eChapters

Study of living organisms in soil is referred to as soil biology (Greek word bios= life, logos = study). The soil is teeming with millions of living organisms which make it a living and a dynamic system.

Soil degradation is defined as a decrement in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries. Degraded soils have a deteriorated health status such, that they do not provide the normal goods and services of the particular soil in its ecosystem. Soil degradation is the physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality.

The soils which owe characteristics that they cannot be economically used for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as problematic soils. Different kinds of problematic soils viz., Physical, chemical and biological problematic soils exists and pose problems of crop production.

Soil fertility is defined as the quality that enables the soil to provide proper nutrient compounds in proper amounts and in proper balance for the growth of specified plants. Soil fertility is also defined as the ability of soil to supply adequately the nutrients normally taken from the soil by plants.

The word “Manure” is originated from the French word “Manoeuvrer” which refers to “work with soil”. The word Manure is also originate from Latin word “Manu” (hand) and operate (to work). Manures are the substances which are organic in nature, capable of supplying plant nutrients in available form, bulky in nature having low analytical value and having no definite composition and most of them are obtained from animal and plant waste products. Formerly, the word in use was “Dung ”in English (at present fertilizer).

Soil is a dynamic, vital living natural resource. Soil health is the condition of the soil and its potential to sustain biological functions, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health. It is qualitative trait of soil. Healthy soil is the foundation for profitable, productive, and environment friendly agricultural systems.

Soil pollution is defined as presence of xenobiotics (e.g. chemical compounds, radioactive elements) that alters the soil properties viz., both chemical, physical and biological properties of soil. Soil pollution, including heavy metals, may be of natural origin, like volcanic eruptions, atmospheric lightning, animal excrements or ore leaching. Nevertheless, human activity and mostly chemical industry, mining and metallurgy, as well as municipal waste management and traffic emissions are the main source of environmental pollution.

Geographic location of India is in Northern hemisphers and located between 80 4' & 370 6' N latitude and 640 7' & 970 25' E longitude. Extent of area is 329 M Ha or 329 x 104 Sq.Km or 3.29 MSq.Km. The physiography of India can be broadly grouped into triangular plateau, mountains, Indo-gangetic plains and islands. India is divided into twenty agro ecological regions and sixty five agro ecological sub regions as per NBSS and LUP. Agro ecological regions( AER) is referred to identification and demarcation of land units having comparable landform, soils, bioclimatic conditions and the length of growing period (LGP).

Water required for irrigation of cropped land is being degraded in terms of quantity and quality due to fast increasing demand for its use. Furthermore, the soil quality and crop productivity is linked to the quality of the water available for irrigation. In general, evaluation of irrigation water quality should focus on salt content, sodium concentration, the occurrence of nutrients and trace elements, alkalinity, acidity, and hardness of the water.

Abelia grandifolia Villarreal (Caprifoliaceae): Eng.- Glossy Abelia; Kash.– Abeel [NI]. A vigorous, arching, medium sized semi-evergreen shrub commonly grown in gardens for hedging. Leaves ovate, short petioled, entire, dark glossy-green. Flowers born in axillary cymes and terminal panicles, slightly fragrant, produced over a long period from June to October; sepals 2-5; corolla funnel form, white tinged pale- pink.

Barbarea vulgaris var. taurica (DC) Hook. f. & Anders. (syn. Barbarea vulgaris R. Br.) (Brassicaceae): [W]. A herb of damp soils inhabiting water bodies. Flowers yellow. Leaves used for healing of frost bites.

Cajanus cajan ( L ) Millsp. (Fabaceae): Eng.- Pigeon Pea / Cajan Pea; Hindi – Arhar; Kash.- Lokut Chana [RC]. An annual erect herb, stem woody, leaves trifoliate. Flowers yellowish diffuse red, borne in axillary racemes. Pods flattish with fawn brown coloured seeds having light yellow cotyledons. The pulse has been lately introduced and is under marginal cultivation.

Dactylis glomerata L (syn. Bromus glomeratus (L.) Scop. (Poaceae): Eng.- Orchard Grass; Kash.- Dramun [W]. Perennial bunch grass,usually in dense shaded forest areas. A very important pasture and hay grass of temperate grasslands. Culms glabrous, erect. Inflorescences are erect panicles bearing spikelets in dense one sided clusters.

Echeveria derenbergii DC (Crussulaceae): Eng.- Painted Lady [NI]. A succulent house plant and green house perennial grown for its succulent coloured leaves which are arranged in rosettes. The orange coloured flowers appear in July on raised stem branches

Fagopyrum acutatum (Lehm.) Mansf. ex Hammer (syn. Fagopyrum cymosum (Trev.) Meissn (Polygonaceae): Eng.- Medicinal Buckwheat / Perennial Buckwheat; Hindi – Kutu; Kash.- Tsok Hakh [RC]. A tall branched, puberulous annual growing wild in Drasss, Kargil, Gurez areas at 2800 to 3300 m amsl. Leaves tri-angular; perianth white. Grains acutely 3- cornered.

Gagea lutea (L) Ker Gawl (syn. Gagea elegans Wall ex G Don.): (Liliaceae): Kash.- Koker neeje [W]. A bulbous perennial herb inhabiting open subalpine slopes and forming groups. Leaves narrowly lanceolate. Basal leaf single, angular flat, exceeds the inflorescence, lanceolate linear, longitudinally furrowed at base. Flowers solitary on long pedicles, tepals yellow.

Halerpestes tricuspis (Maxim.) Hand maz. (Ranunculaceae): LadakhiChitaka [W] Annual herb of alpine zone of above 3500 m altitudes. Whole plant used as stomachic and for gastrointestinal problems.

Iberis amara L. (Brassicaceae): Eng.- Candy Tuft [NI]. Half hardy annual ornamental herb. Leaves light green, lanceolate. Flowers borne in corymbs of light fragrant flowers, ranging in colour from white through pink to red purple.

Jaeschkea oligosperma Knobl. (Gentianaceae): Ladakhi- Tikta [W]. Annual herb, along scrubby alpine slopes of Ladakh. Leaves lanceolate, blunt. Flowers bluish to reddish purple. The plant is consumed raw as blood purifier.

Kerria japonica var. pleniflora Witte. (Rosaceae): Eng.- Jew’s Mallow / Japanese Rose [NI]. A deciduous ornamental shrub with vigorous and upright green shoots; alternate, ovate, pointed, sharply toothed, bright green leaves; produces very attractive, solitary, pompon like, double yellow flowers in April.

Laburnum anagyroides Med. (Fabaceae): Eng.- Golden Rain Tree [NI]. An upright, small sized ornamental tree with hairy, grey-green young shoots. Leaves dark- green above and grey-green beneath, having 3-elliptic-obovate leaflets. In late April to early May, produces bright yellow flowers in dense racemes

Magnolia aquilfolium (Pursh.) Nutt. cv. Orange Flame (Magnoliaceae) [NI]. An open suckering erect shrub. Leaves ovate to elliptic, spinytoothed, leaflets dark-green changing in colors during seasons. Flowers are yellow borne in densely clustered racemes in late March to mid April.

Nandina domestica Thunb. (Berberidaceae): Eng.- Chinese Sacred Bamboo [NI]. An evergreen or semi-evergreen ornamental shrub with upright shoots. Leaves mostly bi-to tripinnate, rich green purple on fall. Flowers star shaped, white with large yellow anthers, in erect panicles followed by long lasting, spherical bright red fruit.

Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae): Eng.- Sweet Basil; Hindi- Ban tulsi; Kash.-Baber [RC]. A cultivated aromatic herb grown for its seed. Flowers showy, light blue, fragrant. Leaves used for flavouring purposes. Seeds used for preparing refreshing drinks/ sharbats.

Paeonia emodi Royle. (Paeoniaceae): Eng.- Himalayan Paeony; HindiUdsalap; Kash.- Mamekh [W]. A shurby perennial, found in W. Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumoan at 2400- 3300 m altitudes. Flowers yellowish white with a bunch of orange-yellow stamens.

Quercus baloot Griffith (Fagaceae): Eng.- Holy Oak; Kash.- Jamal Gota/ Baloote Kashmir [W/UC]. A small rounded evergreen tree. Leaves are coriaceous, oblong-ovate to lance shaped, entire or with spiny -toothed margins. Acorns oblong-ovoid to nearly rounded, solitary or in groups of 2 or 3. Grows as a hard wood element of forests. Also grown as ornamental.

Rabdosia rugosa (Wallich ex Benth.) Hara (Lamiaceae): [W]. An erect branched leafy shrub or under-shrub growing as high altitude shrub above 2000 m altitudes on alpine slopes.Leaves ovate, wrinkled, hairy, coarsely toothed, conspicuously grey-woolly beneath, in contrast to green wrinkled upper surface. Flowers tiny, fragrant, white, spotted with purple. Shrub is of great significance for honey bee colonies.

Sagittaria sagittifolia L. (Alismataceae):Eng.- Old World Arrow Head; Hindi- Chotakut; Kash.- Kyou [W]. Perennial herb inhabiting shallow water ponds, swampy rice fields. Leaves arrow shaped. Flowers have small sepals and three white petals, numerous purple stamens.Tubers edible (Figs. S 1, 2).

Tagetes erecta L. (syn. Tagetes patula L.) (Asteraceae): Eng.- French Marigold; Hindi- Genda / Gule jafre; Kash.- Jaffre / Bata poshe [NI]. A herbaceous annual, naturalized in N W Himalayas and grown for border as well as bedding plant. Both double and single forms are cultivated. Double forms are golden yellow and carnation like

Ulmus parvifolia Jacq. (Ulmaceae): Eng. – Chinese Elm; Ladakhi Shampoo Tree / Yumbuk [W]. A small to medium deciduous tree growing upto 12 m tall, across the region as a temperate woody element. Leaves leathery, toothed and lustrous green. Trunk has a handsome, flaking bark of mottled greys with tans and reds. Also used as a landscape tree. In Ladakh the bark of the plant used as shampoo to promote hair growth.

Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert. (Syn. Saponaria vaccaria L.) (Caryophyllaceae): Eng.- Cow Soapwort/ Cow Basil [W]. Annual herb,as weed of orchards.Plant has blue-grey, waxy herbage and pale pink flowers. Used traditionally to relieve body swellings.

Waldhemia glabra (Decne.) Regel. (Asteraceae): Eng.- Smooth Ground Daisy [W] A tufted mat forming, aromatic high altitude plant of drier areas of Kashmir Himalaya at 4000-5000 m altitudes. Leaves wedge shaped and bluntly 3-5 lobed, occur in rosettes. Flower heads solitary on stems, pink to purple ray florets, disc florets yellow. Whole plant used for rheumatism.

Xanthium strumarium L. (Asteraceae): Eng.- Common Cocklebur; Kash.- Tcheere [W]. An annual herb usually inhabiting disturbed soils. Leaves simple, alternate. Flower heads are borne in leaf axils and have disc florets only.

Youngia tenuifolia (Willd.) Babc. & Stebb. (Asteraceae): Ladakhi– Neu [W]. A perennial herb of high altitude cold arid areas.

Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng. (syn. Calla aethiopica L.) (Araceae): Eng.- Arum Lily; Hindi – Iram sousan [NI]. A rhizomatous perennial, suitably planted in moist and shaddy situations and under green house conditions.

German Prof. Peter Laurenberg conceived first the word horticulture. The term “Horticulture” is known in written form first in seventeenth century in a book entitled “New World of Words” by Phillips.

Horticulture has emerged as one of the potential agricultural enterprises in accelerating the growth of economy in India. It offers not only a wide range of options to the farmers for crop diversification, but also provides ample scope for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate huge employment opportunities. Horticulture has been evolving in form of horticulture industry in our country owing to its significant role in nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation.

The Horticultural crops are majorly classified on the basis of its consumption and uses as fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops. Moreover, these crops have been further classified into various groups on the basis of their habitat, growth pattern, edapho-climatic requirements and uses

A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. 

A nursery is a place, where seedling, saplings, trees, shrubs, and other plant materials are grown and maintained until they are placed in a permanent place.

Plant Propagation is a technique through which multiplication or production of new individuals take place from selected propagules.

Layout means the way by which something is arranged or laid out. The purpose of designing a layout for an rchard is to assign the actual position for trees/ plantations, roads, water channels, buildings etc. The layout should be planned very carefully and implemented properly to facilitate proper care and maintenance of an orchard.

The fruit trees are grown for optimum production of quality fruits that fulfill our requirement. Therefore, proper care and management of trees is mandatory to manipulate plant growth and plant environment. Training and pruning are important operations that provide not only the proper framework to the tree but also the favourable environment leading to desired plant growth and reduction in disease and pest attack.

The high density planting (HDP) in fruit crops is one of the new concepts of increasing the productivity without affecting the quality of fruits. The concept of high density planting was pioneered in temperate fruits in Europe at the end of 1960, since then there is rise in establishment of commercial high density orchards throughout the world. Initially HDP was followed mostly in temperate fruits e.g., apple.

Irrigation is one facet of the inputs which need to be carefully managed so that profits are maximized. Irrigation plays a major role in any agriculture crop production. One should be aware of different types of irrigation adapted in orchards or crop cultivation to become a successful grower. Irrigation is very important component of crop cultivation as sufficient moisture must be maintained in the soil for obtaining the optimum growth and good quality yield. The aim of irrigating a plant should be to wet the entire root zone without allowing any wastage of water beyond the root zone.

Fertilizer is a substance of natural or synthetic origin, applied to soils or to plant tissues (usually leaves) for the supply of one or more nutrients essential to the plant. It is classified in two types, inorganic fertilizers and organic fertilizers. Both the fertilizers play major role to the crops if they are properly and appropriately applied.

Juvenility is referred to the phase of plant growth following germination from seed during which flowering does not occur and the bud meristem is not competent to respond to seasonal environmental inductive cues, and hence plant remains vegetative. The changes from juvenile to mature characteristics are well known as phase changes phenomenon. Plants are unable to initiate flowering after germination and have to undergo in a juvenile developmental phase.

The world ‘‘Unfruitfulness’’ means a state or character of being unfruitful or barrenness. It is a vital constraint in so many fruit crops leading to a great loss to the farming community. In contrary, ‘Fruitfulness’ is the state where a fruit plant is not only having the ability of flowering and fruiting, but also carry on these fruits up to maturity. The inability of the plant to do so is known as ‘unfruitfulness’ or ‘barrenness’. 

Fruits and vegetables account for nearly 90% of total horticulture production in the country. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world and the leader in several horticultural crops namely Mango, Banana, Papaya, Cashewnut, Arecanut, Potato and Okra. However, the nature of horticultural crops being such that it’s not easy to make assessment of their production. These crops, especially vegetables are grown in small plots, fields or in the backyard of the houses;

The horticultural produce includes fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops and spices. However, fruits and vegetables are the most consumed and important commodity among them. Morphologically and physiologically, the fruits and vegetables are highly variable and may come from a root, stem, leaf, immature or fully mature and ripe fruits. They have variable shelf life and require different suitable conditions during marketing.