eChapters

Water is an important input in crop production. It acts as solvent, reactant and used for transpiration and maintaining cell turgidity. Hence, knowledge of soil moisture is essential for making irrigation scheduling. For determining soil moisture status, the commonly used methods and instruments are discussed along with their advantages and disadvantages. The soil moisture can be measured by determining either the soil water content or the soil water potential. The measurement of soil water content is an estimation of the mass or volume of water in the soil, while the soil water potential is an expression of the soil water energy status. The relation between content and potential is not universal and depends on the characteristics of the local soil, such as soil density and soil texture. We can measure soil moisture content both by direct and indirect methods. In direct method, we remove the water from the soil sample by evaporation and the amount removed is determined. This method is popularly known as gravimetric method. We measure property of soil that is affected by soil water content under the indirect methods. Indirect methods employ tensiometric, nuclear (neutron and gamma radiations), electromagnetic (radar and time domain reflectometers), hygrometric (electrical resistance, capacitance, Infrared absorption) techniques besides remote sensing for making soil water models. In the following paragraphs both the methods of soil water measurement has been discussed.

Tensiometer is a device to measure soil moisture tension or equivalent negative pressure of water in the soil. A tensiometer consists of a tube sealed at one end by a porous ceramic cup which is in contact with the soil and a vacuum gauge or a manometer connected at the other end above the soil surface. When the tensiometer is filled with water, the manometer or gauge will read zero tension. When such a tensiometer is placed in an unsaturated soil, the soil in contact with the porous ceramic cup will immediately start sucking water through the porous cup wall. The water in the soil pores immediately establishes hydraulic equilibrium with the water in the cup through saturated pores of the cup wall. Water and solutes can f low through the pores of the cup wall but not the air within the working range of the tensiometer. Water could be sucked from the tensiometer by the soil until vacuum created inside the tensiometer is just sufficient to overcome the suction of the soil. At equilibrium, the tensiometer reads directly the amount of soil suction. The outf low of water from the cup is very little. The effective range of the tensiometer is 0 to 0.85 bars depending on quality of the porous cup.

The measurement of soil moisture is needed to determine when to irrigate and the amount of water needed when irrigating, to evaluate evapotranspiration, and to monitor soil matric potential. The soil moisture is measured in two ways- direct and indirect methods as follows:

The surface of the earth gets heated up during the day and gets cooled during the night causing diurnal changes in the top layers of the soil. Soil temperature is an important part of micro-environment, where plant roots grow and capture the water and nutrients and thus, it affects the plant growth and yield. During crop germination also soil temperatures play vital role. Since the heat regimes of these layers are governed by the soil temperature, the measurement of soil temperature becomes extremely important.

Soil temperature plays an important role in plant growth. Solar radiation received on the earth surface raises the temperature of the soil surface from morning to solar noon followed by a decline until the next morning. Soil temperature gradients established on the surface lead to flow of heat downwards causing a rise in temperature of lower layers. These variations in temperature affect germination, emergence and further growth of plants. Several types of thermometers such as mercury or liquid in glass, bimetallic, bourdon gauge, thermocouples and electrical resistance have been used in soil research but the use of thermocouples and thermistors has been found most useful. A brief description of different types of thermometers used in measurement of soil temperature is given below:

Liquids in Glass Thermometer

A liquid-in-glass thermometer (Figure 20.1) consists of a capillary glass tube with a bulb at one end filled with a thermometric liquid (mercury), vacuumed and sealed. By reading the position of the liquid level on a scale the temperature value can be obtained.

The solar energy is the main source of energy for the processes occurring at the earth surface and in its atmosphere. Crop production, is in fact an exploitation of solar radiation and plants are the converters of solar energy into a useful form of energy which is biomass and sustain life providing food, fodder, fiber, fuel, fruits etc. Sun energy fulfills two essential needs of the plants i.e.  (i) light for photosynthesis including many other photo processes and functions of the plants, (ii) thermal conditions required for the normal physiological functions of the plant. Thus, the crop production and agriculture is basically dependent on quality and quantity of radiation.

Water loss from a plant in the form of vapour is known as transpiration. Loss of water vapour mainly from leaf cells through pores but also from the leaf cuticle and through lenticels of the stem. The resistance to diffusion of water vapour through a plant’s stomata is called as stomatal resistance. Whereas, stomatal conductance is a numerical measure of the maximum rate of passage of either water vapour or carbon dioxide through the stomata, or small pores of the plant.

Weather phenomena are not localized, it moves and varies over space and time. The weather over a place or area is the result of far away weather events/conditions. Acquisition of global scale observation, therefore, becomes a pre-requisite for understanding the physics of the weather and also to represent the weather condition over an area at a particular time. Complex three-dimensional models of weather systems can be made by collecting weather data at multiple levels in the atmosphere. Upper-air data are important to know present weather over a place and crucial for weather forecasting.

Wind influences the plant life both physiologically and mechanically. Wind affects plant directly by increasing the transpiration and intake of CO₂. Thus raising the supply of CO₂ to the plants and thereby increase in photosynthesis. However, the increase in photosynthesis is again upto a certain wind speed beyond which its rate become constant. The warm and dry winds increase evaporative loss and cause moisture stress. Lodging is one of severe injury caused by strong winds which causes great yield loss depending upon the stage of crop. This injury is common in paddy, maize, wheat, sorghum and sugarcane. Strong winds damage fruit trees extensively by breaking leaves and twigs and causing fruit drops.

4.1 Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
i) Understand the concepts of Central Tendency and Partition Values;
ii) Identify appropriate measures for different data sets;
iii) Distinguish between different types of means;
iv) Apply Partition Values in data analysis.

4.2 Introduction

Nowadays, the ability to proficiently analyze and interpret data sets is indispensable for strategic decision-making. This chapter, ‘Measures of Central Tendency and Partition Values,’ extends beyond the basics of mean, median, and mode to explore the deeper layers of data analysis through quartiles, deciles, and percentiles. These measures offer a more comprehensive understanding of data distribution, crucial for identifying trends and making precise business predictions. We will unravel how these statistical tools can be effectively employed to dissect and interpret complex data sets, providing business professionals with an enhanced toolkit for informed analysis and decision-making in various business scenarios.

3.1 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (AVERAGES)

When data are presented in raw form or in the form of frequency distribution, they fail to provide a general idea of the data under study. The general idea of statistical methods is to condense the raw data into a form that can convey some meaningful characteristic(s) of the data. Though classification simplifies the data and improves the understanding of the main characteristics in the data, it is still difficult to remember. In any distribution of data, values of a variable may tend to cluster (or concentrate) around a central value. The data must be condensed into a single value. Such presentation of data is called a Central Tendency and the measures devised to consider this tendency are known as Measures of Central Tendency.

An average condenses a frequency distribution or raw data and presents it in a single representative number. It is that single value which is considered as the most representative or typical value for a set of values. Such a value usually lies somewhere near the centre of the group. That is why, an average is usually referred to as a measure of central tendency. It is located at a point around which most of the other values tend to cluster and therefore it is also termed as a measure of central location.

3.1 Introduction

One of the most important objectives of statistical analysis is to summaries the information contained in the data which may be considered either as a population or as a sample (or sub-population). If the set of data consists of all conceivably possible (or hypothetically possible) observations of a certain phenomenon or a variable, we call it as population. If a set of data contains only a part of these observations, that is selected values of a variable, we call it as sample. Frequency distribution and graphical representation summarize to some extent.  They reduce a mass of data to a more understandable form but not to a single value. The aim of this lesson is to determine descriptive measures or statistical constants which will describe the nature of the data.

Measures of central tendency are also known as averages. Averages are defined as statistical constants which enable us to understand in a single effort, the significance of the whole i.e., they are the representative value of the distribution. They give an idea about the concentration of the values in the central part of the distribution.

Five Types of Averages

Arithmetic Mean

It is the sum of all the observations divided by the number of observation.

For individual data or simple series (i.e., series in which all values have single frequency)

One of the most important aspects of describing distribution is the central value around which the observations are distributed. A statistical measure used for representing the centre of central value of a set of observations is known as “Measure of Central Tendency”. This central value is also called as ‘Average’. The commonly used measures of central tendency are as follows;

The central tendency measure is defined as the number used to represent the center or middle of a set of data values. The three commonly used measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode.

Measures of location (averages)

The term average refers to any one of several measures of the central tendency of a data set.

• The mean has the disadvantage that its value is influenced by outliers. An outlier is an observation whose value is highly inconsistent with the main body of the data. An outlier with an excessively large value will tend to increase the mean unduly, whilst a particularly small value will decrease it.

• The mean is an appropriate measure of central tendency if the distribution of the data is symmetrical.

The mean will be ‘pulled’ to the right (increased in value) if the distribution is skewed to the right, and ‘pulled’ to the left (decreased in value) if the distribution is skewed to the left.

Literal meaning of dispersion is scatterdness. We study dispersion to have an idea about the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the distribution. Dispersion gives an idea about how much the values of the observation varies from their averages. The series in which the values of the observation differ much from their averages is said to be heterogeneous or highly dispersed. The series in which the value of the observation does not differ much from their averages is said to be homogenous or less dispersed.

There are two types of measures of dispersion:

4.1 Introduction and Measuring

A measure of central tendency exhibits only one of the important characteristics of distribution, namely they typical representative figure to the whole set of its values. This measure alone will not adequately describe a set of observation unless all the observations are alike. Moreover one cannot understand completely about the data set with a measure of central tendency.  Because in real practical situation there may exits a number of sets of observations (or different distributions) whose measures of central tendency are same but they may differ individually from each other in a number of ways.  In particular two sets of values have the same mean but whilst one set of data is grouped close to the mean the other one is more spread out.  The following examples will illustrate this view point clearly.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 Dispersion of a given set of values, gives an idea about the homogeneity or heterogeneity of the distribution of values.

Q.2 The measure of scatteredness of a set of values about an average is known as the “measure of variation or dispersion”.

Q.3 The measure of dispersion must be based on all the observations.

Q.4 Measure of dispersion should be amenable to further mathematical treatment.

Q.5 Measure of dispersion should be affected as little as possible by fluctuation of sampling.

Q.6 The measures which express the spread of observations in terms of distance between the values of two selected observations, are known as “distance measures” e.g. range and interquartile range (or quartile deviation).

The measure of scatteredness of observation around their average is necessary to get a better description of data. The extent or degree to which data tend to spread around an average is called Dispersion or Variation. Measure of Dispersion also called the averages of second order; help us to measure the scatteredness of observation around an average. The commonly used measures of dispersion are as follows;

What is dispersion?

In statistics, dispersion (also called variability, scatter, or spread) is the extent to which a distribution is stretched or squeezed. Common examples of measures of statistical dispersion are the variance, standard deviation, and interquartile range. For instance, when the variance of data in a set is large, the data is widely scattered. On the other hand, when the variance is small, the data in the set is clustered.

Dispersion is contrasted with location or central tendency, and together they are the most used properties of distributions.

Measure of dispersion

(a) Range

The range is defined as the difference between the largest and smallest observations. Range(X)= Max(X)- Min (X)

Example

The range in statistics for a given data set is the difference between the highest and lowest values. For example, if the given data set is {2,5,8,10,3}, then the range will be 10 – 2 = 8. Thus, the range could also be defined as the difference between the highest observation and lowest observation.

5.1 Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
i) Understand and apply Absolute Measures of Dispersion;
ii) Explore Relative Measures of Dispersion;
iii) Understand the importance of these measures in comparing the variability of data sets;
iv) Familiarize with the concept of moments in statistical distributions;
v) Learn about skewness and kurtosis as measures of distribution shape;
vi) Develop the ability to apply these concepts to real-world data.

5.2 Introduction

Nowadays, understanding the dispersion and shape of data distributions is as crucial as knowing their central tendency. This chapter, ‘Measures of Dispersion and Shape of Distribution,’ delves into the essential statistical tools that quantify the spread and shape of data sets. It covers key concepts such as range, variance, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis. These measures provide deeper insights into the consistency, reliability, and nature of business data, enabling professionals to make more nuanced and informed decisions. Through this chapter, readers will learn not just to describe data, but to understand the facts it tells about variability and distribution trends in a business context.

There are 3 types of systems for expressing the energy value of feeds and many examples have been depicted in each of these systems the world over, but here, one example has been taken up in each of these categories. [a] Digestive Nutrient Type: For example, Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) system: Digestibility coefficients of various organic nutrients like – carbohydrate, fat and protein are determined by digestibility trials, which can be involved for total digestible nutrients as a measure of nutritive value of feeds. Hence only faecal energy loss has been considered barring losses from other channels. Hence, roughages are overestimated by such calculations. Otherwise, this method is simple, economical and has some basis for animals to be fed on such standard. The TDN value is expressed in % age as following - % TDN = % digestible crude protein + % digestible crude fibre + % digestible nitrogen free extractives + [% digestible ether extract x 2.25]. where Nitrogen Free Extractives = 100 – [crude protein % + ether extract % + crude fibre % + ash %] on dry matter basis.
[b] Production value type: For example, Starch Equivalent (S.E.) system originated from Germany, hence followed in those areas of Europe and takes into account almost all the losses involved in digestion of feed. The method is based on Carbon – Nitrogen balance studies without the help of any costly equipment, but faced some criticism too. The animals were kept in big animal calorimeter, where different sources of energy losses could be determined to the best of their ability. When it was ensured that the ration on which the animals were neither gaining nor losing weight (by measuring the intake and outgo of both carbon and nitrogen), then pure starch, straw pulp, that is, cellulose, wheat gluten (protein) and oil were added to this diet and determined the carbon and nitrogen separately again. Feeds for productive purposes are measured in terms of starch values. S.E. = Weight of fat stored per unit of feed / weight of fat stored per unit of starch x 100. That is, amount of feed required to produce as much animal fat as is being produced by unit amount of starch, when fed in addition to maintenance. For example, if linseed cake has got SE of 75, which means that 100 kgs of linseed cake can produce as much fat as 75 kgs of pure starch, when fed in addition to maintenance ration.

Points to ponder
• Minerals are naturally formed substances in earth. They are typically solid, inorganic, have crystal structure formed by geological processesnaturally. They may consist of single chemical element or a  compound more usually. They are identified by these characteristics: colour, streak, hardness, hardness, luster, diaphaneity, specific gravity, cleavage, fracture, magnetism, solubility.
• Colour in minerals: Its result of brain’s interpretation of the dominant wavelength of light. “Minerals are coloured, because certain wavelengths of incident light are absorbed and the colour we perceive is produced by the remaining wavelengths that were not absorbed”. Some minerals are colourless.
• The mineral is an essential element which has a metabolic role in the body and if not provided in the diet, can cause deficiency symptoms, which can be prevented by adding that element to the diet. Animal body contains about 3% minerals, which are constant constituents of animal tissue.
• Classification is based on the amount required by the animals. Major elements are required in large amounts and are expressed in % age, whereas minor or trace elements are required in small amounts and hence expressed in parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb) or even parts per trillion (ppt) …. so on and so forth, depending on discovery of new trace element.
• They have following significant role in the cattle: health, production, reproduction, defense.

A spectrophotometer is an analytical instrument that measures the absorbance of a test sample (solution). The term “spectroscopy” comes from the word “spectrum”. “Spectroscopy” therefore implies the use of multiple wavelengths of light. Spectrophotometers have the ability to specifically measure absorbance at specific wavelengths. The most commonly used method to allow this involves a “monochromator”, a device (either a prism, or more commonly, a diffraction grating) that splits the incident light into its component wavelengths, and allows only light of the desired wavelength to reach the sample. The ability to measure absorbance at different wavelengths is very useful, because the extinction coefficient of a compound varies with wavelength. In addition, the absorbance spectrum of a compound can vary depending on the chemical composition of the compound, and depending on the nature of the solvent around the compound.

Absorbance is a useful quantity and follows the Beer-Lambert law. The extinction coefficient of a molecule at a given wavelength can be calculated using the Beer-Lambert equation from absorbance measurements for solutions of known concentration, which states that:

8.1 NEED FOR ANIMAL DISEASE FREQUENCY MEASURES

The very essence of veterinary epidemiology is to measure animal disease occurrence and to make comparisons between the animal population groups. The animal disease frequency measures help us to understand the distribution of diseases in animal populations. Hence, the principal role of veterinary epidemiology is to describe and explain differences in the distribution of animal diseases between the populations.

Measures of the disease frequencies are used to describe how common an illness is concerning the size of the population (the population at risk) at a particular point in time. The major reason for determining the morbidity is to assess the extent of a disease problem in a population. This assessment is possible only when the number of diseased animals is calculated and compared with the total number of animals in the population. A report of 10 cases of mastitis in a dairy herd does not indicate the true extent of the disease problem, unless the report also indicates the total number of dairy animals in the herd or population. Thus, it is important to relate the number of cases of a disease to the population at risk of developing that disease.

General Definitions

    1.    Colour : Colour is the name for all sensations arising from the activity of the retina of the eye and its nervous mechanisms, this activity being a specific response to radiant energy of certain wavelength and intensities. Colour is basically psychological and is not synonymous with wavelength.

    2.    Lambert’s law : Which states that the proportion of radiant energy absorbed by a substance is independent of the intensity of the incident light.

    3.    Beer’s law : Which states that the proportion light absorbed depends only on the total number of absorbing molecules through which it passes independently of their concentration.

    4.    Extinction : Extinction is the logarithmic ratio of the intensity of the incident light to that of the emergent light.

Introduction
Information Technology (IT) has emerged as a cornerstone of modern economic, social, and environmental systems, pivotal in driving innovation and sustainabilit across various sectors. As the world grapples with the urgency of achieving sustainable development, IT offers powerful tools to monitor, analyze, and optimize resource use, reduce environmental footprints, and promote social and economic equity. However, measuring the impact of IT on sustainability requires a nuanced understanding of its diverse contributions, challenges, and longterm consequences. It is essential to assess how IT can simultaneously support environmental conservation, economic growth, and social well-being, often called the three pillars of sustainability.

Meat and Meat Products

    1.    Meat can be defined as “the muscle tissue of slaughter animals”.
    2.    meat is composed of water, fat, protein, minerals and a small proportion of carbohydrate

• The proportion of bone varies depending on breed and body condition from 12 to 28% in the dressed carcase and approximately 15% in a good large ruminants carcase
• Bone percentage increases with the age and weight of the animal and it is lowest in Aberdeen Angus cattle and it may increase to 28% in low quality large ruminants
• The average bone % in bobby calves is 50%, veal calves 25%, in lamb 17–35%, in pork 12–20% and in poultry 8–17% Important parts of digestive system of meat animals Ox tongue
• Filiform papillae found on the tongue are pointing backward and horny and thus, helps in food prehension
• Actinobacillosis erodes the prominent posterior part of the tongue dorsum
• 10–14 circumvallate papillae are spread in the region of prominent dorsum around the either side of the tongue midline
• Black pigmentation of the tongue surface is fairly normal and not associated with any disease condition
Sheep and goat tongue
• Similar to cattle tongue
• However, papillae are not horny but the centre of the tip is slightly grooved
• Black pigmentation of the surface of the tongue is common in blackskinned sheep.

(Ref: 1997-2016 American Meat Science Association)
The methods used for cooking meat can be divided into two groups:
1. Dry heat methods
2. Moist heat methods

6.1 Introduction

The food industry produces large volumes of waste both solid and liquid, starting from the initial step of raw material to the final consumption of processed food. Apart from a loss of valuable biomass and nutrients, the generated waste poses increased disposal and potentially severe pollution problems. Meat and meat industry is no exception where slaughter houses, meat processors, wholesalers and rendering plant generates huge amount of waste [1, 2].

Meat and meat processing industry, is among the least profitable industries despite its immense size and large gross sales. Effective recovery and utilization of by-products and wastes is the lifeline of meat and poultry processing industry. Thus, it becomes imperative that an effort be made to reduce expenses by employing the use of new or modified processing methods and through in-plant treatment, where waste effluents and by-products could be recovered and often upgraded to useful products of higher value. Meat processing wastes have a potential for recycling raw materials or for conversion into useful products of higher value as by-product or even as raw material for other industries or for use as food or feed after biological treatment.

Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, liver, brain, bone marrow, kidney, or lung. Meat is a nutrient dense food. Meat contains protein, fat, enzymes, vitamins and minerals for proper human nutrition. Goats are important producer of meat besides milk, fiber and skin. Goat meat is lower in calories, total fat, saturated fat and cholesterol, than traditional meats.Goat have number of characteristics , such as high reproductive potential , short generation interval , ability to thrive on shrubs, bushes and tree leaves, high digestive efficiency for cellulose and less susceptibility to infectious diseases, that make them suitable as meat producing livestock. Since these animals are more concentrated in the developing part of the world, they play a major role in subsistence agriculture of developing economies of poor and marginal farmers inhabiting such countries. More than 95 % of goats are concentrated in dry tropical and subtropical areas of poor agricultural potential and even on marginal lands of the world (Morand Fehr and Boyazoglu, 1999). Goat has several other advantages as producer of meat which make it predominant and preferred animal for meat production. Often because of the above mentioned reason, goat meat is sold two to three times costlier as compared to pork in India. Beef is unavailable in India with the exception of Kerala and West Bengal. Goat meat has an edge over mutton too, as the number of goats slaughtered for meat purposes (40%) far exceeds the number of sheep slaughtered for similar purposes. The slaughter rate of goat is at the level of 39.7 % as compared to 31.8% for sheep and 11% for buffaloes, respectively. Sheep and goat meat are both called “mutton” in India. Goats convert the poor quality roughage, browse tree leaves, which would have otherwise gone waste, into valuable source of protein in several desert or hostile areas of the world where other classes of livestock like cattle and buffalo will starve to death. Goat meat production and consumption has an important place in the economy of Asian and African countries. Goats have been recognized as an important source of meat in the rural areas of these countries. Commercial meat-goat enterprises account for majority of the meat-goat production systems and herd sizes range from five to several thousand does. Prolificacy, milk production and pre-weaning growth are important in achieving good productivity of commercial meat production enterprises.

Abstract

The interest in the utilization of industrial by-products is increasing day by day and is major reason for exploring different meat, poultry and fish industry waste and optimization of extracting conditions of different valuable compounds. Utilization of these by-products in effective manner can be positive for meat industry economy as well as environmental pollution of the country. Besides the potential revenue losses, non-utilized or underutilized by-products accounts for the extra cost for their disposal. Meat producers are converting these by-products into value added edible and inedible form. Among the most prominent current uses of meat, poultry and fish waste are food ingredients, water treatment, cosmetic and personal care products, biogas/biodiesel, biomedical and pharmaceutical application. Several studies have dealt with the production of several value-added products such as gelatin, collagen, enzymes, specific proteins, bioactive peptides, chitin, chitosan, and pigments fro m the meat industries waste. Recently, in the food and pharmaceutical industry, an increasing number of new applications have been found for products generated from meat, poultry and fish industry waste; in different products as foaming agents, emulsifiers, biodegradable film-forming materials, colloid stabilizers, and microencapsulating agents, in line with the growing trend to replace synthetic agents with more natural ones.

INTRODUCTION

Meat is the flesh of animals that is used for food and consists of muscle, fat and bone. If the muscle which is commonly known as the lean meat, is examined under the microscope, it is seen to be made up of bundles of fibers held together by a thin membrane called connective tissue. Further study reveals that these fibers are in readily hollow tubes that vary in length in different animals and in different muscles in the same animals that are filled with a fluid, sometimes called muscle juice, which is known to contain protein, minerals and extractives. The forms of protein in the muscles are myosin (a globulin) and myogen (an albumen) and in addition, on red meats, hemoglobin.

All over the world, when people get richer their life style change and they consume more animal protein, especially meat. We may add value by good genetics and know how in farm and feed management. There would be huge demand for poultry products and meat in coming years in India as per capita income of middle class people is gradually increasing and for that production of meat and meat products is required to be increased to meet the demand. Meat of goat, buffalo chicken are generally sold in India. Marketing of meat and meat products, chicken and poultry products such as eggs are the main challenges for the new farmers as there is no ready market in India. Recently there is huge demand of Chicken in Northern India. The initial problem faced by farmers is getting the special chicken feed for the different age groups. There is no well equipped dedicated slaughter house available in every city. New technology for animal slaughter is required so that all parts of animal are used properly without losing valuable protein. The idea should be to use innovated technology to optimize the profits in the chain.

This procedure allows us to mix two feed stuffs with different nutrient concentrations and come up with a mixture of the desired total concentration. For this square to work, the desired diet nutrient concentration must be between the nutrient concentrations of the two feed stuffs as well as in the same unit. The procedure can be used for Crude Protein, Energy, Minerals and so on and so forth.Also, in place of percentage, calories, parts per million/ billion / trillion and other units of measurement can be used.

Double Pearson Square Method

Sometimes, we might want to have the exact amounts of two major nutrients such as - Crude Protein and Energy.

For example, suppose we want a final mixture with 12 % Crude Protein (CP) and 74 % Total Digestible Nutrient (T.D.N.). We have :

5.1 Introduction

Phosphorus fertilization is a problem in acid soils due to the high fixation characteristics of these soils. Soluble phosphorus carriers such as triple super phosphate tend to get reverted into insoluble and slowly soluble forms, for e.g. iron and aluminium phosphates.  Some soils in Mauritius have been shown to fix up to 90% of applied phosphorus. The fixation characteristics as related to soil properties have been studied for some soils of Mauritius. Rock phosphate offers a good alternative or complement to triple super phosphate.  In volcanic soils of Chile it is recommended to apply rock phosphate in combination with triple super phosphate because of the high phosphorus-retention capacity of these soils.  However, in Western Australia it has been shown that rock phosphate response is low. Possible explanations are slow dissolution of rock phosphate due to the moderately acid pH (5.5 -6.5), low pH-buffering capacity, low calcium absorption in soil, which increases concentration of calcium in soil solution, and poor water holding capacity of these soils.

The biofilm formation is usually assayed by using Congo Red Agar (CRA) plate test. According to a method developed by Freeman et al., (1989) the isolates are stored in nutrient agar slants and screened for biofilm formation ability using CRA plates. Biofilm forming strains are observed as dark black colonies while others as red colonies on the CRA plates. Recently, the concept of these biofims have changed with new imaging technologies, biochemical methods and molecular ecosystem biology tools. A biofilm structure can be observed in 3-D form to the nano-scale level (Neu and Lawrence, 2015). A lot of studies are being conducted on the physiology of the biofilm cells, the genotypic and phenotypic variation among the biofilm community, as well as the biofilm metabolome, proteome and transcriptome (Raes and Bork, 2008). This will help in the the development of efficient methods to control deleterious biofilms (clinical biofilms, food contaminants, biofouling on industrial equipment and on ship hulls) and to enhance and modulate beneficial ones

Q1. Resistance in tetracycline is due to mutational changes in

1. Tet A gene
2. Kat G
3. Par C par E
4. Inh A

Q2. Single step mutation can be seen in

1. Erythromycin
2. Tetracycline
3. Chloramphenicol
4. Rifampicin

Q3. Multistep mutation is observed in

1. Streptomycin
2. Rifampicin
3. Both A and C
4. Tetracycline

The lack of mechanistic understanding of probiotic activity is a major drawback for the prediction of safety of probiotic intervention. The complex gut-associated microbial ecosystem and nutritionally related factors are the most important environmental triggers for the development and modification of chronic degenerative diseases including immune and metabolic pathologies. In fact, the interaction between the gut microbial ecosystem and the host is considered to be a critical factor in overall health or disease. Whether probiotics will exert protective, harmful, immune-stimulating or immune-suppressing effects on a host is dependent on the interaction between the microbial signals, the genetic make-up of the host and the effects by the environment. Many studies have revealed that certain probiotic bacteria stimulate immune cell proliferation and activity as evidenced by the production of cytokines and antibodies, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the immune response against pathogens. Ng et al. (2009)

ABSTRACT

The antagonistic organisms are known to bring out action on the pathogen by various mechanisms. Based on in vitro screening of epiphytic microbes from cocoa pod surface against Phytophthora palmivora, the incitant of pod rot of cocoa, a promising isolate of Trichoderma viride and two isolates of Pseudomonas fluorescens were selected. The mechanisms of antagonistic action of these selected epiphytic antagonists against P. palmivora were studied in comparison with the standard cultures of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens. The selected epiphytic fungal antagonist T. viride and standard culture of T. harzianum were found to be efficient parasites of P. palmivora. The hyphae of the pathogen were seen tightly held by coiling with hyphae of the fungal antagonists. The hyphae of the antagonists penetrated the host hyphae at several points and grew to its inner cavity. The fungal antagonists also caused disintegration of the pathogen hyphae, besides free intermingling, which resulted in malformation of host hyphae. The ability of the two epiphytic P. fluorescens isolates and standard culture of P. fluorescens in producing HCN and siderophores was assessed. It was found that these isolates produced HCN and siderophores in appreciable levels thereby suppressing the P. palmivora. Though, more than one mechanism may operate in suppressing the pathogen, the relative importance of a particular mechanism may vary with different conditions, which needed to be further investigated.

Mechanism of Bioinputs explains the biological processes through which beneficial microorganisms and other bioinputs influence plants, pathogens, and agricultural ecosystems. The chapter examines direct and indirect plant-growth-promoting mechanisms of rhizobacteria, mycorrhizal fungi, endophytes, and biocontrol microbes. It also covers entomopathogenic bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses, and the modes of action of microbial and botanical biopesticides, predators, parasitoids, and semiochemicals. Environmental factors, microbial variability, pathogen interactions, and relationships with other organisms are considered as influences on biocontrol performance. The chapter therefore connects biological mechanisms with practical application, helping readers understand why particular bioinputs work under specific agricultural conditions. across varied farming conditions.

As discussed in previous chapters, the damage to the plants due to frost occurs as a result of frost-induced freezing and not merely because of the low temperature exposure. The cells of sensitive plant species get injured when the temperature drops below a critical level. When the damage caused is associated with sub-zero temperature, it is called freezing injury. And, when it is caused due to a temperature above 00 C, it is called chilling injury.

Various types of cropping systems are practiced in a farm or region. They should be evaluated to find out their stability and relative advantages in yield. Again, comparisons may be made with reference to land use efficiency, biological potential and economics. Following are the important indices for assessment of competition and yield advantage:

1. Relative yield total (RYT): The oldest establishment measure of the yield advantage of crop mixtures is the Relative Yield Total. The RYT index was designed as a measure of the extent to which various crop components shared common resources, rather than as a direct measure of yield advantage.

Hybrid technology is one of the options to boost crop productivity. Hybrids give more yield than improved varieties under optimum crop production conditions. Further, uniform size, earliness, better adaptability to adverse environments, better transportability due to better keeping quality and resistance to stresses are certain additional advantages of growing hybrids with better monetary return to the growers. Hence in coming years, hybrid technology has to go a long way in our country to meet the future challenges (Kalloo et al., 2000). Thus, it is pertinent to have an overview of the methods of the hybrid seed production technology. Various methods are as follows:

ABSTRACT

Heavy metal contaminated soils are biologically inactive and extremely poor in soil fertility status. These metals are highly resistant and cannot be easily degraded by either chemical reactions or amendments. Microorganisms are biological softwares capable of degrading the metals efficiently. Among microorganisms, mycorrhizas are known to circumvent metal toxicities through a series of processes that assist in immobilization in biological systems which converts toxic metals into less or nontoxic forms. There are five mechanisms such as biosorption, solubilization, hyphal transport, detoxification and dilution are involved in promoting tolerance of host plants to heavy metal toxicities. These processes are strategies that can be exploited to phytoremediate the contaminated soils. The phytoremediation strategies encompass tolerance of mycorrhizal fungi, phytostabilization (preventing entry of heavy metals into plants), phytoextraction (luxuriant uptake and transport to shoots) and intercropping or crop rotation with mycorrhizal dependent hyperaccumulators or non-hyperaccumulators. Despite mycorrhizas are natural, the indigenous population is not sufficient enough to induce tolerance of host plants to abiotic and biotic stress conditions. This necessitates adopting recommended agronomic practices to promote mycorrhizal colonization in natural agro-ecosystem or to derive full benefits from phytoremediation strategies. Thus mycorrhizas are important naturally occurring microorganisms capable of withstanding highly contaminated metal sites and offer protection against phytotoxicities caused by heavy metals.

Introduction
The advent of antibiotics, beginning with penicillin in 1941, transformed medicine by rendering bacterial infections treatable [1]. However, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a profound threat, enabling bacteria to survive in the presence of drugs designed to inhibit or kill them and these are rooted in ancient microbial ecosystems evidenced by resistome genes in 30,000-year-old permafrost [2]. AMR has been exacerbated by human practices: approximately 50% of antibiotic prescriptions are inappropriate, 70% of global antibiotics fuel agriculture, and environmental pollution creates resistance hotspots [1]. By 2025, AMR directly causes 1.3 million deaths annually, with economic losses projected at $100 trillion by 2050 [1]. Priority pathogens, including carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and colistin-resistant strains via mcr-1, challenge last-resort therapies, particularly in low-resource settings [3]. This chapter delivers a technically extraordinary exploration of AMR, structured into genetic, biochemical, and evolutionary mechanisms, each elaborated with molecular precision and step-by-step clarity for learners. Genetic alterations provide the DNA-level foundation, biochemical pathways execute molecular defenses, and evolutionary forces drive adaptation and dissemination. It ensures scientific rigor and broad appeal for students, researchers, clinicians, and policymakers.
Historical Context and Global Burden
AMR emerged shortly after antibiotics’ introduction, with penicillin-resistant S. aureus identified by 1942 due to ß-lactamase production [1]. The 1960s

Biofertilizers improve the plant growth due to changes in the microbial community of rhizosphere by production of several substances. Normally, biofertilizers promote plant growth either by facilitating nutrient absorption or by secretion of plant hormones. Biofertilizers also cause inhibitory effects by acting as biocontrol agents on various pathogens so that the growth of plant is enhanced. The mode of action could be either direct or indirect methods