eBook Chapters

1 The causative agent of red water fever in cattle is

a) Babesia bigemina b) Leptospira interrogans

c) Theileria annulata d) Theileria parva

Clinical Symptoms

• Anchor worms can be seen with the naked eye

• Frequent rubbing or “flashing”

• Localised redness

• Inflammation on the body of the fish

• Tiny white-green or red worms in wounds

• Breathing difficulties

Parasitic weeds are a major constraint in tropical agriculture. These are plants that are adapted to live on other plants sharing their nutrients and water. They constitute 1% of flowering plants, approximately 3000 - 5000 species coming under 20 families. Parasitic weeds from five families viz. Orobanchaceae, Convolvulaceae, Santalaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Loranthaceae are considered troublesome weeds as they infest economically important crops in many parts of the world and are very difficult to control by normal weed management measures.

INTRODUCTION

It can be added that physiological stress as well as the physical offences contribute as primary factor for disease occurrence and fish mortality. Many parasitic diseases due to fluctuation in water quality leads to deplition of stock, and some times total stock will go eg. yellow grub disease.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON PARASITES

Heterophyid Trematode

Cyprinodon variegatus, an estuarine fish, is heavily parasitized in the bulbus arteriosus by the heterophyid trematode Ascocotyle pachycystis. Parasitized fish ventricles were hypertrophied due to mechanical blockage of normal blood flow by metacercariae in the bulbus Swimming performance generally was reduced by the presence of parasites, which had their most significant negative effect at cold temperatures and low dissolved oxygen level ( Felicia C. Coleman , 1993)

Parasitology is the branch of biological sciences that deals with the study of parasites and all the related aspects. This leads to a basic question who is a parasite ? In fact, this term is frequently used in our society for those persons who are doing nothing and depending on others for their survival. The term Parasite means the organism (parasite) which depends on other organism (host) for its nutritional requirements. By definition, it excludes the organisms which are free living and do not depend on other organism for their food requirements. There are other details in fulfilling its nutritional requirements and important one is that in doing so, it causes some harm to the host other wise it will not be a parasite but a commensal.

Synonyms : Johne’s disease, Chronic  specific enteritis of cattle, Chronic bacillary dysentery
 
Paratuberculosis (Johne’s disease), an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), has been recognized as a major disease of ruminants for over a century. It is primarily a disease of domestic and wild ruminants and causes heavy economic losses  in cattle, sheep and goat industry. It is spreading insidiously among animal population worldwide.  Recently it has been shown  that  the disease is not restricted to ruminants only and the host range is expanding to cause disease in other species including Crohn’s disease in humans. In India, the  disease has been occurring  since early 1930s in cattle, sheep and goats in almost every state. The disease in ruminants is clinically characterized by chronic intermittent profuse diarrhea, weight loss, emaciation and finally death.

Introduction

Disease caused by motile Salmonella species in birds is called “Paratyphoid infections”. Paratyphoid infections are present in all parts of the world.

Etiology

Salmonella enterica includes six subspecies. Only one of that subspecies; S. enteric subspecies enterica includes more than 2500 motile serotypes.

34.1 Introduction

Fishes are the first aquatic vertebrates whose life cycle is largely affected by the aquatic habitat. They exhibit much variation in their social life. Some species show no attraction between males and females, conversely, some provide high social attraction and parental care. Therefore, parental care is developed for their social life and habitat.

Parks occupy a unique position in our social life and a common facility to the community for pleasure and utility. The importance of park in urban areas is much more than other areas as these are the only outing places for urban people. Designing park needs careful consideration regarding features, plants and facilities for utility purpose. Roads for public movement, sitting arrangements, flowering and shady trees, flower beds, children’s corner are some of the basic requirements. Free flowering ornamentals requiring less maintenance should be included in the design.

Purpose

Parks are very purposeful in our daily life especially in urban areas. At present provision of parks in a city is must as these provide an open space and an opportunity for outing. Relaxation of body and mind after stressful working or even daily routine work is a must. Parks are the ideal places for such activities, especially very useful for children and elderly people.

Classification

Parks are generally classified according to its type and fulfillment of purposes. Sometimes, a particular theme or type of plantation is followed. Parks are finally categoriesed and named accordingly. Various common classifications are as follows.

ABSTRACT

Insects are considered the most successful in the animal kingdom. Many factors contribute to their success. One major factor that operates strikingly is the economy and optimal use of energy. One can give several examples taking the life of a single insect

Parsley is a popular culinary herb that is grown commercially as an annual plant for its attractive and aromatic leaves in many parts of the world. In Europe, parsley is the most generally farmed herb, and in the United States, it is the most commonly utilised herb. Rather than being a part of the diet, it is utilised as a garnish. The leaves’ oil can also be used to make sauces and spices.

Botany and taxonomy: Parsley is a biennial that is cultivated and managed as if it were an annual. It’s the most popular herb for garnishing and flavouring. Parsley comes in two varieties: moss-curled and flat-leaf. Moss-curled produces a rosette of finely cut and tightly curled leaves. It develops as a biennial, with a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10-25 cm (4-10 in) tall, numerous 1-3 cm (0.4-1.2 in) leaflets, and a taproot that serves as a winter food store. It develops a blooming stem with sparser leaves and umbels of yellow to yellowish-green flowers in the second year. 

In the 14th century, the term “parsnip” was borrowed into Middle English as a modification of the Old French word “pasnaie,” which was derived from the Latin noun “pastinaca,” which meant “parsnip” or “carrot.” This history is still reflected in the scientific name for the parsnip, “Pastinaca sativa.” The parsnip is a native of Eurasia; it has been farmed by the Romans and has been used as a vegetable since antiquity, but there is some misunderstanding between parsnips and carrots in historical texts. Prior to the arrival of cane sugar in Europe, it was employed as a sweetener. Parsnips are carrot-shaped root vegetables that are cream-colored and belong to the parsley family. Although they can be eaten fresh, they are more commonly roasted, boiled, fried, or steamed. The thin, tan peel of parsnips is usually peeled before use, revealing white flesh beneath.

Genomics is the study of whole genomes of organisms, it uses a combination of DNA sequencing methods, bioinformatics to sequence, assemble, analyse the structure and function of genomes. In another words, it can be defined as it is the study of the structure, function, and inheritance of the genome of an organism. Moreover, genomics focuses on interactions between loci and alleles within the genome and other interactions such as epistasis, pleiotropy and heterosis. Genomics is divided into two basic areas: structural genomics, characterizing the physical nature of whole genomes; and functional genomics, characterizing the transcriptome (the entire range of transcripts produced by a given organism) and the proteome (the entire array of encoded proteins).

Most biological traits are controlled by a large number of genes, which, in addition to their additive effects, may interact with each other, and their expression might be altered based on a variety of environmental effects. Researchers who were among the first to use molecular genetics to the study of cattle began by employing DNA markers to locate genes or sections of the genome affecting features of interest. For instance, identifying a group of genes based on Genome wide association study (GWAS) provides evidence that a causal relationship between a phenotype and a single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) may exist. These findings of GWAS, however, do not improve our understanding of complex traits in which many pathways may be involved. The growing use of genotyping technologies has generated a large quantity of genomic information on the dairy population. Since the draft sequence of the bovine genome was published in 2009 (Zimin et al., 2009), whole-genome sequence data of cattle have also become available.

1.1 Common Logarithm

Logarithms to the base 10 are called common logarithm. This system was first introduced by Briggs in 1615. The mathematician Napier was the inventor of logarithms and Briggs was a contemporary of Napier. From the equation 10x = N, it is evident that the common logarithm will not always be integral and that they will not always be positive.

We have

 3154 > 103 and 3154 < 104

 Hence, log10

 3154 = 3 + a fraction

 Again we have

0.067 > 10–2 and 0.067 < 10–1

 Hence, log10

 0.06 = –2 + a fraction

 = 2+ a fraction

9.1 Introduction and Definition

Literally, econometrics means “Economic measurements”. Although measurement is an important part of econometrics, the scope of econometrics is much broader. Econometrics is an amalgam of economic theory, mathematical economics, economic statistics and mathematical statistics. It can also be stated that “Econometrics consists of the application of mathematical statistics to economic data to provide empirical support to the model constituted by mathematical economics and to obtain numerical results from such data.

Introduction

The sex of the animal is one of the most easily observable attributes of a livestock population. The importance of the sex ratio lies in the fact that it sets the future rates of fertility, mortality, and migration. In livestock, male animals are required in fewer numbers compared to females for breeding. So, for profitable management of a farm, the sex ratio has been fixed for each species. But because of the natural 50:50 chance of both types of sperms to fertilize an ovum, this preferred sex ratio is never achieved. In order to reach this economical ratio, additional efforts must be done in the form of culling. Moreover, in monotocous species with nearly one year gestation period, a long wait is sometimes required for getting the offspring of particular sex.

In dairy farming, the number of female offspring born is always an asset to the farm. For the species reared for meat, the males are often avoided due to the intense odor of their meat and handling difficulty while rearing. But when there is shortage of good quality breeding bulls, the sorted sperms will be helpful for producing the elite bulls for breeding. If we can produce only the animal of the desired gender, we can eliminate split-sex feeding, reduce problems related to animal welfare and castration, improve production efficiencies. Additionally, the costs of the progeny testing programme and embryo transfer are reduced as a result, and the value of genetic markers is increased. Apart from the livestock species, sex pre-selection is also important in breeding of companion animals, zoo animals and endangered species.

15.1 Agricultural Economics and Definition

As a separate subject, agricultural economics emerged in the beginning of 20th century when the economic issues related to agriculture aroused interest at various educational centres. The depression of 1890s which wrecked have in agriculture at many places and it forced organised farmers groups to take keen interest in farm management problems. The study and teaching of agricultural economics was started at Harvard University (U.S.A.) in 1903 by Professor Thomas Nixon Carver. Agricultural economics may be defined as the “Application of Principles & Methods of economics to study the problems of agriculture to get maximum output and profits from the use of minimum in but for the wellness of society in general as well as the farming industry in Particular.

Entrepreneur - Derived from French verb enterprendre meaning “to undertake”.

The entrepreneur as a person brings in overall change through, innovation- for the maximum social good. Human values remain sacred and inspire him to serve society. He has firm belief in social betterment and he carries out this responsibility with conviction. In this process, he accelerates personal, economic as well as human- development.

The entrepreneur is a visionary and an integrated man with outstanding leadership qualities. With a desire to excel, he gives top priority to Research and Development. He always works for the well being of the society. More importantly entrepreneurial activities encompass all fields / sectors and foster a spirit of enterprise for the welfare of mankind. Urges of an Entrepreneur

An urge to exercise powers over things and objects persists among all human beings. The urge may vary in degree from person to person. This urge is an intrinsic quality of an entrepreneur. Sociologists consider him as a sensitive energizer in the modernization of societies.

The entrepreneur is a critical factor in the socio-economic change. He is the key person who envisages new opportunities, new techniques, new lines of production, new products and coordinates all other activities. The true entrepreneur is one who is endowed with more than average capacities in the task of organizing and coordinating the various other factors of production. He should be a pioneer, a captain of industry. The supply of such entrepreneurship is however quite limited and enterprise in general consists of several grades of organizational skill and capability. The more efficient entrepreneurs receive a surplus reward over and above the managerial wages and this sum constitutes true profit ascribable to superior talent.

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management. Management refers to the sum total of all those functions or activities, which relate to the laying down of policies, plans and purposes, securing men, money, machinery needed for the achievement of the organisational objectives, putting all of them into operation and supervising and checking their performances in order to ensure the productive use of human and material resources for the maximum benefit or profit of the organisation, its employees and society in general.

Management is the sum total of five principal functions namely planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The functional areas of management include: a) Financial management, b) Personnel management, c) material management, d) Production management, e) marketing management and f) Office management.

What is book keeping?
Book keeping    is defined as;
1. The art of recording business transactions (pecuniary transactions) in a regulator and systematic manner.
2. Book keeping is the science and art of correctly recording in books of  accounts all those business transactions that result in the transfer of  money or money’s worth.
3. Book keeping is an art of recording day to day business transactions in a  set of books in a most systematic manner.
4. It is the process of analysing, classifying and recording transaction in accordance with pre-conceived plan.

1.1 Introduction

Temperate fruits are those fruits that are adapted to the temperate climate where the winter is distinctly cold. They can tolerate both diurnal and seasonal wide fluctuation of temperature and are grown only in places where winter is distinctly cold. They require exposure to specific chilling temperature for certain period to break bud dormancy and initiate bud break. These fruit plants are generally deciduous and suitable for higher elevation as they can withstand frost. Their cultivation is confined to Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh; they are also grown to a small extent, at suitable elevations in south India as in the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu. They shed the leaves during winter and remain in dormant condition throughout the winter. The most economically important temperate fruits belong to Rosaceae family and includes peach, pear, cherries, almond, apple, apricot, plums, raspberries and strawberries (Ferree and Warrington, 2003). Among them apple is the dominant temperate fruit with greater than 71 million tonnes of global production. It was perceived as native to Central Asia and now grown in many countries across the world (Janick et al., 1996; FAO, 2009).

1.1 Introduction

Horticulture is defined as “The science and art of growing vegetables, fruits, flowers, ornamental plants and landscaping of gardens and surroundings in small and commercial gardens”. The Latin word “horticulture” comprises two parts: “hortus” (which means “garden”) and “cultura” (which means “cultivation”). In other words, horticulture is the nurturing of gardens. Pomology, olericulture, floriculture, and landscaping are the main aspects of horticulture. Horticulture is becoming more and more important since it produces greater output per unit of land and provides humans with nourishing food, improving their quality of life and enhancing the visual beauty of nature. Regarding the worth of the goods, one of the main branches of horticulture is vegetable growing.

Technically speaking, every component of a vegetable is edible. However, the phrase is typically used to refer to edible plants that include reserves of food in the form of roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, petioles, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits, and seeds that can be consumed either cooked or raw. Growing vegetables is crucial not only for supplying food that is protective but also for serving as a substantial auxiliary food that contributes more significantly to food consumption. They are vital parts of a balanced diet since they are nutrient-rich.

1.1 Introduction

Horticulture is defined as “The science and art of growing vegetables, fruits, flowers, ornamental plants and landscaping of gardens and surroundings in small and commer cial gardens”. The word ‘horticulture’ has been derived from Latin language and con sists of two parts, viz., ‘hortus’ means garden and ‘cultura’ means cultivation. Thus, the word ‘horticulture’ means garden cultivation. Horticulture basically deals with Pomology, Olericulture, and Floriculture and Landscaping. Horticulture is gaining im portance as it gives more returns per unit area and also gives nutritious food to human beings thereby improves quality of life and enhances the aesthetic beauty of nature. Vegetable growing is one of the major branches of horticulture with respect to value of the products.

1.1 History and Evolution of Aquaculture

Aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks and aquatic plants, has a rich history dating back thousands of years. Its evolution has been shaped by diverse cultural practices, technological advancements, and growing demands for sustainable food production. This essay explores the history and evolution of aquaculture, highlighting key developments from ancient times to the modern era.

Ancient Origins of Aquaculture

The earliest records of aquaculture date back to ancient China around 2500 BCE. The Chinese practiced fish farming, particularly with carp, in ponds. Carp were favored due to their resilience and adaptability. This period marked the beginning of organized aquaculture, where fish were bred and raised in controlled environments. The Chinese recognized the benefits of aquaculture for food security and sustainability, laying the foundation for future practices.

In Egypt, evidence suggests that tilapia were farmed as early as 1500 BCE. Ancient Egyptians built ponds along the Nile River to cultivate fish, which were an essential part of their diet. These early aquaculture practices were driven by the need for a reliable food source, especially during periods of low f ish availability in natural waters.

Roman and Greek Contributions

The Romans and Greeks also contributed to the development of aquaculture. In ancient Rome, mullet and oysters were cultivated in man-made ponds called “vivaria.” These ponds were designed to mimic natural habitats, providing ideal conditions for the growth and reproduction of fish. The Romans were known for their engineering prowess, and their aquaculture systems reflected this, with intricate designs to regulate water flow and quality.

3.1 Applications

Nanotechnology, with its ability to manipulate materials at the atomic and molecular scale, offers diverse applications across various sectors, including aquaculture. In this extensive exploration, we delve into the innovative applications of nanotechnology in aquaculture, focusing specifically on areas beyond water parameter control and disease prevention. This comprehensive review highlights how nanotechnology enhances feed efficiency, improves growth and health monitoring, develops novel materials, and addresses environmental and sustainability challenges within the aquaculture industry.

1. Introduction to Nanotechnology in Aquaculture

1.1 Understanding Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology involves the manipulation and engineering of materials at the nanoscale, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. At this scale, materials exhibit unique physical, chemical, and biological properties that differ significantly from their bulk counterparts. These properties make nanomaterials highly versatile for applications across various industries, including agriculture and aquaculture.

2.1 Introduction

Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit of the world. It is considered as ‘King of Temperate Fruits’. Apple is popular because of its delicious taste and pleasant aroma. It is rich in carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorous, iron, and vitamin B6. Apple is rich in anti-oxidant, flavonoids and dietary fibre. The phytonutrients and anti-oxidants may help reduce the risk of developing cancer, hypertension, diabetes and heart disease. Apple is mainly used for table purpose. The various processed products are prepared from fruits like juice, jelly, candy, preserve, canned slice, wine, concentrated juice and cider.

3.1 Introduction

Tomato is one of the most versatile vegetable with wide usage not only in Indian culinary but also in world cuisines. Despite botanically being a fruit, it is generally eaten and prepared like a vegetable. Tomato is producing a very good source of income to small and marginal farmers and provides nutrition to the growing population. Sometimes, it is called poor man’s orange in India and Love of Apple in England. Tomato is one of the most important “protective foods” because of its special nutritive value. The100 g of edible portion of tomato contains 94.1 g of water,2.5 g of total sugar, 1.0 g of protein, 0.3 g of fat, 4.0 g of carbohydrates, 0.6 g of fibre, vitamin A (1100 I.U), vitamin B (0.20 mg), vitamin C (23 mg), malic acid (150 mg), citric acid (390 mg), oxalic acid (3.5 mg), potassium (268 mg), and phosphorus (27 mg). Tomato is a rich source of minerals, vitamins and organic acid. Tomatoes are the major dietary source of the antioxidant lycopene, which has been linked to many health benefits, including reduced risk of heart disease and cancer. It is used for treating chronic dyspepsia, bronchitis, asthma and also used as a blood purifier. Tomato fruits contain 20-50 mg of lycopene/100 g fruit. Tomatine is a steroidal glycoalkaloid present in tomato. Tomatine content is higher in leaves and flowers than fruits. Tomatine content is 300 mg/100 g in small hard tomato fruits whereas in large green tomato it is 150mg/100 g. There are various types of flavouring compounds found in fruits, which enrich the taste;so, several processed items like paste, puree, syrup, juice, ketchup, drinks etc are prepared on large scale. Tomato fruit aroma is due to sulfonium. Tomato acidity is due to citric acid and pH of the tomato juice is 4.5.Tomato is very good appetizer and its soup is said to be a good remedy for patients suffering from constipation. Three flesh colours are found in tomato, namely, red (lycopene pigment), yellow (carotenoid) and tangerine (prolycopene).Tomato seed oil (24%) is used for manufacture of margarine. About 33% of total tomato growing area is covered by F1 hybrids which is highest among the vegetables grown in India. A book entitled Tomato was written by Dr. G. Kallo in 1986.

6.1 Alternative Protein Sources

Introduction

The rapid expansion of aquaculture as a significant contributor to global food security has highlighted the need for sustainable feed and nutrition practices. Traditional aquaculture feeds rely heavily on fishmeal and fish oil, derived from wild-caught fish, which poses ecological and economic challenges. The overreliance on these marine resources can lead to overfishing, increased production costs, and environmental degradation. To address these challenges, the aquaculture industry is increasingly exploring alternative protein sources that are sustainable, cost-effective, and nutritionally adequate. This essay discusses various alternative protein sources, their benefits, and challenges in the context of sustainable aquaculture feed and nutrition.

Plant-Based Protein Sources

Plant-based proteins are among the most promising alternatives to fishmeal in aquaculture diets. These proteins are derived from crops such as soybeans, peas, and canola. They offer several advantages, including wide availability, cost-effectiveness, and relatively low environmental impact.

9.1 Success Stories from Around the World

Sustainable aquaculture practices are essential for ensuring the long-term viability of the aquaculture industry while protecting the environment, supporting economic development, and enhancing social welfare. This article highlights several success stories from around the world that exemplify innovative and sustainable aquaculture practices. These case studies demonstrate the diverse approaches taken to achieve sustainability in different regions and contexts.

1. Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) in Canada

Location: Bay of Fundy, Canada

Species: Atlantic salmon, blue mussels, kelp

Approach: Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice where different species are farmed together in a way that mimics natural ecosystems. In the Bay of Fundy, Canada, salmon, mussels, and kelp are cultivated in proximity, creating a balanced system. The salmon are fed traditional aquaculture diets, and their waste provides nutrients for the mussels and kelp.

6.1 Introduction

Let

v : Represents the volume of a gas.

p : Represents the pressure of a gas.

t : Represents the absolute temperature.

The law is represented by the relation writen as t v k. p ? where k is a constant.

1. Suppose the temperature varies and pressure remains constant then

2. Suppose the pressure varies and temperature remains constant then

Abstract

The participation level of farm women in economic activities of self-help groups to know the socio-economic factors contributing to their participation in such groups and the constraints faced by them was studied during 2004-05 at Kadur taluk of Chikkamagalore district of Karnataka. Apart from these findings on the factors affecting their involvement in SHGs and the problems faced by them, the study also revealed that majority of farm women had medium level of family income, mass media participation and, low level of communication status.

Abstract

Jasmine production in coastal Karnataka was confined to only few farmers with some specified pockets of coasted belt. Only a hand full of farm women in Belman, Manchakal areas were cultivating jasmine successively. The scientists of Extension Education Unit (EEU), Mangalore Campus of University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore visited the area and conducted a Survey during September 2001 and gathered information about farmers practicing jasmine production in the area and came out with some success stories from the jasmine growing belt. The jasmine market was studied especially the demand for jasmine flowers (Udupi Mallige). It was observed that there was huge demand for Udupi Mallige. The extension specialists conducted training programmes in different locations in the coastal belt of Karnataka which are not traditional jasmine cultivated areas. As a result the technology has spread to the entire coastal belt. At present farm women are supporting themselves soley by cultivating jasmine in an area of 3-5 cents with a minimum of 20 bushes. Further, the KVK’s which are working in Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts are also working in this direction through On Farm Testing, Frontline Demonstration, Off campus and On campus training.  Since it involves only women labourers, it is one of the most important and viable subsidiary as well as main occupation of the women folk in the district

Youth of today are the hopes of tomorrow.  They are the backbone of a country.  Youth reflect the national potentiality and represent the life blood of a nation. The future of the country lies in their hands.  What they will become, what they will do, what role they will play in the free democratic society, will depend, to a greater extent, on the period between childhood and adulthood.  They are the most potent segment of the population of a country. It is they who are to shoulder responsibility for the future development of the country.

The socio-economic development and prosperity of the rural areas depends, to a considerable extent, on the type of the youth the country side has, because the rural youth have abilities to orient themselves to go along the main stream of the development process.  The youth, a bulk of total population of the country, are the national cream and the future crown with full possession of physical built and mental tenacity and power. They are the precious human assets who can play an important role in nation building activities if opportunities are provided.  If a country can harness a creative and pervasive force like youth, it can substantially and quickly advance towards modernization. Youth are the nation builders of tomorrow. They are not only carriers of new ideas and are more receptive to new ideas, ready to bear risk and willing to work as a Team.

Summary

ISFM is important, cost-effective and has the potential of improving farming efficiency and crop productivity. This is only possible when farmers understand the concept and follow recommended practices in the ISFM approach.
 
The challenge is how to effectively disseminate ISFM practices to farmers for sustainable crop production.

7.1. People’s Participation in Observation, Analysis and Planning for Rural Development

Why should people participate?

There is no controversy as to whether there should be people’s participation in the development programmes in the development programmes designed to meet the basic needs of the people. The post-mortem of any unsuccessful programmes has shown that they have invariably failed when they failed to provide an adequate place and importance to people’s participation in the planning and analysis.

There is a body of philosophy and a set of assumptions behind people’s participation in rural development. These are;

i) It should be people’s programme with government’s participation;

ii) Community needs to build up their own capacity, agents have got a catalytic role;

iii) Self- imposed changes have got permanence as compared to those imposed from outsides

iv) Holistic approaches are far better than the fragmented approaches;

v) People need certain help to solve unique problems;

28.1 INTRODUCTION

Precision Farming has assumed great significance in the country for making the use of available resources more judiciously and efficiently. It is farm management strategy which utilizes precise information to increase profit and to reduce enviornmental impact. It takes into account in field variability in soil fertility and crop conditions. In nutshell, it may be defined as management of input variables such as application rates, cultivars selections, tillage practices, irrigation scheduling, optimization of soil and plant nutrient through nutrient management practices and management of pest and diseases by reducing the quantities of pesticides. Development of new technologies has become integral part of precision farming.

Precision farming was widely accepted firstly as a management practice in corn belt of mid west United States of America which helped in increasing the yield and significant reduction in production costs. Besides, crops like wheat and soybean have also been included in its purview. In south east parts of U.S.A., research is currently on in the crops of citrus, cotton, groundnut, vegetables and even livestock. Precision farming management practices have also integrated controlling and monitoring of field information using geographical information system (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), sensors, Variable Rate Technology (VRT) and yield monitoring. These components are highly sophisticated. GIS software stores data pertaining to soil type, nutrient levels etc in layers and assign that information to the particular field location. It can also be used to analyze characteristics between layers to develop application maps or other management options. Global Positioning System is a referencing device capable of identifying sites within a field. Global positioning system (GPS) helps in storing information regarding field location in terms of latitude and longitude. Maps showing variability of nutrient levels soil types, topography, pest incidence and yield can be created by virtue of it. It is a set of 24 satellites in high altitude orbit above the earth for pin pointing objects on the surface of the earth. These satellites continuously transmit radio signals which are picked up and deciphered by special receivers. A GPS receiver requires at least four satellites to determine its position on earth. Receivers are mounted on tractors/top of cab or on some high point to get a clear view of the spy. Crop stress, soil properties, pest incidence etc. are determined by the help of sensors through traveling over the field by tractors or combine. These can be used for measurement of soil conductivity, fertility status, weeds etc. Another type of sensor viz Remote sensors (aerial/ satellite) can provide instead maps of field conditions. Computer control device and associated hardware are part of Variable Rate Technology (VRT) for application of fertilizers, pesticides etc on the basis of field characteristics of the specific location. In precision farming, information is needed about mean characteristics of small, relatively homogenous management zones. It is data acquisition of the farms to find the soil, vegetation and other parameters which are amenable to remote sensing. Remote sensing techniques are helpful in providing continuous acquired data of agricultural crops. Remote sensors image vegetation growing on different soil types with different water availability. The following applications can be made by relief sensors:

Participatory technology development (PTD) is an approach to learning and innovation that is used in international development as part of projects and programmes relating to sustainable agriculture. The approach involves collaboration between researchers and farmers in the analysis of agricultural problems and testing of alternative farming practices.

Origins of participatory technology development

The origins of Participatory Technology Development can be found in a number of approaches, concepts and techniques that became popular in the 1970s and 1980s:

Farming systems research and extension, an approach that introduced social-ecomomic issues into organisations previously dominated by biological and chemical scientists. FSR/E also promoted the idea on ‘on-farm’ trials:

Appropriate technology, a concept that recognises the importance of matching the design of technology to the resources and culture of the user.

ABSTRACT

Soil samples from pepper growing tracts of six districts of Kerala viz., Ernakulam, Idukki, Kollam, Kottayam, Thrissur and Pathanamthitta were assessed for total microbial population. Thirty two fungi, 17 bacteria and three actinomycetes were isolated and studied for their antagonistic potential against the foot rot pathogen, Phytophthora capsici. All the 32 fungal isolates were found antagonistic to the pathogen and majority of them belonged to the genera Trichoderma, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Pythium, Cunninghamella and Rhizopus. Among these maximum inhibition was recorded by Trichoderma spp. which included T. pseudokoningii, T. longibrachiatum, T. polysporum and T. harzianum. The laboratory studies were followed by field trials laid out in farmers’ fields (newly planted pepper gardens) in six districts of Kerala. Effect of biocontrol agents in wilt incidence revealed that the two-time treatment of combined application of Trichoderma local isolate and potassium phosphate was superior in checking the foot rot incidence. The treatment, Trichoderma local isolate + Bordeaux mixture applied twice came in the second position. Data on biometric observations revealed a significant increase in the number of laterals in plots treated with Trichoderma local antagonist and potassium phosphate as compared to plots treated with Bordeaux mixture and copper oxychloride. Results of quality analysis of berries revealed that oleoresin content ranged from 6.98 - 11.84 per cent and piperine content from 3.61 - 5.92 per cent and the quality remain unchanged due to various treatments. The study has provided an ‘eco and health friendly’ biological control for the management of Phytophthora foot rot, the most devastating disease of pepper.

Farming System Development (FSD) is better perceived as a means of facilitating interactive links between the actors (Table-1) who play significant roles in the process. A system perspective is needed in designing and evaluating suitable technologies as well as in designing policy / support system that improve both productivity and sustainability. Considerable challenges do exist in modifying the conventional top-down orientation characteristics of extension services. This requires the fundamental principle of FSD i.e. interactive mode of operation.

Approaches in Extension

Agricultural extension services have gone through various stages over the years, from the individual farm visits approach to the T&V approach. All these approaches are characterized to a greater or lesser extent, by a “ top- down” planning. Extension approaches mostly determine the direction and nature of the system in terms of structure, leadership, program, methods and techniques, resources, and linkages. Extension approach is a style of action within a system which embodies the philosophy of the system. Although there are many approaches to agricultural extension, there is certain commonality in them. All approaches function through non- formal education and all have agricultural content for the development of rural people.

Ministry- based General Extension

Ministry of Agriculture was entrusted with agricultural extension in a top- down manner for planning for the adoption of technologies. An increase in national production is taken as the measure of success.

All persons engaged in agriculture are the clients of this public extension who are served by extension staff. Program formulation and implementation are guided by public interest. Ministry- based extension faces difficulty in serving the majority of potential clientele and financial constraints that force it to reduce the staff. Whereas extension demands location- specific technologies and flexible decisions, the university extension is mostly top- down in nature. As the approach lacks a two- way approach the messages are not location specific. Production alternatives are absent in this approach.

The Training and Visit Approach (T&V)

Participation means the involvement of the stakeholders in all the activities. In a true sense of participation, the farmers are involved in identifying the problems they face, prioritising the problems, determining ways to overcome them, designing realistic plans by themselves or with others to achieve the goals, and carrying them out. Participation puts emphasis on people’s involvement in decision-making processes, implementation of programmes, sharing of benefits of development programmes and involvement to evaluate such programmes. Community participation is an active process by which beneficiary or client groups influence the direction and execution of a development project with a view to enhancing their well-being in terms of income, personal growth, self-reliance, or other values they cherish. Community participation concerns the engagement of individuals and communities in decisions about things that affect their lives. Sometimes you have observed that some people do not want to be involved in decision making process and remain aloof, but it is our responsibility to create a situation so that everyone should have the opportunity to associate with the programme. We should not force people to participate in the project/programme which they perceive that it will affect their livelihood. In that case, we have to create awareness among the people regarding the beneficial effects of the programme. Solutions devised and fulfilled by the people and community in need are far more likely to prove successful than those imposed from outside.

Key words : Participatory GIS (P-GIS), Geo-Participatory Rural Appraisal (Geo-PRA) Social Mapping, Resource Mapping, Seasonality Maps, DGPS.

Participatory GIS

Geographical information System (GIS0 and Geographics Information Technologies (GITS) are no more restricted to the elite group of the society. Planners are busy in searching ways in merging community participation with GIS in the context of urban planning, environment equity, sustainable development etc. (Aitken and Michael, 1995, Craig and Ehwood, 1998; Talen, 2000 and Sieber, 2000). In all the cases, common thing is the linking of community participation and GIS in a diversity of social and environmental contexts. Through development, demonstration and modification of methodologies by academics and practitioners the concept of Participatory GIS (P-GIS) emerges. It is an outcome of a spontaneous fusion of participatory forms of development planning with modern information technologies. Experts gave considerable thoughts on the probing questions like whether a bottom up GIS could be successfully developed, how many community participation could be incorporated into GIS and to what context such participation would serve only to legitimize conventional top-down decision making. From these reflections only the concept of people’s participation GIS arose.

Mango is the choicest fruit of tropical world. Originated in Indo-Malayan region (Mukherjee, 1985), more than one thousand varieties are under commercial cultivation in India (Mukherjee 1949). South Indian varieties of mango are distinct (Yadav and Singh, 1985).  Naik and Gangolly (1950)  described 135 South Indian varieties, taking fruit character as the main criteria. North Kerala experiencing humid tropical climate is an important zone of variability of mango (Kannan, 1982). Polyembryonic mango cultivars like ‘Vellaikolamban’, ‘Kurukkan’ and ‘Bappakkai’ are traditionally grown here. Over the years, there is erosion in  gene pool of rich varietal wealth due to deforestation, urbanisation and large scale rubber cultivation in Kerala. Establishment of field gene bank is an important ex situ conservation strategy. Systematic attempts to conserve  genepool  resulted  in collection of  more than 1266 varieties in various field gene banks in our country (Chadha, 1976). Field Gene Bank (FGB) has the advantage of being continuously evaluated and desired accessions can immediately be utilized directly or in breeding programmes. Field gene bank very often represents only a fraction of variability of the gene pool and  enrichment of the collection is always required for capturing  available diversity.

Information and Communication Technology is ruling the world in all walks of life and access to mobile phones and internet facility is growing in India at a rapid rate in recent years. However, the access to internet based technologies have confined primarily to the urban areas. Rural communities have not been able to gain to the same extent from IT. As a means of agricultural technology transfer to farmers, information technology has had a limited impact.

Initially, rural development followed a top-down approach based on the information collected through the traditional survey method. It was soon noticed that the perception of the development professionals from the “top” was at variance with the perception of the rural masses. Visits were made and extractive surveys were carried out with the help of structured formats and questionnaires. These surveys had several biases such as spatial, season, person, caste, religion, project, education, etc. These limitations led to a search for a new method for understanding rural situations. New methods and approaches such as Farming System Research (FSR), Exploratory Survey and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) were attempted during the 1970s to overcome the deficiencies of conventional survey methods. Moving away from extractive survey questionnaires, two families of approaches and methods, referred to as Rapid Rural Appraisal and Participatory Rural Appraisal evolved in the 1980s and 1990s.

Origin of PRA

Participatory Rural Appraisal is ‘an approach and methods for learning about rural life and conditions from, with and by rural people’. It is defined as a family of approaches and methods to enable rural people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and act.

According to Robert Chambers (1992), there are five main trends that decorate the principal method of PRA: Activist Participatory Research, Agro-ecosystem Analysis, Social Anthropology, Field Research on Farming Systems, and Rapid Rural Appraisal.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) stands as a methodological framework comprising participatory and visually oriented techniques for assessing communal and group resources, discerning and prioritizing challenges, and evaluating strategies to tackle them. It serves as a research and planning approach wherein local communities, with or without external guidance, engage in a comprehensive examination of issues pertinent to their populace. The process involves identifying problems, weighing various solutions, and formulating a Community Action Plan to address the identified concerns. Central to PRA is the inclusion of diverse community perspectives in the analysis and empowering the community to lead the evaluation of its circumstances and the search for remedies. While external actors may partake as facilitators or providers of technical expertise, the autonomy of the community in driving the process is paramount.

Introdution

In developing countries, traditional methods have special advantages over modern agricultural techniques. The capital and technological skill requirements in the use of traditional technologies are generally low and their adoption often requires little restructure of the traditional societies. By adopting such indigenous knowledge, our ancestors did not face any problem of large scale pest out break or economic crisis unlike the today’s farmers. The present study focused with this central theme of research.

Indigenous Technical Knowledge refers to the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area (Grenier, 1998). Indigenous Knowledge is the accumulated knowledge, skills and technology of the local people. Indigenous Knowledge has two powerful advantages over scientific knowledge like it has little or no cost, and is readily available. Indigenous Knowledge can be defined as the knowledge built up by a group of people through generations of living in close contact with nature over the years; the farmer in India had been using cow dung and cow urine as manure in the fields.