eChapters

Q. 1 Which type of gully is formed on flat land?
(A) U-shaped  (B) V-shaped
(C) L-shaped   (D) T-shaped

Q. 1 Fore sight is also known as
(A) Positive sight            (B) Minus sight
(C) Intermediate sight     (D) Vertical sight

Q. 1 Psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of which properties
of air
(A) Chemical        (B) Aerodynamic
(C) Hygroscopic   (D) Thermodynamic

Q. 1 LSU dryer was developed at
(A) London State University       (B) Ludhiana State University
(C) Lucknow State University     (D) Lusiana State University

Q. 1 Which of the following is not a type of grinder ?
(A) Attrition mill      (B) Burr mill
(C) Hammer mill     (D) Solvent extraction mill

Q. 1 The high moisture grain should be kept in
(A) Air tight structure     (B) Aerated structure
(C) Pucca kothi             (D) Gunny bags in closed room

Q. 1 Unit of refrigeration is:-
(A) Quintal    (B) Gram
(C) kg            (D) Ton

Q. 1 The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm milk by
one degree celsius in comparison to water is
(A) 85 %     (B) 93 %
(C) 107 %    (D) 100 %

Q. 1 Froude number is the ratio between
(A) Inertia force to viscous forces (B) Inertia force to gravity force
(C) Inertia force to shear force      (D) Gravity force to inertia force

Q. 1 Choose the most appropriate word from the options given below to complete the following sentence:
His rather casual remarks on politics ………. his lack of seriousness about the subject.
(A) Masked        (B) Belied
(C) Betrayed       (D) Suppressed

Q. 1 An ellipsoidal object has three axes measuring 40 cm, 20 cm and 20 cm respectively. The volume of the object is
(A) 4.23 liters       (B) 8.38 liters
(C) 12.63 liters     (D) 17.05 liters

Q. 1 The question below consists of a pair of related words followed by four pairs of words. Select the pair that best expresses the relation in the original pair. 

Unemployed : Worker
(A) Fallow : land     (B) Unaware : sleeper
(C) Wit : jester        (D) Renovated : house

Q. 1 In building material RCC stands for
(A) Revised cost calculation
(B) Revised construction cost
(C) Reinforced central construction
(D) Reinforced cement concrete

Soil testing identifies various constraints in soil that limit crop production. Fertilizer recommendation and soil management practices to be adopted are based on the soil test report. Soil testing starts with collection of soil samples from the field
and ends with interpretation of soil test results leading to necessary recommendations for increasing crop production.

Aim of the Experiment: The composite soil samples, collected, are air-dried and processed before analysis in the laboratory.

Soil texture is the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in soil by weight. As per the classification of the inorganic soil particle by the International Society of Soil Science, diameters of the sand, silt and clay particles vary from 2 to 0.02 mm, 0.02 to 0.002 mm and less than 0.002 mm, respectively. There are 3 broad textural groups i.e sand, loam and clay and each broad textural group is subdivided into different textural classes depending upon the proportion of sand, silt and clay.

Pore space or porosity : Porosity is an index of the relative pore volume in the soil or volume fraction of pores. Its value generally lies in the range of 0.3-0.36 (30-60%). Coarse textured soils tend to be less porus than fine textured soil, though the mean size of individual pores is greater in the former than in the latter. The total porosity, in any case, reveals nothing about the pore size distribution which itself is an important property.

Primary particles tend to adhere under natural condition so as to form secondary unit called aggregates. It is very difficult to determine the diameter of the individual aggregated particle. So the mean weight diameter is calculated as a single value constant, which indicate the wetted average value for a group of aggregates.

The soil water plays an important role in the physical, chemical and biological activities taken place in the soil which directly or indirectly affects the crop growth. The water content of the soil can be measured by different methods. These methods are gravimetric method, neutron scattering method and electrical resistance method.

Field capacity may be defined as the amount of water held in soil after excess water has drained away and the rate of downward movement of water was materially decreased which usually taken place within two to three days after heavy rain or irrigation. In this condition water was moved out of the macropores and air has moved into take its place. 

Infiltration is the entry of a fluid from one medium into another. Soil water plays an important role in nature. The entry of rain or irrigation water into soil is called infiltration. Infiltration rate is defined as the amount of water entering into a soil per unit area per unit time under one atmospheric pressure. The infiltration rate depends upon initial moisture content of soil, condition of soil surface and permeability of various layers.

The maximum water holding capacity is the amount of water, expressed as percentage on oven dry basis held by a soil when it is completely saturated with water. At this moisture content, all the pore spaces are completely filled with water.

Determination of soil texture mainly depends on the complete dispersion of soil aggregates into their individual primary particles without triturating the particles themselves, accurate fractionation of the sample into various separates, sedimentation of different particles in the viscous medium as well as measurement of individual particle by the hydrometer.

Atomic weight of an element is defined as the relative average weight of its atom as compared to the weight of an atom of C12 (stable isotope) taken as 12 on the a.m.u. (atomic mass unit) scale.

Electrical conductivity of the soil is the quantity of electricity in coulombs that passes per second per cm3 of the soil solution under an applied potential difference of 1 volt. It is written as EC in abbreviated form and is expressed in millimohs cm-1 or dS m-1 (deciSiemen m-1). Current flows in the soil solution due to presence of soluble salts like Cl- , SO2- 4 and NO3 - of Na+, K+ Ca++ and Mg++. These salts fully dissociate in water to their constituent cations and anions and the current is carried by those cations anions in the soil solution.

In the detection of soil organic carbon a known weight of soil is heated with an excess volume of standard K2 Cr2 O7 in the presence of Con. H2 SO4 . The soil is slowly digested at the low temperature by the heat of dilution of H2 SO4 and the organic carbon in the soil is thus oxidized to CO2 . The highest temperature attained by the heat of dilution reaction produced with the addition of Con. H2 SO4 is approximately 12o C which is sufficient to oxidize the active forms of the soil organic carbon but not the more inert forms of carbon that may be present.

The lime requirement (LR) of an acid soil is the amount of lime needed to neutralize the acidity from an initial condition to some target soil pH, like 7.0. Different methods are used to calculate a LR for specific soils. Lime requirement tests will always recommend adding enough lime to neutralize all the acidity associated with soil pH, much of the salt-replaceable acidity, and some of the residual acidity.

The statement is still valid as long as it is understood that in an aqueous solution the substances involved are subject to dissociation, which changes the ionization state of the substances. 

The Kjeldahl method is mainly divided into three main steps. This method needs to be carried out in proper sequence. 

In Bray’s method a mixture of ammonium fluoride and hydrochloric acid (NH4F + HCl) act as the extracting agent. It works in two ways, firstly, the hydrogen ions from HCl have a solubilising effect, especially on Ca-P, which makes phosphate get extracted. Secondly, the fluoride ions (from ammonium fluoride) complex with the Al3+ and Fe3+ ions, thereby releasing the Al and Fe bound phosphorous into the extract.

Olsen P were found to bear a quadratic relationship, with Olsen’s extractant underestimating the content in phytoavailable P of soils with high Olsen P contents relatively to soils with low contents. The ‘‘change point’’ at which phytoavailable P began to increase rapidly per unit change in Olsen P was 53 mg Olsen P kg–1 soil. For the acid soils, a significant quadratic relationship was found between the amount of P desorbed to water and Olsen P at the three soil:solution ratios studied.

Potassium is extracted from the soil with the help of suitable extractant CH3COONH4 by shacking followed by filtration or centrifugation & is determined in the extract using flame photometer. The analysis photometer is based on the measurement of the intensity of characteristic lime emission given by the element to be determined .

Reagents

• Buffer solution : Dissolve 67.5 g of Ammo. Chloride in 200 ml distilled water. Add 570 ml Ammonium solution. The volume make up to 1 ltr.

• EBT : 0.2 g in 25 ml methanol.

Soil is shaken with 0.15 % CaCl2 solution. Chloride ions displace adsorbed sulphate during extraction. Calcium ions suppress the extraction of soil organic matter and hence eliminate the contamination caused by extractable organic S.

Soil is shaken with 0.15 % CaCl2 solution. Chloride ions displace adsorbed sulphate during extraction. Calcium ions suppress the extraction of soil organic matter and hence eliminate the contamination caused by extractable organic S.

Diethylene tetramine penta acetic acid (DTPA) being a chelating agent is used in the determination of available Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn. When the soil is shaken with a solution of DTPA, it combines with metal ions in the solution and form soluble complexes of Fe++, Mn++, Cu++ and Zn++. The CaCl2 and triethanolamine (TEA) solution slightly raise and buffer the soil pH and mitigates the effect of Ca++ and Mg++.

Procedure

• Take 1 g soil in a 50 ml beaker

• Add 25 ml 1M KCL solution 

Take 1 g phenolpathalin powder in a 100 ml volumetric flask. Then add volume up to 100 ml by ethanol (Ethyl alcohol).

Digestion Mixure : This is a mixture of two salt. That is potassium sulfate and cupper sulfate with 9:1 ratio (90 g Potassium sulfate + 10 g Copper sulphate).

100 ppm ‘P’ : By dissolving oven dry KH2 PO4 salt. Take 0.4393 gm of KH2 PO4 and volume to 1 ltr that gives 100 ppm ‘P’.

Take 5 ml/2.5 ml aliquot in a 25 ml volumetric flask.

6.25 HNO3 (for 2 ltr) : Take 181 ml of conc HNO3 and diluted to 2 ltr in a volumetric flask.

Aim : To determine the Calcium in plant sample.

Aim : To determine the Magnesium in plant sample.

Soil is the most fundamental resource to fulfill basic requirements of food, fiber and shelter of human race. Although soil is perceived as something of insignificant value and it is considered as dirt but humans cannot survive without soil. Soil forms
basis for all terrestrial life. Soil provides a wide range of ecosystem services (Table 1) that make humankind to survive and progress.

Soil genesis, or pedogenesis, is the combined effect of physical, chemical, biological and anthropogenic processes working on soil parent material (rocks & minerals). Soil is said to be formed when organic matter has accumulated and colloids are washed downward, leaving deposits of clay, humus, iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum, producing a distinct layers. These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity.

Soil physics is the study of soil’s physical properties and processes. Soil physics deals with the dynamics of physical soil components and their phases as solid, liquids, and gases. Physical properties of soil include texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour and water content. The physical properties depend on the amount, size, shape and arrangement and mineral composition of its particles , kind and amount of organic matter and the volume and form of its pores and the way they are occupied by water, air at a particular time.

Soil Chemistry is the study of chemical composition of soil in relation to crop needs. It deals with the chemical constitution of the soil, the chemical properties and the chemical reactions in soils. Traditional soil chemistry focuses on chemical and biochemical reactions in soils that influence nutrient availability for plant growth, and potential environmental consequences associated with inorganic and organic fertilization. Soil chemistry has increasingly focused on soil genesis and the environment over the past few decades.

Soil minerals are naturally formed inorganic compounds with definite chemical composition and characteristic geometric (crystalline) form. They are classified as primary and secondary minerals, silicates and non-silicates minerals, and crystalline and non-crystalline minerals. Primary minerals have not been significantly altered chemically since deposition or crystallization from molten magma and are usually found in the sand and coarse silt fractions. Secondary minerals form as a result of the alteration of primary minerals by weathering and are found in the clay and fine silt fractions.

Soil organic matter is any material produced originally by living organisms (plant or animal) that is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition process. At any given time, it consists of a range of materials from the intact original tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed mixture of materials known as humus. Soil organic matter (SOM) is the organic component of soil, consisting of three primary parts including plant residues and living soil organisms, decomposing (active) organic matter, and stable organic matter (humus). Most soil organic matter originates from plant tissue.