter, but it is very useful, such a fruit reduces the level of cholesterol in the blood. And it has the least calories.

? Red pepper: Is the sweetest and contains the most vitamin C.

? Orange pepper: It is also very tasty, but it contains slightly less vitamin C than red.

Introduction

Enough literature is available to understand the concept of extension. But are there any efforts to understand the in-tensions of ex-tension? Why should we emphasize on inner tensions of extension? to be a successful extension professional for bringing about the desirable changes in the behaviour of stakeholders, we need to understand the inner-tensions of extension in addition to the concept of extension.

Since inception of extension services, the model adopted for transfer of technology was dominated Technology, wherein the core emphasis was on the transfer of technology. The end product was the partial adoption of the technology or non-adoption of the technology. Learning from the experiences, modifications were made in the model and came out with extension mediated technology transfer system, wherein the technology is inseparable component of extension, which was combined with the human element or the societal element. The approaches adopted by different models of extension service delivery were also diverse.

The first model of extension service delivery the Public extension system or the Ministry of Agriculture, which delivers the extension services in the form of a systems approach. The relationship with the farmers or the end users is ‘take it or leave it’. Whether the receivers are gaining it or not, whether they do understand it or not, ultimately we are transferring it, and are ending it with the target oriented approach.

Aim: Perform the parallel operation of single-phase transformer and observe the load sharing of each transformer.

A power transformer is one of the most vital and an equally expensive component in a power system. It may so happen that, over time, due to load growth in its service area, an existing transformer may not be able to withstand the demand during peak-hours without exceeding its long-term MVA rating. Operating a transformer in such a fashion would cause overheating and degrade its expected life. In most cases, instead of commissioning an entirely new higher capacity unit, a more viable alternative exists in adding a smaller unit in parallel to complement the existing one. In other words, a new smaller capacity transformer can now be connected in parallel to the existing one such that the two shares a large peak load in a specific proportion and the one operating near limits is relieved of the burden.

Common characters

Modification of mandiblate mouth parts into sucking-piercing or suctorial type.

Absence of anal lobe in hind wing.

Background

The demand for development of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies is increasing, since many problems have appeared with the use of synthetic pesticides and semiochemicals – informative molecules used in insect-insect or plant-insect interaction – are being considered as an alternative or complementary approach within IPM strategies. (Heuskin et al., 2011). Indeed, such communication molecules like para-pheromones do not present any related adverse effects on beneficial organisms in the ecosystem.

For fruitflies management, several eco-friendly control options  have been developed and recommended across the globe which  include trapping, safe disposal of infested fruits, repulsion with botanical products and physical covering of the developing fruits, besides area-based control through mass trapping and sterile-insect technique. Nevertheless, the use of para-pheromones-based lures in trap systems appears to have greater potential to be among the more widely adopted practices (Verghese, 2009).

WHY, WHEN AND HOW FISH GET PARASITES

Parasites pose a real risk to fishes

All fish are potential hosts to many different species of parasites. Small numbers of parasites are common and probably do little harm. However, all parasites have tremendous reproductive potential and can, under ideal conditions, quickly overwhelm fish in the confines of a tank or pond.

Types of parasites

We can broadly class parasites into two groups. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites are found in the internal tissues and organs.

Endoparasites are uncommon in ornamental fish. However, there is a wide diversity of blood parasites, worms that colonize the intestines and other parasites that can invade various organs and tissues. Many require an intermediate host, such as snails, birds or the introduction of an infected fish, and so are rare in pond/ aquarium fish. There are a variety of clinical signs which might indicate the presence of endoparasites. Lethargy accompanied by emaciation is a common sign, as are worms protruding from the anus. Identification of sporozoan and protozoan endoparasites often requires microscopic examination of tissues (Chanratchakool et al. 1994).

INTRODUCTION

A parasite is an organism which exploits another organism for the purpose of staying alive. Some parasitic relationships are harmless, while in other cases a parasite can damage or even kill its host. The word is borrowed from the Greek word ‘‘parasitos’’, meaning “one who eats at the table of someone else.” In case of exotic carps parasites causes a great loss by reducing economy. Some, cannot live once their host dies, while others can continue thriving on dead hosts until their nutrients are consumed. Parasites live inside a host are called endoparasites or internal parasites. Ectoparasites live outside the host, and are generally more capable of switching hosts. A parasite preys on other parasites, is called epiparasite (Anderson, 1974).

Silver Carp

The silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) is a species of freshwater cyprinid fish, a variety of Asian carp native to north and northeast Asia. It is cultivated in China. Pound for pound, more silver carp are produced worldwide in aquaculture than any other species. Silver carp are usually farmed in polyculture with other Asian major carps, or sometimes Indian major carps or other species. It has been introduced to, or spread into via connected waterways, at least 88 countries around the world.Introduced in india in 1959 at the pond culture division of CIFRI. In India in 1963 breed sucessfully by hypophysation. The silver carp is a filter feeder, and possesses a remarkably specialized filtration apparatus capable of filtering particles as small as 4 µm. The gill rakers are fused into a sponge-like filter, and an epibranchial organ secretes mucus which assists in trapping small particles. A strong buccal pump forces water through this filter. Silver carp, like all Hypophthalmichthys species, have no stomachs; they are thought to feed more or less constantly. Silver carp are thought to feed largely on phytoplankton; they also consume zooplankton and detritus. It is used in controlling water quality, especially control of noxious cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), microcystis .

An extraordinary variety of viruses, bacteria, and organisms stand ready to attack us and feed off our bodies’ cells. Using microscopes of varying power, photographers show us a teeming microbial world that we could barely imagine without their help.

Natural areas in tropical and sub tropical climates are more likely to enhance development of parasitic loads because of the fact that there are variations in climates of these areas in addition to the variations in the type of vegetations and species of wild fauna.

Purpose of study An essential component of the diagnostic process in the evaluation of the disease process is the laboratory diagnosis of any parasitic infection. Sometimes, this confirms the presumptive clinical diagnosis, and other times, it provides evidence that the clinician may have ignored. A sufficient specimen must be used for the examination to achieve a satisfactory diagnosis. Internal parasite testing needs to be done often. Regular inspection typically enables early parasitism identification, preventing gross infection. The majority of the parasites can be accurately identified by doing a detailed examination of the faeces. Faecal sample collection and delivery for parasite identificatio

The domestic duck is an economically important domestic bird in rural areas. They are productive and are reared around the globe for their egg, meat, feather and fattened livers. The worldwide population of ducks (Anas spp.) is 1.15 billion in 2020 out of which 89 per cent were in Asia. China, Viet Nam, Bangladesh and Indonesia are the largest duck rearing countries in Asia (FAO 2020). Geographical location, subtropical climatic condition, water lodged and low areas of the country are suitable for duck habitat. The advantages of ducks over other poultry species are that they are hardy, have higher disease tolerance and are easy to herd.

An Overview of Parasitic Diseases in Asian Aquaculture

Parasitic induced diseases bring about significant economic losses in fish culture system. Estimated loss due to mortality and morbidity of fish due to parasitic infection is much more than that from microbial diseases. Protozoan ciliates (Ichthyopthirius, Trichodina) and flagellates (Ichthybodo, cryptobia) are some of the common ectoparasites of fish. Certain ectocommensal ciliates (Epistylis, Vorticella and Zoothamnium) attach to the external surface of fish leading to fouling. These protozoan ectoparasites are often associated with mortalities of younger stages of cultured fish. The situation becomes worst in water with low oxygen and high organic matter. Most extoparasitic protozoans have simple and short life cycle and reproduce by binary fission. Most protozoan ectoparasites are readily detected in direct microscopic examination of skin and gill scrapings. Histopathological changes in the integument following ectoparasitic protozoan infection are outcome of two counteracting cellular processes – hyperplasia of the epithelial cells, including mucus cells and chloride cells, versus a progressive cellular destruction. Cellular necrosis primarily occurs due to the feeding and attachment activity of the parasites. Generally, immersion therapy using suitable chemicals can control ectoparasitic protozoan infections

Disease caused by endoparasitic sporozoans are a serious threat to fish farms. These sporozoan spores present in the pond soil are normally ingested by the fish. The infective element of the spore (sporoplasm) is released in the gut. The sporoplasm reaches the target tissue using the vascular route. Once inside the target tissue, the vegetative trophozoites cause massive destruction of the target tissue and produce large spore containing cysts. There are two types of sporozoan infecting fish and shell fish namely myxosporidian and microsporidian. Myxosporidian occur in fish either as histozoic (intercellular tissue parasites) or as coelozoic (inside the lumen of various ducts and tubules) parasites. Microsporidians are intracellular obligatory parasites and lead to massive hypertrophy of infected cells (xenomas). There is no effective treatment for sporozoans. However, treating pond soil with chemicals and lime is the best option.

The livestock play a significant role in generating gainful employment in rural areas, particularly among the landless and marginal farmers. The Jammu region of state of Jammu and Kashmir possesses a huge livestock population which is maintained under different management systems. The region has a vast diversity in agro-climatic conditions (comprising low altitude, middle altitude and high altitude), and animal husbandry and pasture management practices. Despite having huge livestock, the production potentials are very low. There are various factors related with low production and among them parasitic diseases rank very high.