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Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in grey matter it is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglial, oligodendroglial and astrocytes. Microglial cells surround the necrotic neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.

Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in grey matter it is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglial, oligodendroglial and astrocytes. Microglial cells surround the necrotic neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.

Equine Rhabdomyolysis

It is also known as Azoturia or Monday Morning Disease. The disease occurs in well fed horse after a spell of inactivity. Suddenly after walking a few steps, the horse is unable to move further and feels pain with intense sweating and hardening of muscles.

Etiology

• Accumulation of lactic acid in muscles.

• High glycogen storage.

• Lack of oxygen supply.

Pathology of nutritional deficiency diseases are described in chapter etiology of this book. However, specific deficiency of nutrition that leads to development of clinical signs and lesions in poultry are summarized as under (Fig.2.1 & Fig.2.2):

Vitamin Deficiency

1. Hypovitaminosis A

• Vitamin A is considered infection resisting vitamin because it facilitates the proper development of bursa, immunity and epithelium on mucosal and skin surfaces.

• Deficiency of vitamin A leads to swollen glands in oesophagus i.e. nutritional roup.

Trypanosomosis

Trypanosomosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by protozoan parasite and characterized by emaciation, enlargement of spleen and lymph nodes, petechiae on serous membranes, ulceration on tongue and gastric mucosa and gelatinous exudate in subcutaneous region.

Etiology

• Trypanosoma evansi

Pathogenesis

The disease is mainly transmitted through bite of flies like Tabanus, Stomoxys, Haematopota etc. The carrier animals remain as potential source of infection. The pathogenesis of disease is not completely known. After entering in mammalian host, trypanosomes multiply in blood stream by binary fission leading to parasitaenia. The parasites has variable surface glycoproteins which cause continuous exposure of immune system leading to hyperplasia of spleen and lymph nodes. In chronic cases, due to formation of antigen- antibody complexes glomerulonephritis and vasculitis is seen.

Roundworms (Nematodes)

1. Ascaridia galli

A. galli is the common roundworm of poultry seen in intestines at the time of necropsy. This parasite may cause retardation of growth, loss of egg production, catarrhal enteritis and sometimes mortality due to obstruction of gut (Fig.9.1).

Etiology

• A. galli parasites are grey, thread like 5-10 cm in length.

• Eggs are elliptical with thick and shiny wall.

Pathogenesis

Transmission occurs through faecal - oral route. The eggs may survive for several months in litter and they take at least 10-15 days to develop the infective stage. The eggs of parasites hatch in proventriculus or intestine to develop fully grown parasite within 40-50 days.

Spongiform encephalopathy

Spongiform encephalopathy is an infectious disease of animals caused by prion proteins and characterized by presence of vacuoles in brain.

Etiology

• Prion proteins

• Sheep – Scrapie or Ovine spongiform encephalopathy

• Cattle - Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (Mad cow disease)

• Feline encephalopathy

Pathogenesis

Scrapie is also known as ovine spongiform encephalopathy. The principle means of transmission of disease is from infected mother to their lambs early in life; placental transmission has also been reported. The incubation period of disease is very long (2-5 year). The clinical form is restricted in adults. The prion proteins (PrP) occur normally in the central nervous system of all domestic animals and man bounded with neuronal surface. Animal susceptible to prion disease have a gene (PrP gene) which encodes for normal “Prion protein (PrP)” or “cellular prion protein (PrPc). In scrapie prion protein (PrPsc)/ scrapie associated fibril protein (SAI) is generated which are resistant for protease digestion. Accumulation of PrPsc in neural tissues appears to be the cause of the pathology in prion disease. When prion protein contaminated meat and bone meal are fed to the cattle as part of their concentration, the agent (prion) got introduced into cattle. Prion protein (PrP) on reaching brain slowly and progressively converted into and abnormal form (PrP sc) and this abnormal protein causes development of lesions including vacuolation in nerve cells.

Anaplasmosis

Anaplasmosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by a rickettsia and characterized by icterus, enlargement of spleen, pale tissues, thin watery blood and petechiae over serous membranes (Fig.4.1).

Etiology

• Anaplasma centrate

• A. marginale

• A. ovis

Pathogenesis

The disease is transmitted through bite of tick (Boophilus), biting flies (Tabanus) and also in some cases due to mosquitoes. It is intra cellular organism and multiplies inside the erythrocytes by binary fission. The infected erythrocytes are engulfed by the cells of reticuloendothelial system (spleen, bone marrow). The process of erythrophagocytosis cause extra vascular haemolysis leading to anemia. It also causes autoimmune reaction leading to lysis of erythrocytes.

Spirochetosis

Spirochetosis is caused by a spiral shaped organism Borrelia anserina and characterized by greenish diarrhoea, enlarged and mottled spleen, small necrotic patches on liver and linear haemorrhage in proventriculus. This disease is transmitted by a tick Argas persicus and thus also known as “tick fever” or “tick paralysis”.

Etiology

• Spirochete Borrelia anserina

• Spiral shape 8-24m long and 0.2 to 0.3 m wide microorganism having 8-11 spirals.

• Stained with aniline dyes

Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by spirocheate Leptospria sp. and characterized by widespread haemorrhage in visceral organs, nephritis, icterus, hepatitis and anemia (Fig.6.1).

Etiology

• Leptospira ictehaemorrhagae

• L. pomona

Pathogenesis

The organism is transmitted through direct contact with urine of infected animals or ingestion of urine contaminated feed or water. It can also be transmitted through aborted fetuses and infected uterine discharges. The organism enters through abraded skin and mucous membrane and reaches in blood and multiplies rapidly in blood producing septicemia and high rise in body temperature. Thereafter the organism localizes in the kidneys leading to acute or chronic nephritis. In kidneys, it multiplies in proximal convoluted tubules (PCT) and is excreted in urine which acts as source of infection.

Developmental Anomalies

Aplasia

Absence of one or both kidneys. Absence of one kidney is observed in animals with compensatory hypertrophy of another kidney and such animals may survive well.

Hypoplasia

The size of kidneys remains small as they don’t grow properly due to defect in a single recessive autosomal gene.

Cyst in kidney

Single or multiple cysts in pig and dog kidney are reported with tinged yellow colour. They may arise from nephron due to its distension. Presence of multiple cysts is also termed as congenital polycystic kidney.

Type-I cysts are formed due to dilation and hyperplasia of collecting tubules resulting in spongiform kidneys. In such neonates cystic bile ducts are also present.

Cannibalism

Cannibalism is a bad habit of birds in which the birds attack their fellow birds and eat their flesh. It is done through sharp end of beak, which causes deep wounds specially on vent. Sometimes the wounds are so deep that leads to death of affected bird. Two types of cannibalism vices are common i.e. vent pecking and feather pecking.

Cause / Predisposing Factors

• Over crowding

• Genetic predisposition

• Hemorrhage in external genitalia

• Protein deficiency (arginine and methionine deficiency)

• Loss of feathers • Wounds

• Prolapse of cloaca

Foot and Mouth disease

Foot and mouth disease is a contagious viral disease of cloven footed animals caused by a picorna virus and characterized by presence of vesicles in oral mucosa and foot (Fig.1.1).

Etiology

• RNA virus of picornaviridae family

• Picorna virus

• Serotypes A,O,C, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3, Asia-1, serotype ‘O’ is most common in India.

Pathogenesis

Inhalation is the main route of infection in ruminants; however, ingestion of contaminated feed and water, inoculation of contaminated vaccines, insemination with contaminated semen and contact with fomites such as clothing, instruments etc. may also transmit the infection. When animal gets infected through respiratory tract, viral replication starts in pharynx followed by viraemic spread to other tissues and organs like epithelium of mouth. Viral excretion commences about 24 hours prior to the onset of clinical form of disease and continues for several days. The aerosols of infected animals contain large amount of virus particularly of swine. Large amount of virus is excreted in milk. In cattle and sheep, virus may be detectable up to 2 years and 6 months of exposure, respectively.

Feline Leukemia

Feline leukemia is an infectious viral disease of cats, lion, tiger etc. caused by oncorna virus and characterized by malignant lymphoma, lymphocytosis and immunosuppression. It is also known as feline lymphoma or feline lymphosarcoma.

Etiology

• Oncorna virus of retroviridae family

• Type C oncorna virus, RNA virus has reverse transcriptase

Pathogenesis

The virus is transmitted horizontally through salivary and nasal secretions of sick cats. It affects lymphocytes causing their proliferation leading to production of neoplastic growth.

Characteristic symptoms

• Enlargement of superficial lymph nodes

• Lymphocytosis

• Chronic diarrhoea

• Abortion

Pathology of Upper Respiratory Tract

In many infectious diseases, there is inflammation of mucosa of upper respiratory passage leading to nasal discharge which is catarrhal, purulent or fibrinous, depending on the type of infection. The infection may extend to lower parts of respiratory tract and reach the lungs causing pathological alterations. Rhinitis is the inflammation of nasal mucosa (Fig. 4.1). Sinusitis is the inflammation of sinuses e.g. frontal sinusitis in dehorned cattle. The larvae of botfly Oestrus ovis enter the nasal passage and migrate up to frontal sinuses and turbinate bones and cause mucopurulent inflammation. Similarly, leeches (Dinobdella ferox) is known to cause nasal cavity inflammation in domestic animals and suck blood. Rhinitis is caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica in pigs and is characterized by mucopurulent exudate, disappearance of nasal septum, retarded growth of snout and plugging of passage by solidified exudate and dead tissue. This condition is known as porcine atrophic rhinitis. Epistaxis is bleeding from nasal passage due to trauma, neoplasm (Fig.4.2A) and ulcerative lesions as a result of infections (Fig.4.2B). Pharyngitis is the inflammation of pharynx while laryngitis is the inflammation of larynx.

Pranab Mukherjee in his budget speech delivered on 26 February 2010 announced: ‘We are now ready with the draft Food Security Bill which will be placed in the public domain very soon.’  Although no official draft has been placed on the website of the concerned Ministry, several leading organisations and individuals have questioned the adequacy of the steps proposed to be taken under the Bill for achieving the goal of a hunger-free India.  Based on Article 21 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court of India has rightly regarded the right to food as a fundamental requirement for the right to life.  Many steps have been taken since Independence to adopt Mahatma Gandhi’s advice for an antyodaya approach to hunger elimination. In spite of numerous measures and social safety net programmes, the number of undernourished persons has increased from about 210 million in 1990-92 to 252 million in 2004-06.  About half of the world’s under-nourished children are in India.  Also, there has been a general decline in per capita calorie consumption in recent decades.  Grain mountains and hungry millions continue to co-exist.

Growth of a microorganism implies an increase in amount of protoplasm, formation of new structures and eventually formation of new cells. Balanced growth means cell components increase in proportion to each other and unbalanced growth means cell components increase in a non constant relationship to each other

Microbial growth and growth curve

Phases of growth

When bacteria are grown in the laboratory in liquid medium, the medium becomes cloudy or turbid. It is possible to measure the increase in numbers of bacteria at various time intervals and plot the values on a graph representing a growth curve.

Lag Phase: When cells are first inoculated into fresh medium containing all the nutrients they require, they take a short time to adapt before they start to divide. This is termed the lag phase.

ABSTRACT

Information Technology includes computers and communication technology along with associated software. I.T. can be defined as the technology of creation, processing, storage, retrieval and transmission of data and information. Transmission of data and information between through local national, regional and global telecommunication channels are not new to us. Computer networks have been the real facilitators of data and information interchange in the individual and corporate levels. LANS and WANS are the good examples of it. Developing countries have a critical stake in how successfully they cope with the trade, environmental, energy, healthy, agricultural, industrial, population and other challenges facing them as they enter the information age. The World is experiencing an explosive growth of IT at the moment. There have been tremendous impacts of I.T. on the trade, commerce and industries of the globe.

Genus : Asimina 
Species : triloba (L.) Dunal
Family : Annonaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18

Uses

The delicious pawpaw fruits are used as dessert. The red or brown streak wood is light in weight hence not used for furniture or allied work. On account of its handsome foliage, large leaves and attractive form, it provides additional attraction when planted in gardens.

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a very powerful new method used for in vitro to amplify a deoxynibonuclic specific region that lies between two regions of known DNA sequence single molecule to million folds in short time. This is achieved by an enzyme taq. DNA polymerase which is thermostable using this enzyme can synthesize microgram quantities of DNA of specified length and sequence from pictogram quantities of complex template in a few hours time.

Many Bacillus species are capable of producing a wide variety of secondary metabolites that are diverse in structure and function. The production of metabolites with antimicrobial activity is one determinant of their ability to control plant diseases. The activity is determined using PCR. PCR consists of an exponential amplification of a DNA fragment, and its principle is based on the mechanism of DNA replication in vivo. dsDNA is denatured to ssDNA, duplicated, and this process is repeated along the reaction according to the following formula

Sanger Method for DNA Sequencing

One necessity first know a little about the structure of DNA:

1. A segment of DNA, which is ordinarily double stranded, has a specific orientation, as it has a 5' (read as “5 prime”) and a 3' (“3 prime”) end. This can be simply thought of as a front and tail end to the DNA segment.
2. When DNA is synthesized in the lab, the two strands are separated and new bases are added to the 3' end-thus DNA is assembled from the 5' to 3' end.
3. DNA cannot be synthesized from scratch. A short piece of DNA, called a primer, is required for the reaction to begin.
4. Primers are designed such that they are able to bind to the target DNA, the binding of which is the initiator for DNA synthesis.

Abstract

Consumer now-a-days relies on manufacturing and processing standards, particularly to know what ingredients are present, due to dietary, nutritional requirements, or medical conditions (e.g., diabetes orallergies). Modified PCR and combination of PCR with other analytical tools have been successfully used for analysis of various parameters related to functional foods such as detection and quantification of beneficial as well as food borne pathogenic microorganisms, food allergens, raw material source, bioactive compounds, genetically modified foods. Multiplex PCR method has been found to be an efficient tool for simple, rapid, and reliable identification of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium in probiotic products. Food allergens like gluten, peanut, hazelnut etc. could be easily detected in foods using PCR, even if present in small quantities. BOX-PCR and PCR-DGGE analysis have been used for identification of bacterial diversity of a naturally fermented functional food (Enzyme). HPLC combined with real time -PCR were successfully used to quantify and analyse compounds of secondary metabolites like phenylpropanoid amides, which represent an important class of nutraceutical having strong antioxidant and chemotherapeutic effects in various transgenic tomato tissues. Detection of active compounds in natural plant products were successfully achieved using PCR techniques. In general PCR have gained more importance as it has high sensitivity, improved precision, wide dynamic range for quantification, genotype based and is quick method of detection and quality control of foods than traditional culture based methods.

Introduction Garden Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a small, round, green seed that is commonly eaten as a vegetable. It is a legume, which means it is part of the same family as beans, lentils, and peanuts. Its chromosome number is 2n=14. Peas are typically eaten fresh, frozen, or canned, and are often used in soups, stews, and casseroles. They are a good source of protein, fiber, various vitamins and minerals. Peas can be grown in a garden or farm and it is considered a staple food in many countries. Origin and Distribution Garden peas have a long history of cultivation and have been enjoyed as a food source for centuries. The exact origin of garden peas is believed to be in Central Asia. The distribution of garden peas expanded as they were introduced to different regions and adapted to various climates. They were brought to Europe during ancient times and became popular as a staple crop in many countries. The cultivation of garden peas also spread to Asia, Africa, and the Americas through the process of exploration and colonization. In modern times, garden peas are grown globally in both temperate and cool climates.

The disease is seen at 3-4 leaves stage. Scattered, irregular, yellowish patches appear on the upper surface of the leaves and stipules. On the corresponding under surface of these patches, a greyish violet fi ne cottony mildew growth is seen. Infected tissue soon dies and turns brown. The disease fi rst appears on lower leaves and later spreads to upper leaves.

The peach tree (Prunus persica L.) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit called a peach. It is a deciduous tree growing to 4–10 m (13–33 ft) tall, belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It is classified with the almond in the subgenus Amygdalus within the genus Prunus, distinguished from the other sub genera by the corrugated seed shell. Among the temperate fruit’s peaches require relatively less chilling temperature. Now peach is a commercial crop in Argentina, Austria, Canada, Chile, Europe, USA, China, India and Japan. In India, it grown in hills of Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

Cultivars/Varieties: Sun Red, Red, Nectarine, Kateroo, Flordasun, Florda gold, Sharbati, Maygold, Kanto-5, Stark Early Flame, Summerset, Early White Giant, Redglobe, Alexander, First Gold, Early Gold and Sweet Gold.

Uses

Peachs are grown both for dessert and processing purposes. It is also used for making wine. Peach fruit juice is a common drink. Peach kernel has high protein and its oil is used in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. The cake after extraction of oil can be used for various purposes. Peach flowers and leaves are anthelmintic and purgative.

Green peach aphid/peach leaf curl aphid : Brachycaudus helichrysi Aphididae

These are green aphids that suck the sap from growing buds. Leaf buds become weak and result in poor setting and premature fruit fall.
 
Blossom thrips : Thrips rhopalantennalis, T. flavus, T. florum, Haplothrips tenuipennis, Frankliniella dampfi : Thripidae

These are tiny, yellow, pale-brown and black slender insects seen within the flowers and flower buds. Adults and nymphs lacerate floral parts and suck sap resulting in brown spots. Infested flowers give sickly and faded look. Lesions cause flower fall, inferior fruits and loss in yield. Attack on tender leaves causes necrotic silvering, curling, deformation and withering.

1. Introduction

The peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] is an important fruit crop of temperate regions, all over the world. Important centers of commercial production usually lie between latitudes 30° and 45° North and South. At higher latitudes, minimum winter temperatures and spring frosts are the limiting factors. The peach flower bud is hardy and can tolerate minimum temperature of about -23 to -26° C. Its northern range is extended where minimum temperature are ameliorated by large bodies of water, as western continental seaboards, the great Lakes in the U.S.A. and Canada and the Caspian and Black seas of Eurasia. Mid continental areas are characterized by lower winter temperatures and usually more severe spring frost hazards. Most peach cultivars require 500 to 1000 chill hours below 7.2° C to foliate and bloom. At lower altitudes, the winter requirement is not met. The peach with its smooth skin mutant is known as nectarine. Nectarines can be used in the same way as peaches, and may be considered as substitutes for peaches.

The word persica, along with the “peach” itself and its cognates in many European languages, derives from an early European belief that peaches were native to Persia. Alexander the Great and his armies found the peaches in Persia and brought them to Greece. Most of the peaches grown in commercial orchards today are fruits that are harvested while too firm with a seed that clings to the pulp called a “clingstone” peach. The best flavoured peaches ripen soft and the seed easily separates from the edible portion, and these are called “freestone” peaches.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : persica Batsch
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

The peach, Prunus persica (L) Batch is unique among the temperate fruits as it is adaptated to varied climatic conditions and it is for this reason that peach and its close relative the nectarine, in a short period has spread rapidly to different parts of the world. Peach is a tree of temperate zone, but has attained higher quality (fruit colour, taste etc.) in areas where the summer temperatures are relatively warm to hot. With the discovery of low chill types ‘Honey’ and ‘Peen to’ forms from southern China, peach cultivation has been spread to warm temperate regions of the world. Normally peach requires from 500-1000 hours of cold/chill hours below 7.2oC for growth and flowering in the spring. Peach history as a garden crop in China is well documented, and forms varying in flesh colour (white, yellow or red), free stone or cling stone, flower colour, large and showy flower type seen presently were also present at very early time i.e. the beginning of the present century.

Peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch) belongs to the Prunoideae subfamily of the Rosaceae with other species collectively referred to as “stone fruits. Unusual in its subgenus, the peach is largely self fertile. There are at least 77 wild species of Prunus and most of them are found in Central Asia. Peaches include different types of varieties downy skin with freestone or clingstone (peach), smooth skin with freestone or clingstone (nectarine) (Bretaudeau and Faure, 1991). It is considered as favourite table fruit and highly valued for its taste, flavour and attractive colour. The fruits are rich source of sugars, vitamins and minerals and malic acid (1.2%). Peach fruit shapes vary from round to flat, beaked, skin colors vary from white to red or yellow, the flesh color white or yellow melting or non-melting types and it can be clingstone or freestone. Regions with warm to hot summers are produces highest quality peaches. It has a range of uses as fresh fruit for table purpose as well as processed product especially in sauces, slice production and canning. Peaches are highly ruminative and nutritionally rich crops for mild temperate to subtropical regions. Peaches are excellent sources of fiber, vitamins and antioxidants. The carbohydrates, organic acids, minerals and dietary fiber are among the major constituents of peaches, which contribute to the nutritional quality of both fresh fruits and the juices (Manzoor et al., 2012).

The fi rst symptom of disease appears in early spring soon after leaves come out of buds. Affected leaves become distorted and fold over as tips directed backwards. The whole lamina puckered except tip and blistered. In some leaves, part of leaf show distortion. Blistered portions are thicker, softer than the normal leaf blade. The affected areas remain green for a while and gradually become yellow and fi nally turn reddish-purple in colour. 

• Highly susceptible to waterlogging.
• Self-compatible in nature.
• Low chilling peach - <500 hrs chilling requirement.
• Red blush skins are caused due to anthocyanins.
• The yellow colour of peach is due to xanthophylls.
• Acid present - Malic acid
• Prunasin is the principal glycoside present in the pulp.
• Amygdalin is present in the seeds of peach.
• The oil content of peach seeds is 40-50%
• Prunus behmi is a natural hybrid of Almond and Peach.
• - Smooth skinned peaches (Prunus persica var. nucipersica) also called nectarine.
• Yellow fleshed peaches are ideal for table and canning purpose.

4.1 Introduction

Peach is temperate and economically important fruit species and is in third position among temperate fruits after apple and pear. The peach, and its smooth skinned mutant, the nectarine, are primarily grown in temperate zones of the world. Peach belongs to the family Rosaceae and is native to China (Lurie and Crisosto 2005). Peach was also called as Persian apple and was probably carried from China to Persia (Iran) and, thus, peach quickly spread from there to Europe (Lurie and Crisosto 2005). In India, it is grown in the mid-hill zone of the Himalayas extending from Jammu & Kashmir to Khasi hills up to an elevation of 2000 m above mean sea level (Meitei et al. 2013). It is one of the most important stone fruits grown in Punjab, Haryana and the adjacent areas of Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Because of its refreshing, health promoting and delicious qualities, peach fruit is popular all over Northern India. There are many types of peaches. The free-stone types, which have melting yellow or white flesh, are usually consumed fresh and the second one, the cling-stone types with rubbery flesh, are used in processing; the nectarine, which is characterized by non-fuzzy skin, resulted from a mutation, and Peento, a flat peach with a saucer shape, is another variant. It is also a rich source of vitamin A, iron and proteins. Peaches are eaten fresh, canned or dried and are excellent sources of fibre, vitamins and antioxidants The peach kernel oil is utilized in manufacturing of a large number of cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. Nectarines, scientifically known as Prunus persica var. nucipersica, are commonly known as stone fruits which bears fruits similar to peaches but is smooth and lacks hairy fuzzy feature of peaches.

The pear or naspati (Pyrus spp) is a popular temperature fruit next to apples. It ranks high among sub-acid fruits as it contains less acid than almost any other fruit. Pear belongs to the genus Pyrus under the family Rosaceae and sub- family Pomoideae. The European pear (Pyrus communis) with a persistent calyx, fleshy pedicels and pyriform shape is different from Pyrus pyrifolia or Pyrus serotina (Asiatic pears) and are non-fleshy pedicels with apple shape.

It has been used as a food from time immemorial. The pear is a wholesome fruit and at par in importance with the apple. The flesh of the pear is, however, slightly harder than the apple, but it is juicier than the apple. Like the apple, it has few seeds. It grows on a comparatively large tree. It has generally yellow and brown colour. Sometimes, there is also a tint of red. It has several several varieties across the world.

It originated in mountainous reach of western China. The major pear producing countries are Italy, USA, Japan, Spain, France, Germany, Turkey and Australia. In India, it is mainly grown in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and hills of Uttar Pradesh.

Cultivars: In India, Bartlett is widely grown in Kashmir. Kieffer, a cross between Pyrus communis and Pyrus pyrifolia, is popular in South India. In Punjab, the popular varieties ar Patharnakh, Le Conte, Smith and Kieffer.

1. Introduction

Pear is among the oldest of the world’s fruit crops, figuring in both Bible and the tales of Homer. They are by far the most important of the deciduous tree fruits, are widely grown in temperate and increasingly, in tropical regions, and figure prominently in world trade. The fruit is primarily grown for the fresh fruit market, which is much more remunerative than that for processing.

Pear (Pyrus communis, Rosaceaea family), is a deciduous fruit, grown under a wide variety of climatic regimes, ranging from cold dry temperature hilly conditions to warm humid subtropical conditions. It is grown in many places of India like Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Utter Pradesh. Sandy pear plants were brought to Amritsar by travellers from China who settled at Harsha Chinna village near Amritsar about 2,500 years ago. The Kashmir valley represents one of the major Pear (Pyrus communis.L.) growing areas of the world. Pear was introduced in India from China. The time at which Pear was introduced to Kashmir is not precisely known, however Yukteshwar Kumar writes in his book “A History of SinoIndian Relations” that peach and pear came to India during the early years of the Eastern Han period (25 AD to 220 AD). This pre historic fruit has been under cultivation both in Europe and Asia for about 3000 years (Hedrick et al., 1921). Between 16^th and 18^th centuries, many European writers travelling Kashmir noted fantastic royal gardens of the Mughals, mentioning the abundance of peach, pear, plum and cherry trees, with fountains spouting cold, icy water. Pear (Pyrus communis. L), originating from the German word ‘peer’ meaning fruit, is a fascinating fruit steeped in rich history. This fruit is known as ‘tang’ in Kashmiri language. Low chill requiring pears are being cultivated in plains of North India. Cultivars requiring high chilling hours (900-1000) are cultivated at higher hills of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Majority of the Pear production is actually limited to Kashmir however, low chilling cultivars grow in subtropical regions.

Chinese pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) is a pear tree species native to China, Japan and Korea. The tree’s edible fruit is known by many names, including Asian pear, nashi or nashi pear, Korean pear, Japanese pear, Taiwan pear, sand pear or apple pear. In South Asia, the fruit is known as Nashpati. The tree is a popular symbol of spring in East Asia and is a common sight in gardens and the countryside. The European pear (Pyrus communis) is a species of pear native to Central and Eastern Europe and Southwest Asia. The European pear is one of the most important fruit of temperate regions.

Genus : Pyrus 
Species : communis L.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n= 34

Pear like apple is also a prehistoric crop and unlike apple its cultivation in Europe started much before that of apple at an early time. According to Homer (1000 B.C.) the ancient Greek said that pears were one of the “gifts of god’s”. Romans also enormously added to the knowledge of pear cultivation. Pliny in Rome had described 35 cultivars (23-79 AD). The variation in fruit characters described earlier match to the range of fruit characters which are found in presently grown commercial cultivars. In Europe for its buttery soft texture and distinct aroma many consider European pear as the most detectable of all temperate fruits, while the Asian pears for their firm crisp texture and juiciness are preferred more in China and Japan – their native place. Pears are readily consumed as fresh, dried, cooked or as preserves or to make perry and pear wine.

Pear (Pyrus communis) is one of the most important fruit crops of temperate regions of the world. It is the second temperate fruit tree crop in terms of importance, area, production after apple in India. Pear belongs to the Rosaceae family which have been cultivated in Europe and in Asia for more than 3000 years. Their fruit are tasty with pleasant flavor and commonly eaten fresh or is canned. It is used to produce perry, an alcoholic beverage. Pears are grown under temperate and subtropical climatic conditions of India because of its wider climatic and soil adaptability. It is primarily grown in hills at 1700–2400 m above mean sea-level in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Low-chilling pears have adapted very well in the subtropical regions of our country. Improved pear cultivars were introduced in 19^th century and cultivation started due the success of Barlett and Gola in hills and patharnakh in Punjab of our country. European/common/soft pear (Pyrus communis) and Oriental/Japanese pear (P. pyrifolia) are commercially pear species grown in India.

Origin and Distribution

The common pear is originated from Europe and Asia where it has been cultivated since ancient times. The pear was introduced into the New World by European settlers. Early Spanish missionaries carried the fruit to Mexico and California. In most pear-growing countries of the world outside Asia, by far the most widely grown pear variety is Williams’ Bon Chrétien, known in the United States as Bartlett (Verma at el., 2010). A highly popular variety in England and the Netherlands is Conference. Common Italian varieties include Curato, Coscia, and Passe Crassane, the latter also being popular in France. In Asian countries the pear crop comprises primarily local varieties of native species, such as the Asian, or Chinese, pear (P. pyrifolia). Some species, especially the Callery pear and its cultivars, are invasive species and easily escape cultivation in areas outside their natural range. The poet Homer wrote that pears were “Gifts from the Gods”. Today, pears are a favourite fruit of Americans, second only to the apple.

• More tolerant to wet soils but less tolerant to drought than apple.
• Browning of pears is due to polygalacturonase activity.
• Major acid - Malic Acid
• Chilling - China Pear (Low chilling) - 150 hrs.
• European pear - 1200-1500hrs.
• Most commonly used clonal rootstock - Quince A cutting.
• Quince is scientifically - Cydonia oblonga origin - South-Eastern Europe and Asia minor.
• Quince is a monotypic genus
• Vigorous rootstock - Pyrus pashia
• Graft incompatibility is overcome by double grafting with old home or hardy varieties.
• In India, the open center system is common
• Training system modified central leader system

3.1 Introduction

Pear (Pyrus spp.) is one of the important fruit crops that belong to the family Rosaceae. It is one of the important fruits of the temperate and sub-temperate zones. In India, among temperate fruits, pear is next to apple in importance, acreage, production and varietal wealth. It is grown from warm humid sub tropical plains to cold dry temperate regions of India. In the world, pear is cultivated in China, USA, Argentina, Italy, Turkey, Spain, India, South Africa, Japan, Belgium etc. It is grown under a wide variety of climatic regimes ranging from cold dry temperate hilly conditions to warm humid sub-tropical conditions on the plains of northern India. In India pear is widely cultivated in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand etc. Pear fruits are generally sweeter and of softer texture than apples and are distinguished by the presence of hard cells in the flesh, the so-called grit, or stone cells. In general, pear fruits are elongate, being narrow at the stem end and broader at the opposite end.

1. Which of the following is an example of freshwater mussel?

 a) Lamellidens marginalis b) Lamellidens corrianus

 c) Pictada fucata d) Both a & b

 2. ......... is secreted by the mantle of the pearl oyster as a protection against foreign objects.

 a) Pearl b) Swarm

 c) Prismatic layer d) Nacreous layer

 3. Shell of pearl oyster is composed of ......... layers.

 a) Two b) Three

 c) Four d) Five

 4. Which is the outermost layer of shell?

 a) Prismatic layer b) Nacreous layer

 c) Periostracum layer d) None of these

 5. ......... is the outermost, greenish-brown, thin, translucent layer made up of conchiolin.

 a) Nacreous layer  b) Mantle

 c) Periostracum d) Perismatic layer

1. Introduction Millets, one of the earliest foods consumed by humans, may have been the first cereal grain utilised in domestic cookery. It belongs to the Graminae grass family. The name “millet” describes a number of little-seeded grasses (annual) that are classified into five genera: Setaria, Panicum, Pennisetum, Paspalum, and Echinocloa in the tribe Paniceae, and one genus: Eleusine in the tribe Chlorideae (Pushpavalli, 2015). India ranks first in the production of millets followed by Niger and China (FAO, 2020). Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) serves as food, fuel, and fodder on a global scale. Since, it contributes up to 75% of all grain output in East Africa and several regions of India; it plays a significant role in indigenous diets. After rice and wheat, pearl millet is the third most significant crop farmed in India. Ninety percent of the country’s land is used for cultivating pearl millet, with Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana being the main states.

I. FILL UPS

1. Pearl millet is a_____ pollinated crop.
2. An example for protogyny is_____.
3. The isolation distance for foundation seed production of pearl millet is _____.
4. The spacing adopted for pearl millet is _____.
5. Seed yield of pearl millet is_____.
6. The moisture content of pearl millet seed during storage should be_____.
7. The planting ratio for pearl millet hybrid seed production is _____.
8. Presence of fertile counter part of female plants in the female rows is called _____.
9. In some female plants, fertile anthers may be hanging out only from a portion of the panicle. Such plants are called _____.
10. _____ technique is used for hybrid seed production of pearl millet.

1.1 Introduction Pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] is a warm-season, C4 , annual cereal crop mainly grown for food, feed and fodder purpose. It is diploid species having chromosome number 2n = 2x = 14, belongs to genus Pennisetum, tribe Paniceae of Gramineae family. It has several species e.g., americanum, typhoides, and glaucum. Pearl millet originated in northern Africa in the region from western Sudan to Senegal. It is the sixth most important cereal crop in the world and third most important crop in India after wheat and rice.1.2 Area and Production Pearl millet is cultivated in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. India is the largest producer of millet in the world. In India, pearl millet occupies 6.93 million ha with an average production of 8.61 million tones and productivity of 1243 kg/ hac. The major pearl millet growing states are Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana which account for more than 90% of pearl millet acreage of the country and are commonly grown in kharif season. It is also cultivated during the summer season in parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh and during the rabi season at a small scale in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. 2n = 2x = 14, grass family Poaceae, cross-pollinated and with C4 photosynthetic path-way) is the stable food for millions in the semi-arid tropics. It is adapted to drought and poor soil fertility. Pearl millet is a dependable nutritious source of food for millions in marginal agricultural areas. It is the world’s hardiest warm-season cereal crop. It can survive and produce grain even on the least fertile soils in the driest regions, on highly acidic and saline soils, and in the hottest climates. Pearl millet covers an estimated 31 million hectares worldwide with production of 30 million tons and productivity of almost 1 ton/ha and is grown in more than 30 countries located in the arid and semi-arid tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa and Latin America.