eChapters

This practical assignment is conceptualized and operationalized to understand various tools and techniques in conducting a PRA at the village level and help students in understanding their application in village development planning.

PURPOSE

To get students acquainted with the PRA tools and techniques and their application in village development programme

This practical assignment is conceptualized and designed to acquire practical learning experience through various activities implemented by NGOs in improving the livelihood of the targeted group. The assignment also projects a clear picture about the objectives, structure, functioning and activities of NGOs.

PURPOSE

To make the students acquainted with the NGOs and their learning experience in rural development.

THEORETICAL ORIENTATION

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers. NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world.

This practical assignment is designed in a way that students will acquire knowledge on various development departments in the district, especially on organizational structure, functioning and activities of any agency like District Rural Development Agency (DRDA).

PURPOSE

To get the students acquainted with the organization and functioning of DRDA.

To give the students a brief idea about the organizational structure and functions of other development departments at district level.

THEORETICAL ORIENTATION

The word “democracy” is derived from the Greek roots - ‘cracy’ meaning ‘rule of and ‘demos’ meaning ‘the people’. It is governance of the people, by the people, for the people. Rule by majority is, no doubt, an important feature of this system of governance; but the more important ingredient is rule by consultation - consultation between the people’s representatives on one hand and consultation with the officers on the other. ‘Decentralization’ means devolution of central authority among local units close to the areas served. Where authority is devolved by this process on people’s institution, it is ‘democratic decentralization’.

At the instance of the Prime Minister it was decided to give the process of the three-tier administration the strictly Indian name, “Panchayati Raj” which means a system of government. Panchayati Raj was conceived system of democratic local self-Government. Earlier, Mahatma Gandhi also advocated panchayati raj as the foundation of India’s political system, as a decentralized form of government in which each village would be responsible for its own affairs. The term for such a vision was Gram Swaraj (“village self-governance”). The institution of Panchayat represented not only the collective will, but also the collective wisdom of the entire rural community.

The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee, headed by M P Balwant Rai Mehta, was a committee appointed by the Government of India in January 1957 to examine the work of the Community Development Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953) and to suggest measures for their better work. The committee recommended the establishment of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralisation’ which finally came to be known as 'Panchayati Raj' which would be a 3-tier system - 'Gram Panchayat' at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level, and Zilla Parishad at the district level.

Teratology : is the study of abnormal development. If the malformation involves an organ or only a portion of the body, it is called an anomaly. If it is so extensive great deformity of the individual occurs when the animal is designated a monster.

etiological basis of teratology : All teratogenic agents directly or indirectly ar;ect the process of cell differentiation. These agents are divided into two broad categories i.e genetic or Intrinsic factors and environmental or extrinsic factors.

Genetic or Intrinsic factors : There are several types of genetic factors that result in abnormal development.

The defined endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, the pineal gland, the adrenal glands, the thyroid gland and the parathyroid glands. The organs which contain groups of endocrine cells include the pancreas, the testis, ovary and placenta. The Hassall's corpuscles of thymus secrete hormone which contributes to the maturation of T-lymphocytes. Hence the thymus can be considered as having an endocrine function.

Pituitary : Refer to Part II, Chapter 2

Thyroid gland : Refer to Part II, Chapter 2

Pineal gland (Epiphysis cerebri) : Develops as a dorsal neuro epithelial diverticulum of the caudal part of the roof of the diencephalon. After its formation the gland remains attached to the diencephalon by a stalk. The neuroepithelial cells differentiate into pinealocytes and glial cells. The developing gland is surrounded by a thin layer of piamater.

Each optic vesicle grows outwardly until it comes into contact with the surface ectoderm. At this point, the optic vesicle induces the overlying ectoderm to thicken and to invaginate against the optic vesicle. The optic vesicle becomes concave and convert into double walled optic cup. The attachment of optic cup to the brain is called optic stalk. The space between inner and outer walls disappears as they come opposed. Since invagination of optic cup occurs at the ventral margin of the vesicle a groove is formed in ventral rim of the cup which extends along the ventral surface of the optic stalk (choroid fissure) which closes at the end of embryonic period. The groove and the notch in the optic cup are referred to collectively as the optic fissure. The optic fissure begins to close by fusion of its edges soon after the optic cup is completely formed. While it is open, the fissure allows a branch of the choroid artery (Hyaloid artery) into the cavity of the optic cup.

With the development of the optic cup the lens placode invaginates into rim of the optic vesicle and forms lens vesicle. The lens vesicle loses contact with the surface ectoderm and positioned at the opening of the optic cup and forms lens.

Towards the end of the third week of embryological development, the notochord induces the overlying columnar ectodermal cells of the embryonic disc to become pseudostratified neuroepithelial cells and form a spoon shaped thickening of dorsal ectoderm called the neural plate. The cranially expanded region of the neural plate forms the primordium of the brain, while the narrower region caudal to the brain gives rise to spinal cord.

The raised lateral edges of the neural plate form the neural folds while the depressed midline region of the plate forms the neural groove. Cellular proliferation at the medial aspects of the neural folds causes these structures to gradually approach each other in the midline, meet and fuse, forming the neural tube which encloses a central neural canal.

The integumentary system comprises the skin its hair and glands and modified cutaneous structures hooves, claws, horns, beak and feathers. Although the mammary gland is a skin derived organ, because of its close association with the female genital system it is included in respective chapter. The skin consists of two layers: a superficial layer, the epidermis, which is derived from ectoderm and a deeper layer, the dermis, which develops from mesoderm.

Epidermis : The epidermal layer covering the entire embryo initially consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells resting on a basal lamina. Shortly after neurulation, these ectodermally derived cells divide and give rise to a superficial layer of flattened cells, the periderm and underlying layer of cuboidal cells, the basal layer. Further, proliferation of the cells gives rise to an intermediate layer resulting in a multi-layered covering of epidermis. Cells of neural crest and mesodermal origin also contribute to the population of cells found in the skin.

Somites are derived from paraxial mesoderm and they are located lateral to the developing notochord and neural tube. During the third week of gestation in domestic animals, the outlines of somites first become visible and in the fifth week of gestation the somite formation is completed. Somites differentiate into sclerotome, myotome and dermatome. They form skeletal, muscular and dermal elements i.e, vertebral column, muscles and dermis respectively.

The connective tissue, cartilage and bone all differentiate from mesenchyme which arises chiefly from mesodermal somites and lateral layer of somatic mesoderm while connective tissue of alimentary canal and lower respiratory tract is derived from splanchnic mesoderm. Mesenchyme is a spongy meshwork composed of branching cells spaces between which are filled by ground substance. The supporting tissues, connective tissue, cartilage and bone are derivatives of mesenchyme in which ground substance is gelly like, stiff and firm respectively.

Lymph vessels arise from mesoderm by vasculogenesis and angiogenesis in common with the arteries and veins. Initially six primary lymph sacs develop in the late embryonic period. They are paired jugular sacs lateral to the internal jugular veins, a single retroperitoneal sac developing close to the root of the mesentry, the cisterna chyli dorsal to the retroperitoneal sac and a pair of iliac sacs at the junction of the iliac veins.

Lymphatic vessels draining the head, neck and fore limbs arise from jugular sacs. Drainage of lymph from the pelvic region and hind limbs is through the iliac sacs, while the retroperitoneal sac and cisterna chyli drain the viscera. At a later stage of lymphatic development, the lymph sacs become interconnected by a series of lymphatic vessels.The plexus between the jugular sacs and the cisterna chyli gives rise to the thoracic duct which opens into the jugular veins.

lymphatic organs : The lymphatic organs are fully developed and functional before birth. Immunocompetent cells can be detected in most lymphatic organs by the end of the second trimester of gestation.

lymphnodes : The lymphnodes are formed by the partitioning of small lymph vessels or sacs. Therefore, lymphnodes are usually found in related groups or in chains along the course of a lymph vessel. The partitioning is initiated by the ingrowth of mesenchymal processes into the lymph vessel. The mesenchyme forms a network of lymph sinusoids that communicate with the lumen of the lymph vessel. The mesenchyme also forms a reticular fiber frame work that outlines and supports the sinusoidal network. At this time a blood vessel enters the developing lymphnode. The point of entrance establishes the location of the hilus. At the periphery of the node the mesenchyme condenses to form a capsule. The mammalian lymphnodes consists of cortical and medullary regions. The cortical parenchyma contains lymphnodules, while the central medullary region contains anastomosing cords of lymphoid tissue. The structure of the porcine lymphnode differs from other domestic animals in that the lymphnodules are centrally located with the cords at the periphery. The flow of lymph in the porcine lymphnode is in the opposite direction to that in other domestic animals, with lymph entering at the hilus and leaving from the cortex.

Cardiovascular system consists of heart and blood vessels which include both arteries and veins. Blood vessels formation occurs in two stages i.e vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Splanchnic mesodermal cells lining the yolk sac form clusters, referred to as blood islands. Vasculogenesis, the formation of blood vessels from blood islands of of Pander, commences during the third week of gestation in domestic animals first in yolk sac and later in the allantois.Development of blood vessels involves a complex series of events during which endothelial cells differentiate, proliferate, migrate and become organized into vascular network. Angiogenesis describes budding and sprouting of new vessels from existing vessels. This process a fundamental requirement for embryological development, continues postnatally.

Indifferent stage: Primordia are present for both sexes (gonads and mesonephric and paramesonephric ducts), although genetic sex is determined at fertilization.

Gonads : are structuarally indistinguishable prospective testis and ovaries. The first sign of gonadal development is a swelling called the gonadal ridge on the medial side of the middle part of the mesonephros. It enlarges due to arrival of primary germ cells. Cells of mesonephric tubules invade the ridge to form clusters and besides surround germ cells resulting in gonadal cords.

The primordial germ cells of these gonads arise from the endodermal cells of the yolk sac. These migrate to the gonadal ridge through the dorsal mesentry. Migration of primordial germ cells from the yolk sac endoderm into the gonadal ridges initiates testicular (if SRY gene is present) or ovarian development. The primordial germ cells form the sex cells, called gonadal blastema. The somatic blastema (non-germ cell) forms the other parenchymal elements of the gonads. The germ cells are capable of amoeboid-like movement.

The kidneys develop from the nephrotome (intermediate mesoderm). The series of nephrotomes forms urino-genital ridge which splits up into an lateral nephric and a medial genital ridge, which project into the coelom from the dorsal wall. This is the short segment of mesoderm that connects somite with lateral mesoderm. Three sets of kidneys are formed during embryologic development in vertebrates viz., pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. First two sets are temporary structures and third set becomes the kidneys found in the adult.

The development of the upper respiratory system composed of nasal cavities, naso pharynx and larynx is directly related to the development of the face. The nasal cavities are derived from ectoderm while nasopharynx and larynx are endodermal in origin. The lower respiratory system (trachea and lungs) is a derivative of the embryonic pharynx.

The epithelial lining of the lower respiratory system is endodermal in origin, while the surrounding connective tissue and cartilage are mesodermal in origin. The endoderm and underlying mesoderm from the floor of foregut i.e caudal part of pharynx grow caudally in midline and form the laryngo-tracheal groove at about the level of the branchial arches IV -VI from which the larynx and trachea arise. The laryngotracheal tube consists of an inner endodermal lining and an outer layer of splanchnic mesoderm. It grows into underlying mesenchyme. Ingrowths from the sides of the groove at about the level of the branchial arches IV - VI form a pair of ridges that grow towards each other and fuse forming a septum changing the groove into a tube with a blind end caudally. The rostral end opens into the floor of the pharynx. The blind caudal end expands in a bilobed manner into mesenchyme forming bronchial buds the primordia of right and left lungs while the groove is closing.

larynx : A pair of elevations, aryteniod swellings appears on the floor of the pharynx along midline at the level of branchial arch IV. The hypobranchial eminence is just infront of the arytenoid swellings. The depression between the hypobranchial eminence and the arytenoid swellings becomes the lumen of the larynx. The caudal part of the hypobranchial eminence forms the epiglottis. The arytenoid swellings and adjacent branchial arch mesenchyme form the other laryngeal cartilages and musculature. The thyroid cartilage arises from branchial arches III and IV. The other cartilages are derived from mesenchyme of branchial arches IV, V & VI. The intrinsic musculature of larynx is derived mostly from the branchial arch V and VI. With the exeption of the epiglottic cartilage the cartilages and muscles of the larynx are formed by the end of embryonic period.

Alimentary canal : The endoderm is formed by delamination in mammals and birds. This endoderm surrounded by splanchnic mesoderm forms the gut. The endoderm underlying the embryonic disc and serving as a flat roof to the early yolk sac becomes gut endoderm. At 20^th day a rapidly expanding embryonic disc begins to fold into a cylindrical embryo. The gut endoderm also participates as a component layer. Folding first into the head end and then into the hind end of elongating embryo this endoderm necessarily takes the form of the two internal blind tubes. The open end of the each tube where it becomes continuous with the yolk sac is called an intestinal portal while the tubes are named the foregut and hindgut. The caudal end of the hindgut is cloaca. An intermediate region opening ventrally into the yolk sac through the narrower yolk stalk is midgut.

Development of the face includes the development of orbital, nasal and oral regions. Development of face involves five facial primordia during the embryonic period of development. These primordia include the single frontonasal prominence and the paired maxillary and mandibular prominences.

The frontonasal prominence forms two sets of bilateral ectodermal thickenings, the nasal and lens placodes. Frontonasal prominence shows nasal component (of ridges) and a frontal component. A thickned area of ectoderm olfactory/ nasal placode appears at the medial tips of frontonasal prominence.

1.1 Historical background of the Embryology

Embryology is a branch of Anatomy. It is the study of growth and differentiation undergone by an organism in the course of its development from a single fertilized egg cell into a highly complex and independent living being like its parents. It explains how one develops before he is born. Important changes also take place after birth and continue to occur even to adult stage. eg: Replacement of RbC and WbC is a continuous developmental process and reverting to activities seen in prenatal condition is seen in healing of wounds. So the term ‘Developmental Anatomy’ which includes prenatal and postnatal development is preferred over term embryology as Developmental Anatomy, includes prenatal and postnatal development and as the term embryology refers truly prenatal (Intra uterine) development.

Aristotle (384-332/322 BC) proposed two theories regarding origin of life

Land is merely an area of the earth’s surface comprising all physical, chemical and biological environments that influence the land use (FAO ,1976). Land refers not only to soil but also to climate, landforms, hydrology, geology, natural vegetation including fauna and flora. The land use simply means management of a land for specific uses to meet the human needs in all rural, urban and industrial context, whereas the land use plan refers to a coherent set of decisions about the ways to achieve the desired level preferably on economic background. Thus, the land use planning is the systematic evaluation and assessment of a land and associated attributes for the purpose of identifying the best land use options beneficial to landowners or users without degrading the land resources or environment. It includes not only the landowner or users, but also the policy or decision makers as well as economic experts for financial measures from planning stage or logistic planning to execution.

Land cover

Relates to the type of feature present on the surface of the earth e.g., Fields, trees, concrete high ways.

Land use

Relates to the human activity associated with a specific piece of land. The same land would have a land cover consisting of roofs, pavements, grass and trees. The land use in an area is really an intervention by the people over the existing natural eco-environment for satisfying their needs.

Land cover is distinct from land use despite the two terms often being used interchangeably. Land use is a description of how people utilize the land and socio-economic activity - urban and agricultural land uses are two of the most commonly recognised high-level classes of use. At any one point or place, there may be multiple and alternate land uses, the specification of which may have a political dimension.

In recent times, the interpretations cover a wide spectrum of soil uses, both for agricultural and non agricultural (sewage and human waste disposal, high way construction, water and gas supply, recreation, wild life, urban and industrial structures) and many specialized uses. Soil survey if correctly carried out according to scientific principles, can provide the data base for various interpretations. This is because the same soil properties determine the behaviour of a soil for a variety of different uses. For instance, the content of clay, silt and sand, the shrink and swell behaviour, the permeability of soil to water and air, content of calcium carbonate, salts, organic matter, gypsum, soil depth, depth of ground water, hard pan formation, co-efficient of linear extensibility, water holding capacity etc. are examples of such properties that are important to plant growth and these properties also strongly influence non farm uses. Some examples in support are

A hard or petrocalcic horizon or other slowly permeable layer (clay-pan) in a soil restricts the movement of air and water, thus adversely affecting the plant root growth. Such a layer limits the soils suitability for septic tanks and other onsite waste disposal. It also makes a poor sub grade for high way construction.

A soil high in soluble salts is a poor medium for plant growth; it is also corrosive to iron and steel structures, such as pipelines and fences, causing high maintenance and repair costs.

High organic matter content is generally favourable to plant growth, but it is a limitation for road construction.

The strongly gypsiferous soils (gypsum content >10%) are considered unsuitable for arable crop cultivation because of its dissolution under irrigated or even moderate rainfall and making the surfaces uneven through the developments of sink holes. Such soils are unsuitable for irrigation and drainage canal networks and also for construction of roads, bridges etc.

The shrink- swell soils of India (vertisols) because of summer monsoon rains are suitable for growing a “kharif” crop but are very dangerous for construction of roads, air strips, buildings, laying gas, water pipelines which get distorted, develop cracks and lead to sunken floors etc.

Soil Classification

Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use.

Soil classification is grouping of objects in orderly and logical manner into classes based on the properties of soils (differentiating characters) for the purpose of studying and identifying them. The soil individuals are grouped into classes of the lower category (soil series) which are grouped into classes of higher categories (soil orders). The lower categories are defined by large number of differentiating characters and higher category by a few differentiating characteristics.

For soil resources, experience has shown that a natural system approach to classification, i.e. grouping soils by their intrinsic property (soil morphology), behaviour, or genesis, results in classes that can be interpreted for many diverse uses. Differing concepts of pedogenesis and differences in the significance of morphological features to various land uses can affect the classification approach. Despite these differences, in a well-constructed system, classification criteria group similar concepts so that interpretations do not vary widely. This is in contrast to a technical system approach to soil classification, where soils are grouped according to their fitness for a specific use and their edaphic characteristics.

Soil survey is essentially a study and mapping of soils in their natural environment. It is the systematic examination, description, classification and mapping of soils of an area.

2.1. History of Soil Survey in India

The original investigations on Indian soils were carried out by Voelcker dates back to 1893 and by Leather to 1898.They classified the soils of the country into four major groups, namely the Indo-Gangetic alluvium, the black cotton soil or regur, red soil and laterite soil. Schokalskaya (1932) has published a soil map of India based on the Russian concept which describes 16 soil groups such as climate,vegetation, soil-forming materials, salinity, alkalinity, swamps and peats (Bhattacharyya et al. 2013). In 1935,Wadia and his co-workers collected a soil map of India with significance on geological formations and classified the soils as red, black (regur), laterite and lateritic soils of Peninsular India and also Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) which includes delta, desert, bhabar, terai and alkali soils. Vishwanath and Ukil (1943) published a soil map of India by placing the soils in different climatic zones for the first time. This was prepared by Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, and published in the year 1943. There were 17 kinds of soils identified, viz., deep black soils, black clay soils, black loamy soils, black sandy soils, red sandy soils, brown sandy soils, red and yellow soils, dark reddish brown soils, mixed soils (white and yellow), alluvium (Indus, Gangetic, Brahmaputra), coarse alluvium, soils of swamp lands, calcareous soils, usar soils, kallar soils, coastal alluvium soils and soils of Great Himalayan Ranges.

Soil survey works were started in 1954, in most of the states as a part of their agricultural development programme, and Bihar (Soil Survey and Land use Planning Scheme, Sabour) was pioneer. In 1954, the soil survey work was started under the leadership of Dr. P. P. Jha following the conventional procedures in Bihar (including Jharkhand) to delineate the soil associations based on geology, relief, physical and chemical characteristics of soils for the first time in India by the then Soil Survey Scheme at Sabour (Mishra et al. 2001; Mishra 2015, 2016). Meanwhile, the National Atlas Organization, Kolkata, prepared a soil map of India in 1957 classifying Indian soils into six major groups and 11 broad types. Murthy and Pandey (1983) applied the working principles of the USDA 7^th Approximation in classifying the Indian soils with available data on soil classes and thus used the US system for the first time at great soil group level, which was transformed into a soil map of India on 1:6.3 million scale. Mishra et al. (1994) attempted to propose “Fluvisols” as the 13th Order in USDA Soil Taxonomy for active floodplain soils frequently occurring in different parts of India and elsewhere. Mishra (2015, 2016) proposed a framework of Indian system of soil classification mainly based on land use options.

1.1. Soil Resource Evaluation

Soil is the essence of life on the planet Earth. It has sustained humanity and human civilizations through five functions (Karlen et al. 1997) viz., i) sustaining biological activity, diversity and productivity; ii) regulating and partitioning water and solute flow; iii) filtering, buffering, degrading, immobilizing and detoxifying organic and inorganic materials, including industrial and municipal byproducts and atmospheric decomposition; iv) storing and cycling nutrients and other elements within the earth’s biosphere; and v) providing support to socioeconomic structures and protection for archaeological treasures associated with human habitation. Reeling under the pressure of increasing food, fodder, feed, fibre and fuel production, soil has been used as a medium of plant growth with considerable reliance on external supply of major nutrients, irrigation water, plant protection chemicals, etc. Although soil, a product of millions of years of weathering, has supported various forms of terrestrial life, its sustainable management holds the key for meeting the basic requirements of burgeoning population and development commitments. So intense has been the pressure of increasing food, fodder, feed, fibre and fuel production that the soil has been exploited often exceeding its carrying capacity. The soils are increasingly used for agricultural and non-agricultural uses, such as disposal of farm, urban and industrial wastes, ensuring environmental safety etc. This is possible by the judicious use of this resource.

A clear and intimate knowledge of the kinds of soils and their extent of distribution are essential prerequisites in developing rational land use plans for agriculture, forestry, irrigation, drainage, etc. soil resource inventory or mapping provides an insight about their potentials and limitations. It is therefore imperative to prepare an inventory of this resource for developing optimum land use plan and conservation plans.

Abstract

GIS has several products that can be protected in India as copyright. The paper describes major provisions of copyright Act, 1957 that has been amended five times. GIS products qualify to be registered within various sections of the copyright Act. Patenting of software is permitted in some countries but not in India, a comparative account of these two forms of protection has been discussed with practical examples. General public licensing of open source software, translation, exclusive licensing and data sharing & accessibility policy are other areas covered in the present study and analytical learning.

Key words : copyright, patent, GIS, software, data sharing

1.0 Introduction

The copyright Act 1957 was mainly amended in 1994 and1999 to bring into complete harmony with Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), further major amendment has been done in 2012, that include wide range changes in ownership, term of protection, copyright security, cinematography and broadcasting provisions. In the same year government of India has initiated ‘National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP)’ which came into operation from February 2012. At present the copyright Act and data sharing policy are the two legal and administrative instruments which facilitate the intellectual property protection and appropriate sharing among stakeholders in the country.

Abstract

Any naturally occurring phenomena varies both in space and time. This variability is a result of various natural process and hence deterministic. Geostatistics is a tool to help us to characterize spatial variability and uncertainty resulting from imperfect characterization of the variability. Geostatistics involves the theory of regionalized variables, which dates back to the early fifties and includes concepts of random function and stationarity. Geostatistical mapping can be defined as analytical production of maps by using field observations, explanatory information, and a computer program that calculates values at locations of interest. There area number of spatial prediction models depending on the amount of statisticsinvolved in the analysis. Kriging is a generic name adopted by the geostatisticians for a family of generalized least- squares regression algorithms and various kriging algorithms viz., punctual kriging, block kriging, co-kriging and universal kriging are explained in this paper. Applications of geostatistics can be found in many varied disciplines ranging from the geology to soil science, hydrology, meteorology, environmental sciences, agriculture and even structural engineering and some of its applications are summarized in this paper.

Keywords :Geostatistics, spatial variability, kriging, model

Abstract

GIS in marine fisheries has taken off much later than its application in land. But the strides made in this field since 1990’s has been quite significant, as many serious mapping studies and modeling initiatives have been recorded. With the third dimension added to the 2D spatial data, the marine GIS have all the ingredients of making it a fertile domain for research for decades to come. Most of the studies and products pertaining to GIS in fishery management had been revolving around mapping of habitats, geo-referencing of catch and effort data and modeling linking oceanographic and biogeochemical factors with living resources. Satellite remotely sensed information like ocean colour can act as a surrogate to fish biomass. Further remotely sensed SST, wind and other parameters can be effectively modeled to predict fish abundance, their habitat and related aspects. This manuscript pours into the various products and outputs based on GIS in marine fisheries around the world and the Indian initiatives.

Key words: GIS, marine resources, oceanography, primary productivity and climate change

1.0 Introduction

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been one of the most prolific scientific enhancements in recent past, which by virtue of out of box expansion of traditional database concept have opened up an entirely new vista of knowledge and opportunities. It’s probably one such unique application where information collation and analysis happen hand in hand resulting in palpable mining of data in perspective. A formal introduction to GIS would define it as a collection of computer hardware, software, data and personnel designed to collect, store, update, manipulate, analyze and display geographically referenced information. By virtue of its conceptualizations, there are no single GIS; systems can be assembled in an infinite number of ways. This is one such field, which probably always seeks the frontiers of innovations in the fields of ICT and modeling.

Abstract

The objective of the study is to build a framework of Geo-spatial Information System for effective decision making by empowering all the stake holders with spatial and non-spatial data. The Interface of this information system is developed as a deployable windows application using Map Objects in Visual Basic programming language with MS Access database. The practical utility of the proposed information system was explained with a case study in Aquaculture. This geo-spatial information system provides required information through maps based on spatial and attribute quarries. These dynamic maps help in taking effective decisions.

1.0 Introduction

Computer based information systems proved to be very efficient and effective tools for managing data and information to aid in decision making . FAO (2000) proposed agricultural knowledge and information system for rural development (AKIS/RD) to link rural people and institutions to promote mutual learning and generate , share and utilize agricultural technology , knowledge and information. This serves as vehicle for sharing ideas and principles with various stake holders addressing the problems and seeking solutions to rural development. Although the rural development planning is top-down prescriptive approach , in reality the decisions are made by the stake holders based on their perspectives, knowledge and priorities. Problems particularly related to environmental impacts are location specific and contextual. Geo-spatial technologies may serve as better vehicle to store and share all kinds of location specific data and information. The state of mapping and management of geospatial data changed during the recent years with the diffusion of modern geospatial information technologies such as GIS(Geographic information system), GPS(Global positioning system) and image analytical system for remote sensing(RS) data. Adinarayana et al., (2008) proposed a geographical information and communication technology (Geo-ICT) based information system called Grama Vikas( rural development) to assist the user in analyzing the rural information for rural development, planning . During the recent years there is a paradigm shift in GIS applications for rural development particularly in developing countries, by way of integrating top-down approach with bottom-up approach by the stake holders who stand to be affected by the decisions based on these technologies. Emerging concepts include “ community - integrated GIS”, “GIS in participatory research” and ‘participatory GIS”. (Abbot et al., 1998)

Abstract

The social and economic development of any state is interlaced with the manner of its natural resource management. The unplanned use and overexploitation of resources are results in various kinds of land degradation, biomass deterioration and siltation of tanks. In addition, the low per capita availability of land, erratic and uneven distribution of rains, undulating topography, improper management, traditional cropping programmes and recurrence of droughts having cumulative effect leading to low productivity and high risk particularly in dryland farming. Further, developing dry land agriculture through sectoral approach did not bring in the desired results, as the efforts were not integrated. However, in nature all the resources are inter-linked and thus, the integrated developmental approach is the best solution for optimal development of any area. Further, development based on administrative units such as district, taluk, block and village have resulted in imbalance and sometimes, no overall development in some areas. Considering this, natural resources management through Geo- informatics tools like, remote sensing, GIS, GPS and other sensor based techniques are the possible ways for making agriculture sustainable. The paper mainly highlights theimportance of application of latest technologies in agriculture along with some field level case studies.

Keywords: Remote sensing, GIS, Watershed, CAPE, Precision agriculture

Abstract

A huge technical improvement in Information Technology (IT) has made new instruments (e.g. WEB-GIS, Open Source platforms, DBMS with geometric data) available. Distributing geospatial information on the Internet is an enforcing factor for information providers. For dissemination of spatial data, Web-GIS technology can be used, which is amalgamation of several information technologies. Open Source is a philosophy of providing software with better quality, more flexibility, and lower cost. This paper explains the use of Open Source Web-GIS which provides a fast and globally reachable way not only to represent the information about natural resources through maps and statistics but also possibility of processing the information interactively on web.

Keywords : Web-GIS, Open Source, PostgreSQL, PostGIS, GeoServer, Wetlands

1.0 Introduction

India is blessed with diverse and abundant resources. India has been witnessing tremendous growth which has impacted practically every aspect of environment and the common man. Natural resource has been tremendously in use due to increase in population growth, thus generation, dissemination and sharing of information regarding natural resources and data amongst all stake holders have become a necessity. The utilization of modern technologies such as remote sensing, GIS which are effective in management of natural resources as user can store, retrieve and model the spatial information. Web media is playing a vital role in making people aware about the importance and conservation of natural resources. We are presenting such efforts with use of Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) tools.

Abstract

Customized application development can deliver/fulfill the specialized and specific needs of the users as well as it provides user- friendly environment to the users. There have been applications developed in the past but now applications developed and coupled with the advantage of GIS technologies for various data-handling, spatial analyses and visualization under variable inputs and spatial scales is an innovative approach developed during recent years.The present work encompasses Spatial Agricultural Information and Decision Support System having five modules - Agro-socio-economic-information, Bio- Physical Information, Crop’s Information & Management, and Agriculture DSS Module. This system, developed in a GIS framework, allows managers and planners to rapidly assess land attributes and link these attributes with maps and related infrastructure. Hence, it can facilitate efficient use of existing resource information. The primary database of the software has a Database Update feature which can be utilized by the user using the software to integrate own data into the primary database of the software. With this integration, the software adapts to new data entered and will enable this data to be visualized in GIS platform. The software has been designed keeping in view the requirements of the departments like Department of Agriculture, Department of Land Records etc. In comparison with the commercial GIS applications, the commercial applications are not cost effective if the primary requirement is visualization enabling decision making and basic spatial analysis. The most features available on such software remain un-utilized or they cannot be used without having GIS knowledge. This application is suitable in such scenarios, providing a simple customizable platform for GIS visualization. This software application fits in and serves the line departments and in a way promoting the GIS in the mountainous terrain as it requires very basic or no GIS skill set to operate.

Abstract

Natural resources and agricultural production processes vary spatially. Capturing the spatial variations in data and knowledge of natural resources and production processes has been a major challenge for efficient and sustainable management of agricultural production systems. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) provide an effective platform for storing and mapping spatial data and modeling the relevant processes. Huge volumes of geospatial data on specific themes such as soils, water, climate, and other natural resources, are being collected by public and private agencies. However, currently it is difficult for most users to access the data and integrate them into a GIS platform to derive useful information and knowledge for specific applications. There is a need to create geospatial data and knowledge systems that can provide efficient, on-demand and remote access of spatial data to users to enable development of a variety of GIS applications for agricultural and natural resources management. The design of a prototype geospatial library to provide web-based access to geospatial data, services, and learning and knowledge resources that can support agricultural and natural resources management is presented. The design is scalable and sufficiently general to allow a range of agricultural and natural resources management applications across different spatial scales.

Keywords: Agriculture, GIS, Geospatial library, Knowledge Management, Natural Resources

Abstract

The weather or climate is a natural resource and is an important basic input in agricultural planning and strategies. Every plant process, related with growth, development and yield of a crop and each of inseason and off-season farm operations (according to World Meteorological Organization) is more than 10 per cent and can reach up to 50 per cent in smaller areas and not a surprise even if it reaches to 100 per cent on micro scale. Amongst the various weather elements, temperatures, radiation and rainfall play major role in deciding the crop growth and yield levels. Precipitation is one of the important weather factors being responsible for atmospheric and soil moisture and therefore has more agricultural importance, especially in rainfed agriculture.

Keywords: Remote sensing, weather, agroadvisory, GIS

1.0 Introduction

India receives more than 70 per cent of its annual rainfall during South West monsoon season. Indian summer monsoon rainfall shows large intra - seasonal and intra-annual variability (Parthasarathy, 1960; Alexander et al., 1978; Mooley and Parthasarathy, 1984) and also changes in space and time, intensity and distribution. Borgaonkar and Pant (2001) have reported that Indian monsoon rainfall has shown trend less nature since 17^th century based on proxy data with large inter-annual fluctuations. IPCC (2001) has reported increase in rainfall over tropical and higher latitudes and decrease in rainfall over subtropics and mid latitudes.

Abstract

Anantapur is the driest district of Andhra Pradesh and hence, agriculture conditions are very often precarious. Groundnut grows where other crops fail and thus it is the predominant crop of Anantapur district. Groundnut is grown in about 7.5 lakh ha in Anantapur district; however the average yields are low at 500 kg ha^-1. Among various available vegetation indices, normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) is widely used for all reasons, which is a single numerical indicator of presence and condition of green vegetation. NDVI mapping at a regional scale helps to assess the spatial changes in the vigour of green vegetation and thus occurrence of any moisture stress. Climate tools have a great role in understanding the crop performance and estimating the yields. This study was taken up by using freely available MODIS data to understand NDVI in terms of abiotic stresses over Anantapur district and linking with the actual rainfall conditions, groundnut crop acreage and production. Results indicate that low groundnut yields in general could be related to NDVI-based stress measurements and rainfall quantum and distribution in the area however, with a few exceptions. It is hoped that by combining improved practices through IWM with climate-adapted crop varieties, rainfed farmers of Anantapur district can sustain their crop production under present climate variability and become resilient to future climate change.

Keywords: Climate, MODIS, NDVI, Anantapur, Groundnut, Integrated Watershed Management

Abstract

Higher temperature and altered rainfall patterns accompanied by extreme weather events are being considered indications of climate change. These factors impact vegetation growth in natural forest, open scrub and in agriculture land. Vegetation index based on satellite data was used to analyse agricultural vulnerability in India to understand impact of rainfall variability. Time-series Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data products obtained from AVHRR (1982 to 2006) and MODIS (2000-2011) were analyzed to assess spatial and temporal variability. Coefficient of variation of maximum NDVI was assessed for the study period and results were corroborated with Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) instead of actual rainfall. Resolution of AVHRR time-series data facilitated study at regional-scale while MODIS datasets with 250m pixel resolution helped in identifying vulnerability at district-level. Study indicated that over 241 Mha areas in the country may not be vulnerable to rainfall variability induced climate change while over 81.3 Mha in arid, semi-arid and dry sub- humid regions may be vulnerable. Study indicated that over 12.1 and 1.81 Mha of Kharif cropland would be mildly and severally vulnerable while 6.86 and 0.5 Mha of Rabi cropland may be adversely affected in a similar manner. Study indicated that length of cropping season was decreasing due to delay in start of season. The paper also presents analysis of variations in SPI and resultant NDVI in typical drought and flood years in the country.

Keywords: MODIS, AVHRR, NDVI, Rainf ed Agricul ture, Vulnerability, Climate Change

Abstract

This study was conducted at Directorate of Cashew Research (DCR) Puttur, D.K., Karnataka during 2007-12. In this study, a methodology was standardized to find the area under cashew, barren areas and other areas for expanding cashew cultivation with remote sensing. It was found that the images pertaining to the month of November was best for classifying cashew since the colour of cashew leaves changes during that period. Also, the LISS III images were found to be good for identifying cashew. It was not possible to differentiate between cashew seedling area and cashew graft area using LISS III or LISS IV images. A spatial database of soil moisture was prepared for the irrigation scheduling in cashew and a spatial database of major nutrients was prepared for the site specific nutrient management in cashew gardens. A spatial database of land slope and stream orders was prepared using GIS and suitable soil and water conservation interventions were suggested for the selected area.

Keywords: Cashew, GIS, remote sensing

Abstract

The sustainable management of plant genetic resources is of great concern as increasing population and rapid technological strides are putting enormous pressure on this country’s nutritional and food security. Management of plant genetic resources at national level generates and uses enormous data and analysis of these data is crucial to the effectiveness of PGR management process and can add significantly to the value of genetic resources. A GIS is a database management system that can simultaneously handle data representing spatial objects and their attribute data. GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. It can play an important role in the management of large and complex PGR datasets. The article analyses the potential uses of GIS in plant genetic resources management in India covering various activities such as germplasm exploration and collection, characterization and evaluation, plant health management, documentation and conservation.

Key words : plant genetic resources, germplasm, conservation, documentation, DIVA-GIS,

Abstract

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) application in plant genetic resource management allow capture, manipulate, process and display of georeferenced data integrated with genetic resource database for operations such as query and statistical analysis, visualization and geographic representation. GIS based several spatial tools have been developed that model species’ ecological niches finding a relationship between crop or variety with a set of environmental parameters and useful for planning exploration, evaluation trials, in situ and ex situ conservation sites. GIS technologies have direct practical application in elucidation of genetic, ecological and geographic patterns in the distribution of crops and wild relatives; mapping of richness, diversity, distribution of useful traits and, location of areas with complementary diversity; gene bank information management and strategies for future explorations and gap analysis; selection of suitable accessions/sites for ex situ evaluation; searching germplasm for abiotic stress tolerance and developing core collections. With the increasing availability of high- speed computers and software development in the area of GIS tools specific to PGR management increasing trend in application of these is expected. Apart from ecogeographic survey for locating diversity and germplasm collection and design, management and monitoring of in situ reserves, introduction of new varieties, and development of core collection, locating gene donors for biotic and abiotic stresses are the areas to be benefited with the GIS application.

Keywords: GIS, genetic resource, distribution, diversity, core collection, gap analysis, mapping

Abstract

Agroforestry is an integrated self-sustainable land use management system that is not only capable of producing food from marginal agricultural land but also capable of maintaining and improving the quality of environment. It plays a vital role in achieving integrated rural and urban development. But reliable data on number of trees and area under agroforestry is not available as methodology for estimation of even area under agroforestry is not yet standardized. In this paper, a methodology for estimation of number of trees under agroforestry using high resolution satellite data has been proposed and estimation of number of trees as well as area under agroforestry in Ludhiana district of Punjab State has been done using the proposed methodology. Land use/land cover map of the district has also been generated using ERDAS IMAGINE software. It has been observed from the accuracy assessment that the estimates of number of trees as well as area under agroforestry obtained using the proposed methodology under this study are very reliable. Therefore, the proposed methodology may be replicated for estimating number of trees as well as area under agroforestry in other parts of the country.

Keywords: Agroforestry; Estimation of number of trees, Area estimation; Remote Sensing; GIS

Abstract

Agroforestry is an ancient practice that farmers have adopted throughout the world. There are innumerable examples of traditional land use practices combining production of trees and agriculture crops on the same piece of land. In India, the organized agroforestry research began in 1979 when a Seminar on Agroforestry was organized at Imphal by the ICAR, New Delhi. As a follow up to this, ICAR launched an All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRPAF) was started in 1983. The diagnostic survey and appraisal revealed that there are enumerable agroforestry practices prevalent in different agro- ecological zones of India occupying sizeable areas. However, spatial technologies like Geographical Information System (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Positioning System (GPS) have yet to be implemented extensively in this field in India. The spatial technologies have shown great potential in natural resource management through out the world, especially in developed countries in the fields like forest cover mapping, agricultural planning, watershed management, land use planning, etc. In India the agroforestry land use occupy large areas but use of these technologies to estimate area has been initiated in year 2007 with DST sponsored project entitled ‘Spatial and Temporal analysis of agroforestry interventions in North-western India using GIS and Remote Sensing’ The area under agroforestry systems has been estimated/ mapped in two districts viz., Yamunanagar (Haryana) and Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh), where intensive commercial agroforestry was predominant. Besides, the methodology developed as an out come of this study may be replicated for agroforestry systems existing in other parts of the country.

Keywords: Agroforestry, Geo-spatial, Mapping, Natural Resources, Remote Sensing.

Abstract

Remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) are integrated system in providing precise information on nature, extent and spatial distribution of land resources to assess their potential and limitations for planning, monitoring and management towards sustainable development. The use of remote sensing and GIS provide immense opportunities in the field of large-scale mapping, generate and update of existing geographical databases for decision making in site- specific management and development of land resources. Integration of remote sensing and GIS includes the use of each technology to benefit the other, as well as the application of both the technologies for geospatial modelling and decision support. Remote sensing and GIS integration has clearly benefited from advances in computing and Global Positioning System (GPS) technologies, including innovations in use of decision tree algorithms and neural networks. The generated precise spatial database in GIS on land resources, socio-economic and contemporary technologies could be effectively used to develop GIS based Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS) for sustainable management of land resources. In this article an attempt has been made to provide an overview on the remote sensing and GIS technologies as a special decision support tools in inventory, characterization and management of land resources particularly in digital terrain analysis, geomorphological mapping, hydrological applications, soil resource inventory, assessment of soil loss, land degradation and soil fertility, soil-site suitability and watershed prioritization.

Abstract

Soil quality assessment has been recognized as an important step towards understanding the long term effects of land management practices within agricultural watersheds. Potential soil quality issues include continued high rates of erosion, losses of organic matter, reductions in soil fertility and productivity, as well as chemical and heavy metal contamination. This case study addressed the spatial variability of soil properties and its quality at the watershed level using geostatistical methods. Soil samples from the 0- to 20-cm depth were collected on a 100- by 100-m grid across an 88-ha watershed at Sakaliseripalli village in the Nalgonda District in Andhra Pradesh State, India. Geostatistical analysis showed that most of the soil parameters were moderately spatially dependent. An assessment framework, that included a minimum data set, linear scoring technique, and additive indices, was used to evaluate the soil quality index (SQI). Through principal component analysis, cation exchange capacity, exchangeable Na percentage, DTPA-extractable Zn, available P, available water, and dehydrogenase activity have been emerged as the most important indicators for evaluating soil quality. A kriged map of SQI was prepared for the watershed. The SQI was found to be higher in irrigated systems than under rainfed conditions. In the study, potential soil loss calculated using the Universal Soil Loss Equation and crop yield were identified as the quantifiable management goals; the results indicated that soils having higher soil quality indices were more productive and less erosion prone.

Keyword : Principal Component analysis, SQI, Watershed, Geostatistics, Potential soil loss

Abstract

Runoff from rainfall is an important component of the hydrological cycle. Estimation of runoff is critical for the design of hydrological structures and drainage systems in watersheds. Different soils, land use, and water management practices affect runoff differently. In real watersheds, land use, soils and weather conditions vary spatially over the geographical area of the watershed leading to spatial variations in runoff. Also, most watersheds form a part of larger drainage basin or a large watershed consisting of several such subwatersheds. Each subwatershed is hydrologically connected to the other subwatersheds of the basin. A comprehensive GIS based decision support system (DSS) for estimation of runoff that includes the spatial variations in rainfall and natural resources is presented. The DSS is developed as a deployable application by integrating independent GIS layers of watershed features created in ArcGIS with MapObjects in VB, for a case study watershed - the KK3 watershed in Mahbubnagar district of Andhra Pradesh, India. The DSS generates thematic maps of spatial variations in runoff on individual rainy days for the subwatersheds.

Keywords : GIS, GUI, Land use, Rainfall, Remote Sensing, Runoff, Soil, Sub-watershed, Watershed 228 Geospatial Technologies for Natural Resources Management

Abstract

Remotely sensed data have become the primary realistic source for natural resources and biomass estimation, since last 30 decades. A summary of earlier research on remote sensing and GIS based biomass estimation approaches and a discussion of existing issues prompting biomass estimation are very valuable for further improving biomass estimation performance with the integration of geographical information systems. This paper discusses the recently most accurately alternative research methods to integration of remote sensing and GIS applications for identification, characterization and analysis of biophysical characters. The remote sensed data and geographical information systems using the accurate assessment of natural resource and management for the enhancement of biomass production and estimation. There is not any other option for the perfectly biophysical and natural resources estimation in small to large area. The earlier research has demonstrated that biomass estimation remains a challenging task, especially in those study areas with complex forest and mixed traditional cropping systems and environmental conditions. Either optical sensor data or radar data are more suitable for forest sites with relatively simple forest stand structure than the sites with complex biophysical environments. A combination of spectral responses and image textures improves biomass estimation performance. More research expertise is needed to focus on the integration of remote sensing, GIS& GPS, the use of multisource data, and the selection of suitable variables and algorithms for biomass estimation at different scales. Understanding and identifying major uncertainties caused by different stages of the biomass estimation technique and applying strength of mind to reduce these uncertainties are critical.

Keywords : Integrating, Remote Sensing, Bio-physical, Resources, Environment

Abstract

Any country’s socio-economic development essentially depends on land and water resources. Resource depletion takes place when there is an overstretching due the exploding population, calling for prudent management of the resources. Application of remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) tools in the management of natural resources at different levels including watersheds is quite well known. In addition, applied geoinformatics are also used in research on management of these delicate resources also besides characterization. There is a continuous advent in technology in both hardware and software necessitating updation of application scientist/manager. Once an exclusive tool of elite institutions and government agencies, GISnow became an indispensible part of our day-to-day life. As the urge for information intensifies, new applications of GIS continue to evolve. A concerted effort is needed to develop an information system when vast expanses of natural resources are to be managed and a combination of information tools like remote sensing, global positioning system and GIS always updates the database effectively. However, the cost factor should not hinder the applications at micro level. This necessity calls for attention to popularize free and open sources of software (FOSS) and data (particularly digital elevation models (DEM) and satellite imagery) to put the techniques into use by enthusiasts at village level such that a database at a regional level can be built through participatory GIS. It is in this direc tion the av ailab le li terat ure on appl ied geoinformatics coupled with use of FOSS is reviewed and presented in this article to give an idea as to how an open ended information system could be developed to help the management.

Keywords: Natural resources, management, Remote sensing, GIS, FOSS, DEM

Abstract

Traditionally remote sensing technology has been widely used in the mapping and change detection of vegetation features. Of late research has shown that remote sensing technology can be successfully employed for retrieval of biophysical parameters of vegetation, either by statistical techniques or by employing radiative transfer models (RTMs). This paper gives an introduction to leaf and canopy RTMs, especially about PROSAIL, which is the most commonly used model. It reviews different techniques for inverting RTM models, their merits and performance comparison. The main techniques briefly described are iterative optimization, look-up table, artificial neural network, genetic algorithm and support vector machine. At the end, it gives examples of applications which use canopy biophysical parameters retrieved by inverting RTM.

Keywords: Radiative transfer, PROSAIL, Inversion, Vegetation

1.0 Introduction

Accurate quantitative estimation of vegetation biophysical variables is useful for a large variety of agricultural, ecological, and meteorological applications (Houborg et al., 2007). The spatial and temporal distribution of these variables are important inputs into models quantifying the exchange of energy and matter between the land surface and the atmosphere, developing better yield prediction models and detecting abiotic stresses at regional scales. Among the many vegetation characteristics leaf area index, leaf chlorophyll content and leaf water content are of prime importance (Bacour et al., 2006; Houborg et al., 2007).

Abstract

In the present study an integrated remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) based methodology is adopted for demarcating the groundwater prospective zones and identification of artificial recharge sites in the Peddavanka watershed, Andhra Pradesh. In this study Shuttle Radar Topograhic Mission (SRTM) digital elevation model (DEM) with spatial resolution of 90 m and Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS-1A), Linear Imaging Self Scanner (LISS- III) satellite data along with other field and collateral data on geology and well inventory have been utilized to generating the Drainage, Slope, Lineaments and Hydro geomorphology of the study area, which are an essential prerequisites for demarcating water resources and identification of recharge sites. Spatial data integration and analyses are carried out in GIS environment.

Keywords : DEM, Drainage, Hydrogeomorphology, Groundwater prospective zones, Remote sensing, GIS

1.0 Introduction

Groundwater is an important natural resource in arid and semi- arid regions, because most of the places surface water resources are scarce and some places it’s totally absent particularly in hard rock areas. Because in hard rock terrains availability of groundwater is of limited extent and its occurrence is essentially confined to fractured and weathered zones (Saraf and choudhury 1998, Sankar 2002). In these areas groundwater recharge depends on rainfall only. For understanding rainfall recharge mechanism and groundwater management in the watersheds level, first we have to understand the morphometric parameters in the watershed level.

Abstract

Land development in urbanized watersheds poses a potential of increasing storm runoff rates, and therefore increasing the risk of flooding in the downstream areas of a watershed. To investigate the impact of change in land use practices on the watershed hydrology, an hydrological analysis was conducted on Little Kitten Creek watershed located near Manhattan city of Riley county, Kansas, USA. Prior to development, land use types in the watershed included woodland, pasture, and fallow land. However, rapid development has occurred in the watershed in the last ten years. Post development land use practices include commercial development, residential housing, and conservation (woodland and grasslands). Data collected and analyzed included digital elevation model (DEM) of study site, stream network and soil data using ArcGIS (ESRI, 2006) and Arc-Hydro Software (Maidment, 2000). Watershed characteristics such as slopes, channel length, circularity ratios, and drainage density were also computed. The delineated watershed boundary, stream segments and soil data layers were over laid to produce soil maps. Time of concentration (Tc) was determined for the pre and post development conditions in the watershed using seven different methods. The time of concentration values computed using Kerby, Federal Aviation Agency, Kinematic Wave and NRCS (SCS) methods found more reasonable compared to the remaining three methods used.

These computed time of concentration values were observed to be shorter for the post-development condition when compared to the pre-development condition of the watershed. The reduced time of concentration in the post development condition is attributed to increase in percentage of impervious areas due to increased residential development in the watershed; therefore increased rates of runoff in the watershed are expected.

Keywords: Rezoning, Time of Concentration, DEM, Kinematic Wave, Drainage density, Circularity ratio.

Abstract

Conventional wisdom holds that variability in rainfall represents a significant variability of agriculture production. But urbanization of the cities on one hand and climate change on theother hand areaffecting the agriculture. Surprisingly, there have been very few analyses exploring the link between rainfall variability and urbanization on agriculture production. Therefore an attempt is made in this paper to know the affect of rainfall variability and urbanisation on the cropping area. For this purposeNDVI analysis is carried out in the catchments of Osmansagar and Himayathsagar Reservoirs by using the medium to high spatial resolution multi spectral data provided by remote sensing satellites, such as Landsat TM, IRS-1C/1D LISS-III and IRS-P6 LISS-III has been used for the years1989, 1994, 1998, 2002 and 2008 for Kharif season, 1975, 1990, 1994, 1998, 2003 and 2008 for rabi season which is collected from NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre). From this analysis it is found that the increment is more in rabi season compared to kharif season due to the increment of non-monsoon rainfall intensities and ground water withdrawal structures. The increased utilization of the groundwater is causing the reduction of inflows to the reservoirs in the recent years because whatever the rainfall that occurs in the catchment, first utilised for meeting the depleted soil moisture and ground water consequently reducing the surface runoff.

Keywords : Climate change, Urbanisation, Inflows, Cropping area, NDVI

Abstract

The rapid development and integration of spatial technologies viz., Geographical Information System (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) along with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provide functional alternatives to revolutionize the conventional entomological approaches like surveillance, spatial/temporal distribution of insect populations, pest distribution mapping and predictive modeling. Application of these technologies for insect problems is well established in the fields of forest, range land, medical and agricultural entomology elsewhere. Nevertheless, in India its field relevance in agricultural entomology is still limited owing to lack of proven field prototype studies and collaborative efforts among stakeholders. It’s time to gain real momentum to integrate these progressive technologies to formulate sustainable integrated pest management programs.

Key words: GIS, Remote Sensing, Insect Populations, Field Applications

Abstract

Carrying out effective and sustainable agriculture has become an important issue in recent years. A key to this is the usage of modern technologies for precision agriculture. Recent technological developments allowed envisioning sensor devices with distributed ambient sensory network, which could be a potential technology for monitoring various natural phenomena (weather parameters, soil moisture, etc.) at micro level. As more and more agricultural data are virtually being harvested along with the crops and are being collected/ stored in databases, the same can be used in productive decision making if appropriate data mining techniques are developed/applied. As a case study for this, an experiment was conducted with four consecutive agricultural (Kharif and Rabi) seasons in a semi-arid region of India to understand the crop-weather-environment-pest/diseases relations using wireless sensory and field-level surveillance data on closely related and interdependent pest/disease dynamics of groundnut crop. Association rule and multivariate regression mining techniques/algorithms were propose developed /tailor-made to turn the data into useful information/ knowledge/relations/trends to know crop-weather- environment-pest/disease continuum. These findings have been used for development of prediction models (cumulative and non-cumulative) followed by a web based pest/disease decision support system.

Keywords : Data Mining, Pest/Disease Management, Precession Protection, Wireless Sensor Networks