eChapters

Introduction Diet and dietary component are proved to be the first line of intervention in prevention and treatment of non-communicable diseases by many studies (R. Vrolix and R.P. Mensink, 2010). Hence the interest has grown in development of functional food product in recent years which provides not only basic nutrients but also has health promoting and diseases preventing properties (Rozek et al., 2010). The Functional Food Center (FFC) defines “functional food” as natural or processed foods that contain known or unknown biologically-active compounds; the foods, as defined, effective, and non-toxic amounts, provide a clinically proven and documented health benefit for the prevention, management, or treatment of chronic disease (Martirosyan et al., 2015). Fiber is classified into two separate groups i.e. soluble which forms gel like substance when comes in contact with water and insoluble is a solid form that does not break down when exposed to water (web 4). Soluble fibers increase total transit time by delaying gastric emptying and also slow glucose absorption, which includes pectins, β-glucans, galactomannan gums, mucilages, and some hemicelluloses (J.H.Cummings and A.M.Stephen 2007). The American Society for Nutrition stated that cereal fibers are modestly associated with a reduced risk of type II diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease (Cho Qi, Fahey Jr & Klurfield, 2013).

• Artificial Insemination (AI) is the technique of deposition of semen (Fresh, Diluted or frozen thawed) in the female genital tract by artificial means for the purpose of conception. • It is first generation biotechnology technique. It is the most economical and best technique which has been widely accepted for genetic improvement and production (calf crop and milk production) in farm animals. • All the aspects like selection of bull, semen collection, semen evaluation, processing of semen, freezing, cryopreservation, thawing and insemination are equally important for making AI successful.History Related To AI • In the fourteenth century an Arabian placed a cotton ball in the mare's vagina and collect it after mating (soaked in semen) with a high-grade stallion; then by inserting this cotton ball into the vagina of desired mare and got it conceived. • Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (Dutch scientist, 1678) and his assistant, Hamm, discovered sperm cell and called it as “Animalcule”.

1. 1 Introduction, Origin and Taxonomy Barnyard millet (Echinochloa species) is one of the oldest domesticated small millet crops which can be grown in both warm and temperate regions of the world and it is widely cultivated in Asia. It is distributed predominantly in the Indian subcontinent, China, Japan, and Korea and also to some extent in Africa and United States. In India, this crop is mainly grown in Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Gujarat and the hills of Uttarakhand (Kumar et al., 2000). It ranks fourth in terms of production amongst the small millets. Indian Barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) and Japanese Barnyard millet (Echinochloa esculenta) are the two important species of the barnyard millet. Barnyard millet is majorly grown for human consumption, though it is also grown for livestock feed and fodder (Sood et al., 2015).

Introduction In India, knol-khol (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) is belongs to family brassicaceae with chromosome number is 2n=18. It is grown in north eastern states of India, J &K, West Bengal, Assam, Punjab, and other regions of southern India also. It is distinguished by the formation of knobs(tuber) is a thickening of the stem tissue above the cotyledons. This knob is picked for human use as a raw or cooked vegetable, while young leaves are also utilized in some areas. Economic Importance & Uses Knol-khol, also known as kohlrabi or German turnip, is a biennial vegetable that belongs to the same family as cabbage and broccoli. It is a popular crop in many parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, and the Americas.

Introduction Chinese cabbage (Brassica compestris var. pekinensis i.e., heading type and Brassica compestris var. chinensis i.e., non-heading type) with chromosome number 2n=20 is a green leafy vegetable that has come under the same family Cruciferae as cabbage. It is also called as celery cabbage, Bok choy, Peking cabbage, snow cabbage, napa cabbage etc. according to the places. It is originated from China and later adopted to other countries, mostly in Asian countries. Even though not being a member of cole group, it is regarded as one because of the similarity in cultural practices, breeding systems, same growing season and many other features that resembles apart from being a brassica vegetable. The best planting season for Chinese cabbages is in early spring to harvest as a late spring and after mid-summer for a fall crop. The inner leaves of the plant are light yellow colour with long (oblong) shaped head which is covered by compact wrinkled, profuse and light green leaves. Generally, the crop has high nutritional value due to which its demand is increasing tremendously. The potassium content of the crop is high with low fat content. It is also rich in vitamin C, fiber, folate as well as beta carotene and calcium are also more as compared to the cabbage due its leaves colour

Introduction Palak (Beta vulgaris L. var. bengalensis), also known as spinach beet or perpetual spinach, Saag, Indian Spinach, beet leaf, Swiss chard and Palongpalang. is a leafy green vegetable that is closely related to Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris). And it belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. It is a popular and versatile vegetable known for its nutritious leaves and mild flavour. Palak shares similarities with both spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and beetroot (Beta vulgaris). The leaves of palak are tender and similar in appearance to spinach leaves. They are dark green and have a slightly glossy texture. The flavour of palak is milder compared to spinach, with a pleasant earthy taste. This makes it a versatile ingredient that can be used in various culinary preparations. Palak is often grown as a cool-season vegetable, as it can tolerate cool temperatures better than spinach. It is appreciated for its ability to produce a continuous harvest of leaves over an extended period, hence the name “perpetual spinach.” This characteristic makes it a valuable addition to home gardens and commercial production.

Introduction Spinach, scientifically known as Spinacia oleracea, is a versatile leafy green vegetable that is widely consumed and enjoyed for its nutritional benefits and culinary uses. Believed to have originated in Persia (modern-day Iran), spinach has been cultivated and consumed for centuries in various regions of the world. It is highly regarded for its vibrant green leaves and is a popular ingredient in salads, soups, smoothies, and cooked dishes. Spinach is an annual plant, meaning it completes its life cycle within one year. It has an upright growth habit with an erect, branched stem that can reach a height of about 30-60 cm. Due to its delicate flavor and versatility, spinach is used in various culinary preparations. It can be consumed raw in salads or added to sandwiches for a fresh and nutritious crunch. Spinach is commonly cooked as well, either sautéed, steamed, or included in soups, stews, and stir-fries. Its mild taste makes it an adaptable ingredient that complements a wide range of dishes (Thind et al., 2021)

Introduction The asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) is an herbaceous perennial plant and known as Shatawar in Hindi. It is grown for tender succulent shoots known as ‘Spears’ which are used as vegetable and in the preparation of soup. Once the plant established, it continues to produce yield for 10-15 years. The juice obtained from spears contain a white crystalline substance called ‘Asparagine’ which has diuretic properties. Asparagus is a type of vegetable that is commonly enjoyed for its unique taste and nutritional benefits. Asparagus has a distinctive spear-like shape, with a green, purple, or white colour depending on the variety. Asparagus is a low-calorie (20 Kcal) vegetable that is rich in protein (2.2 g), vitamins, including vitamins B1 (0.143 g), Vitamin B2 (0.141 g), Vitamin C (5.6 g), Vitamin E (1.13 g) and Vitamin K (41.6 µg), as well as minerals including calcium (24 mg), iron (2.14 mg), potassium (202 mg), zinc (0.54 mg), sodium (2.0 mg) and magnesium (14 mg) per 100 g raw asparagus. It is also a good source of antioxidants, which help to protect the body against damage from free radicals. Asparagus can be cooked in a variety of ways, including boiling, steaming, roasting, or grilling. It is a popular ingredient in many dishes, such as salads, soups, pastas, and stir fries. Asparagus is also often served as a side dish, either on its own or with other vegetables.

Soil conservation: it is using and managing land based on the capabilities of land itself, involving the application of the best practices to result in greatest profitable production without damaging the land Principles of soil conservation The aim of soil conservation is to obtain the maximum sustainable level of production from a given area of land whilst maintaining soil loss below a threshold level which theoretically, permits the natural rate of soil formation to keep pace with the rate of soil erosion. In addition, there may be a need to reduce erosion to control the loss of nutrients from agricultural land to prevent pollution of water bodies; to decrease rates of sedimentation in reservoirs, rivers, canals and ditches In the longer term, erosion has to be controlled to prevent land deteriorating in quality until it has to be abandoned and cannot be reclaimed, thereby limiting options for future landuse.

Introduction India’s vast and diverse agricultural landscape has one of the greatest agricultural sectors. With over 60% of its people working in agriculture, India’s economy and food security heavily depend on agriculture. In recent years, the world has witnessed many difficulties, including information access restrictions, dispersed property ownership, and uncertainty brought on by climate change. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has emerged as a potent tool for empoweringfarmers, boosting production, promoting sustainable practices in response to these difficulties, and bringing game-changing transformations in Indian agriculture. India ranks second among Asian countries in the advanced user category. On the one hand, profit motivation, corporate expansion, community services, and rural welfare have been the goals of ICT-based agricultural models in India (Spielman et al., 2021).

Introduction Market led extension effectively delivers sufficient and high-quality information to farmers so they can make decisions about production and marketing that willmaximize their return on investment without endangering the needs of future generations. Farmers must improve from being producers or sellers in the home market areas to producers cum sellers in a large market to best reap the benefits of their products. This necessitates the transfer of new extension strategies involving a range from local market to export markets, subsistence to commercial agriculture, productivity to profitability, commodity-oriented to farming systemsoriented, mono-cropping to varieties of crops, and so forth. The extension agents’ attention must be diverted from production in some way. Reducing production costs, increasing product value, and enhancing marketability will assist the farming community in receiving high returns for the products.

Introduction Agricultural sector is the pillar of the Indian economy. It provides employment to around half of the workforce of the country and contributes around 18 per cent to the gross value added of the country. Small and marginal landholdings, constituting less than 2 hectares, make up a significant 85 percent of India’s farming community (Joshi, 2022). These small farmers encounter various challenges, including farm-specific and household transaction costs that limit their participation in input and product markets. With changing food preferences driven by income and population growth, there’s a growing need for small-farm commercialization to meet the rising demand for diversified, higher-quality diets (Chakraborty, 2020). To address the constraints faced by small farms, aggregation models have emerged as institutional interventions.

Introduction There is an emergence of a transformative paradigm of participatory approaches in various fields such as management, health care and education, community development, etc. Participatory approaches challenge the top-down approach used frequently for decision making (Narayanasamy, 2009). Participation is a dynamic process where two individuals exchange their ideas, thoughts, and knowledge for making proper decisions and solving the problems faced by local people. It is a process of empowering individuals that helps people make proper analysis, make their own decisions, and develop their confidence. It is successfully used in increasing self-help activities of local people and for proper implementation and evaluation of large scale projects. FAO has reported that through participatory programmes it is very easy to mobilise local knowledge for self-reliant development, reducing government assistance costs.

Introduction Terms total development of rural areas with the purpose of increasing the quality of life for rural people is referred to as rural development. It is a broad anddiverse concept that encourages the expansion of agricultural and allied activities, communities, cottage industries and crafts, community services and facilities, and total human resources in rural areas. As a strategy, rural development is the result of interactions between many physical, technological, economic, and societal elements. Its purpose is to improve the economic and social well-being of a particular rural demographic group. Rural development is a multifaceted concept that covers various aspects of development in order to improve rural people’s quality of life (Ilbery, 2008). Agriculture, village industries, crafts, community services, and rural human resource development all fall under this category.

Introduction Technology is the application of knowledge and/or equipment in undertaking and accomplishing certain activity. Fisheries technology is a systematically organized knowledge and materials applicable to production problems to help to boost the present level of fish productivity and or extend the existing range of production. Fisheries technologies are wide range of importance; Technological innovation in aquaculture is leading an evolution in aquaculture practices, thereby reducing losses and increasing efficiency. Technology in aquaculture affects many areas of fishery, such as seed production, feed production and management, pest and diseases management, production, harvesting, marketing, processing, etc. Induced breeding technology in Indian Major Carps transformed the growth of aquaculture sector from traditional to intensive aquaculture practices and led to success of modern aquaculture industry. Mechanization in fishing increased the harvest with less time and minimal human drudgery. Fish processing technologies improved product shelf-life, reduced fish loss and added value to the products.

Introduction Shrimp farming is a lucrative sector in the food production industry. According to SOFIA (2020), 9.4 million tonnes of crustaceans were produced in 2020 worldwide, with 4.96 million tonnes coming from Penaeus vannamei. India is one of the largest global producer and exporter of farmed shrimp. In India, shrimp production increased significantly after introducing Pacific white leg shrimp, Penaeus vannamei, in 2009. Among the cultured shrimp species, Penaeus vannamei is the leading species under culture in India, with an estimated production of 7.12 lakh tonnes (MPEDA, 2020). Intensification of culture and diversification of species provoke the incidence of diseases making diseases the major constraint in aquaculture, leading to tremendous losses. Shrimp diseases are of viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic origin.

Cation Exchange of Clay Minerals in Soil

The term “clay mineral” refers to phyllosilicate minerals and to minerals which impart plasticity to clay and which harden upon drying or firing. Clay minerals are layer silicates that are formed usually as products of chemical weathering of other silicate minerals at the earth’s surface. Clay minerals in soil play a significant role in exchanging cations, which are positively charged ions, and in regulating soil fertility and nutrient availability. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of a soil’s ability to exchange cations and is influenced by the type, abundance, and charge properties of clay minerals in the soil. Clay minerals have a high CEC due to the presence of charged surfaces (silanol and alumoxane groups) that can exchange cations with the soil solution. The most common cations exchanged by clay minerals are hydrogen (H+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+), and sodium (Na+). When a soil solution comes into contact with clay minerals, cations in the soil solution are adsorbed or attracted to the charged surfaces of the clay particles.

Introduction

Manures are obtained from the plant residues, green manure, compost and animal wastes that are used as source of plant nutrients. They release nutrients after their decomposition. They essentially function as sustenance to the crops. They help in the proper cultivation of crops. The addition of manure enables the soil to hold more water. Organic manures have acids that dissolve the nutrients in the soil and make them available to the plants. manures can be grouped into bulky organic manures and concentrated organic manures. Brief dissection about manure given blow flow chart.

Bulky Organic Manure

Bulky organic manures are those materials of plant and animal origin, which contain small percentage of nutrients when added to the soil have tendency to decrease bulk density and to increase soil volume, thus providing better physical conditions for plant growth especially in coarse textured soils and also provide essential nutrients in smaller quantities than the chemical fertilizers. Characteristics of bulky organic manures:

8.1 Introduction

Considering increased awareness and interest in using herbal products because of their safer nature, the world market of traditional medicinal and aromatic plants is growing at a very fast pace. The global herbal industry is projected to be worth 5 trillion US$ by 2050 (the world bank report, 2000). These resources not only provide primary health care, but also nutraceutical support for wellness. Also, it has been experienced that they may help in curing some of the deadly and painful diseases such as cancer, HIV, AIDS, rheumatism, arthritis etc. India, due to its rich heritage in use of medicinal and aromatic plants under various traditional medicinal systems, which are important source of information about plant properties and use, can become a major player in the global context and can increase its market share substantially. To achieve this, an effective, efficient, and vibrant program is required to cover various aspects of management, research, and development.

Sample Preparation

Sample should be taken at six or more points on the top of the surface by means of a tubular trier of sufficient length to extend to the bottom of the barrel. Remove this cores and transfer to clean, dry, air tight container and seal immediately.

Before opening sample for analysis, make homogenous either by shaking or by alternately rolling and inverting container. If lump are present, sift sample through No 20 sieve, rubbing material through sieve and tapping vigorously, if necessary.

Avoid sampling on rainy day or when humidity is high, so as to reduce moisture absorption from air.

1 Determination of Moisture Content by Moisture Balance Introduction

In this procedure, infra-red radiation is used to accomplish rapid drying. The tester has a sensitive torsion balance which permits rapid determination directly from the balance scale, eliminating the need for computing or calculation to obtain results. This method is useful for the in-process determination of moisture because the results may be obtained in minutes.

Introduction

Smart farming focuses on retrieving data and using it in developing farming systems in a smart way that will yield better results. Such real time data can be readily accessed by the farmers through smart phones or tablets which will help them to take wise decisions at the right time. It helps in managing farms using technologies like IoT, robotics, drones and AI to increase the quantity and quality of products while optimizing the human labor required by production. Digital farming goes a step further and creates value from data. Integrating the concept of precision and smart farming, digital farming can be explained as “consistent application of the methods of precision farming and smart farming, internal and external networking of the farm and use of web-based data platforms together with Big Data analysis” (A paper on Digital Agriculture, 2018). Though such technologies are highly attractive and worth investing, they are also accompanied by uncertainty and trade – offs. Education, training, dissemination of information, finance and marketing are some of the major factors that would drive the farmers towards adoption of sustainable farming technologies (Grand View Research, 2019).

Introdoction

Tillage is a prime activity carried out prior to sowing of a crop with an objective to bring the soil to a favorable tilth to provide a congenial environment for crop growth and yield. The operation of ploughing once and left out for a few weeks followed by a broadcasting of rice seeds by hand and then ploughing and raking together at the same time once gave highly significant rice grain yield (Srisa-ard, 2008). Adoption of the “Sawah” system (bunded, puddle and leveled) in inland valleys in Ghana lead to significant improvement in soil and water management; enhancement in rice grain yield and made sustainable production. Even the practice of Sawah system of cultivation increased local rice production by over 300% because of the mechanisms with intrinsic resistance to erosion (better water control and nutrient management (Buri et al., 2012).

Introduction

In India, the ground water recharge in arid and semi-arid regions is very important particularly as most of the population residing in these regions depend on groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes. In such scenarios, to alleviate the problems of drinking water, the collection and storage of rainwater to supplement existing water supply sources should be implemented. The utilization of rainwater is one of the best methods that can aid in sustainable urban development (Kim et al., 2005). Every drop of rainfall should be utilized to cater the demand of an ever increasing population as the present system of water supply may not be sufficient in future. The rain water collection & its utilization, seems to be the only option to satisfy the demand of arid and semi arid regions. In most cases, the rain water is the purest water source & contains very low impurities. It is necessary to adopt rainwater harvesting methods in places where the conventional water supply has failed to meet the peak period demand of the people for drinking water. Rain water harvesting is one of the most economical and practical methods to provide supplementary water supplies for drinking purpose.

Introduction

In the era of communication and information, each one of us should have access to information as per our choice, interest, priority, need and requirement. We all are playing different role in different walk of life in different capacity, for different professions, avocations, duties and responsibilities as well. To internalize any concept or idea, a perceptual clarity is very much necessary for interweaving it in our experiential textures. This is possible when more and more number of sensory organs are engaged in a learning situation irrespective of the subject or content to learn. In 21 Century with the advancement of science and technology, more particularly, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), it is possible to establish the connectivity on e-mode and do the things on virtual mode to the possible extent. It is quite possible in urban set up with proper infrastructural facilities both at the source as well as at the receiver end, without any distortion of message on account of electricity failure or wrongful handling of computer or any gadget for that matter.

Municipal solid wastes (MSW), the wastes generated in municipality area, are complex heterogenous in nature due to its collection from different places like residence, markets, institutes, hotels, etc., together before disposal. As per Hazardous waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1989 and Bio medical wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 1998, the industrial wastes generated in various factories and biomedical wastes generated in hospitals and nursing homes should not be dumped in MSW collection site as disposal process for those wastes are different as directed by Government of India in those rules. But those wastes produced by smaller units are discarded in street dustbin, which make disposal problematic.

The harmful impact of chemical pesticides and fertilizers like gradual low productivity of land, growing nutrient imbalance in cultivated soils, accumulation of high pesticide residue in food materials, increasing resistance of harmful pests towards chemical pesticides and continuous increase in environmental pollution are forcing farmers to adopt organic or sustainable farming by considering vermicompost as possible substitute to the costly chemical fertilizers during crop cultivation. Gradual awareness among common people on organic farming, large availability of organic wastes in both rural as well as urban areas, more avenues of vermicomposting training, global market for organically produced foods and ever increasing unemployment problem have opened up greater prospects of commercial vermicomposting (Sannigrahi, 2012).

5.1 Introduction

In many problems of economics, we may want to know how small or how large a certain quantity may become. In other words, we may want to know the minimum and maximum values of some functions of variables.

The term ‘optimisation’ may be used in general, both for maximisation and minimisation. The term ‘optimal position’ is often applied to the ‘equilibrium position’ resulting from the balancing of the forces.

10.1 Introduction

Least square theory is a statistical technique used to estimate the parameters involved in the regression model in such a way that the sum of squares of errors (residuals) is minimum (least). We have generally two methods of estimation of population parameters. These are (i) Ordinary least square (O.L.S.) method and (ii) Maximum likelihood (M.L.) method. The method of ordinary least square (O.L.S.) is used extensively in regression analysis primarily because it is intutively appealing and mathematically much simpler than the method of maximum likelihood estimation (M.L.E.). In the context of lineaer regression analysis, the two methods generally give similar results.

20.1 Introduction

The farm management is the science which concerns with making decisions and choices about combining different enterprises and the optimal utilisation of resources available. It is necessary to understand the typical farming decisions. Decisions can be classified into agricultural management decisions, administrative management decisions and marketing management decisions which are discussed below:

20.2 Organisational Management Decisions

These are further sub-divided into operational management decisions and strategic management decisions.

22.1 Farm Planning

It refers to setting the objectives and actions to be taken in directing or controlling the organisation of farm business and it precedes all other managerial functions on the farm to achive the desired results. It is deciding in advance to the production management problems viz. what to produce, how to produce, when to produce, financial management problems viz how to borrow, how much to borrow, when to borrow, from where to borrow and marketing management problems viz, where to buy, and sell, when to buy and sell, how to buy and sell ete. Farm planning governs the survival progress and prosperity of farm organisation in a competitive and dynamic environment. It is a continuous and unending process. Farm planning is as old as farming itself but mainly it uses the farmal planning.

History of plant pathology records chronological account of important events, contributions of persons who significantly influenced the thinking of their era and interpretation of the observed facts or phenomenon over a period of time. Historical writings help us to understand systematic development in plant pathology, and there problems faced by certain outstanding workers whose view points were unacceptable to majority of opinion makers, simply because it was new and against the established norms of the day. History of plant pathology is a must read for the students of this discipline. The historical accounts will unfold the stories that may motivate the new generation to think and interpret the findings in their own way, without fear of established theories and dogmas carried from the past.

Introduction

Plant pathogens include fungi, bacteria, viruses, viroids, phytoplasma, and nematodes.

They have evolved different strategies for invading, feeding on, and reproducing inside plants.

Biotrophic pathogens require living tissue to grow and reproduce.

Necrotic pathogens kill host tissue at the onset of infection and feed on the dead tissue.

Viruses generally require living tissue for survival.

India’s agricultural accomplishment is a global success story

Post Green revolution; Some of the most pertinent questions that humanity faces

Can we sustain our food production ecosystem, while feeding 9 billon people?

Can we improve farm economics without reversal of soil biodiversity loss and carbon content?

Can agriculture play an important role in reducing carbon footprints and mitigating the current climate crisis?

Answers to abovementioned questions do not lie in the currently dominating chemical intensive farming practices, which rely too heavily on

Introduction

We, the participants of ITAF 2023 along with Dr. B. R. Chavan and Dr. Prashant Bodake visited Farm Song Nam under the guidance of Asst. Prof. Dr. Naphat Panthukumbol and Dr. Sorawit Powtongsookon 18/10/23 at 01:00 pm. This research station is under NSTDA (National Science and Technology Development Agency). The purpose of the visit was to learn about the latest developments in aquaculture technologies.

Dr. Sorawit explains that this system is able to monitor water quality, floc sedimentation, the current age of shrimp, quantity in the pond, total weight, density, size, total amount of water used, pond volume, and volume of water in the pond at a time. This system is equipped with cloud backup that can store all recorded pieces of information. After monitoring, the available information is automatically uploaded to the cloud and accessible through mobile by simply visiting the website. The key feature of Aqua-IoT is the integration of key data– physical, chemical, and biological water qualities and weather – into one single dashboard that enables users to understand the relationship between the data, analyze the data, and make informed decisions.

Cowpathy

Panchgavya chikitsa is an age old system of medicine described in ancient Indian literature ‘Ayurveda’ and now it is known as ‘cowpathy’ means the therapy of human ailments through cow products. However, Cowpathy is different from Panchgavya as it also include cow cuddling, Backrub, Gau grass, Gauseva, and living with cow besides, Panchgavya products milk, curd, ghee, urine and dung. Since the cowpathy practice is to increase the aura of an individual, it prevents from many ailments and infections. In Ayurvedic system, the medicines are prepared either from plants or from animals besides the use of certain metals. The Ayurvedic medicines of animal origin are mainly prepared from indigenous cow products such as urine, dung, milk, curd and ghee. Medicinal use of cow urine has been in practice since time immemorial in India.

Introduction

Wheat, a vital cereal crop cultivated globally, serves as a fundamental source of sustenance and livelihood for millions (FAOSTAT, 2021). However, wheat production faces hindrances from various biotic and abiotic stresses, with heat stress being a notable challenge (Prasad et al., 2019). The term “terminal heat stress” refers to the elevated temperatures occurring during the crucial reproductive phase of wheat, encompassing the grain-filling period and flowering stages (Lobell et al., 2012). Terminal heat stress emerges as a significant impediment to wheat cultivation, particularly in arid and semi arid regions, manifesting during the reproductive stage of the crop (Wassmann et al., 2009). This predicament is exacerbated by the escalating frequency and intensity of heat waves attributable to climate change (IPCC, 2021).

Introduction

Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, colour or other medium to a solid surface (support base), Abdellatif MD, 2017. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. Interior wall painting is a repetitive, exhausting and hazardous process. In almost all the developing countries, the increasing population stimulates the construction-related activities such as interior finishing and painting. Painting is classically done by humans and generally requires exhaustive physical efforts and involves exposure to dangerous chemicals.

India is the second-largest producer of vegetables in the world (FAO, 2021). Its diverse soil and climate condition provides ample opportunity to grow a variety of crops (be it tropical, semi-temperate, or temperate type). Vegetables form a significant part of the total agricultural production of the country. India grows vegetables in an area of 10.86 mha with annual production of 200 million tonnes (NHB, 2021). Vegetables alone contribute 66.97 % of the total horticultural production (341.63 million tonnes). During 2021-22, India exported vegetables worth Rs. 5,745.54 crore. The growth in vegetable production is largely due to an increase in productivity of average productivity is 18.18 tonnes per hectare, The increase in productivity has led to improved per caput availability of over 250g.

Pandemic brought in tough times, especially for different business sectors. However, the floriculture business was one such sector that people embraced, especially in India. In the current scenario, the floriculture industry in India has emerged as a huge trend setter and a survivor, albeit with a drop in earnings and the convenience of working from home. Flower Market report summarizes top key players overview as Syngenta, Floret Flowers, among others. The Indian economy has been starved of sustainable ideas, especially when the outbreak of COVID-19 saw the loss of jobs and the reverse migration of rural people. The floriculture business provided a vast opportunity that involves specific technical know-how and provided flower and allied business as a medium to earn income and generate opportunity for others.

Government of Andhra Pradesh has identified Horticulture sector as one of the growth engine with a focus to increase the production, productivity and quality all horticultural crops coupled with value chain development and marketing linkages for better price realization. Total area under horticultural crops is 17.95 lakh ha with a production of ` 314.78 lakh tonnes. Horticulture sector has recorded 10.17 % growth over previous year and contributing ` 49,189 crores during 2020-21 to GVA of Andhra Pradesh (DH, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, 2021).

5.1 Introduction

The egg production in the country has increased from 78.48 billion in 2014-15 to 114.38 billion in 2019-20. India ranks 3rd in egg production in the world. Annual growth rate of egg production was 4.99 per cent during 2014-15, there after there has been a significant improvement in the egg production with 10.19 per cent growth registered in 2019-20 over the previous year. The per capita availability of egg was 86 per annum in 2019-20. Less than a generation ago the main supply of eggs was from small backyard unit. Processors, handlers, and distributors of eggs and egg products need an understanding of egg-production practices to cope more intelligently with problems of product quality and character.

7.1 Introduction

From a nutritional standpoint, eggs are particularly interesting since they include important fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and trace elements. They also provide a moderate calorie supply (about 140 kcal/100 g), have a wide range of culinary applications, and are relatively inexpensive. Indeed, it has been shown that eggs are the second-cheapest animal source for zinc and calcium and the lowest-cost source of proteins, vitamin A, iron, vitamin B12, riboflavin, and choline. Eggs include a wide variety of physiologically active ingredients in addition to offering babies and adults well-balanced nutritional needs. These elements are distributed throughout the many internal egg components. It must be noted that while eggshell membranes are edible, eggshell and its closely related eggshell membranes are often not ingested (Figure 7.1).

Introduction Worldwide, 40% of a crop is lost to insect damage, particularly in developing countries. Some of the major insect pests belong to the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, and their larval or grub stages cause major damage to economically important crops including tobacco, cotton, corn, sorghum, tomato, sunflower, pulses, wheat, and lucerne. Recently, some insecticides have been primarily used for agricultural pests. Over the years, most pesticides have led to insecticide resistance in major lepidopterans, a reduction in natural enemy populations, and harm to mammals and the environment.

Introduction

Millions of dollars are lost each year due to insect crop devastation, and the use of chemical pesticides has unwanted side effects such as resistance and unintentional impacts on species that are beneficial (Kumar et al. 2019). For farmers, authorities, and academics, finding additional target-selective pest management techniques is of utmost importance. Enhancing performance, cost-effectiveness, and increasing the markets for bio pesticides are all made possible by biotechnology. Molecular methods are used to detect and track the emergence and spread of particular types that are natural enemies (Tipvadee, 2002). It offers chances for the growth of beneficial insect natural enemies with features including pesticide resistance, cold tolerance, and sex ratio change.

Introduction

The paper summarises recent findings on nematodes, viruses, bacteria, and other entomopathogenic microorganisms (EM) and their potential application in biological pest control. It's important to carefully research the ecological characteristics of EM and their function in nature in order to utilise various biological control tactics against insect hosts efficiently. Since it identifies frequent patterns in the interactions between insect pests and EM that have just lately been uncovered through research, this chapter aids readers in understanding the significant advancements in this sector.

Introduction

Providing sufficient habitat and other food supplies to already-existing or naturally-occurring beneficial species is one of the most successful and long-lasting ways for reducing economic harm from pests. In contrast to monocultures or pesticide-treated fields, beneficial species such as predators, parasites, and pest-sicking "pathogens" are significantly more numerous in varied farms where pesticides are used less frequently.

Introduction

Insect pests cause a loss of 18-26% of global yearly agricultural yields. A wide range of the losses 13-16% occur in the field prior to harvest. Furthermore, post-harvest pests are responsible for a significant portion of agricultural product storage losses. Poor management practises might result in the loss of 50-60% of stored grains over the storage period of time.Farmers have used chemical pesticides to control insect pests for many years but the effects on non-target organisms, groundwater contamination, residues on food crops and the emergence of insect pests resistant to chemical pesticides have forced scientists to concentrate on the development of alternative eco-friendly measures.

Introduction

Semiochemicals, which can refer to both intraspecies and interspecies communication chemicals, was first coined by Law and Regnier in 1971 (simeon-marker or signal). Semiochemicals are chemical signals that cause different behavioral reactions in organisms. In most groups of animals, chemical communication seems to be the main means of information transfer. Since 1971, the term "semiochemical" has been in use. It is derived from the Greek word "semeon," which meaning "sign" or "signal. Semiochemicals are communication agents that alter the behaviour of living things by carrying information between them (Dicke M and Sabelis M W, 1988).

Introduction

An agrochemical is a chemical product used in industrial agriculture. In most of the cases, agrochemicals refer to pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, algaecides, rodenticides, molluscicides and nematicides), fertilizers, soil conditioners, liming and acidifying agents and plant growth regulators that provide benefits and manage agricultural ecosystem. Agrochemicals were introduced to enhance crop yields and minimized the crop losses due to pests and categories as fertilizers and pesticides. In the past sixty years with the wake of the green revolution (1960s), use of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium based inorganic fertilizers and pesticides has greatly increased food production by improving efficient and economical crop production in order to fulfil the food needs of the rapidly expanding world population (Pal et al?, 2006).

Introduction

The toxicant must be able to be applied effectively in order to come into touch with the pest or leaf and to leave a uniform and permanent deposit on the plant surface. Pesticide in chemically pure form is known as technical grade pesticides. These cannot be applied as such due to high toxicity and complex physical properties. They are converted into a ready to-use form known as formulation. Formulation converts the technical grade pesticide into a product which can be suitably diluted & applied by practical methods. Which have homogeneous distribution over large area, convenient to handle and more attractive to the pest.