eChapters

Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in grey matter it is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglial, oligodendroglial and astrocytes. Microglial cells surround the necrotic neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.

Pathology of Endocrine System

Pathology of Hypothalamus

The lesions in hypothalamus may cause diabetes insipidus characterized by polydipsia and polyuria with low specific gravity of urine. It occurs due to deficiency of antidiuretic hormone vasopressin.

Etiology/ Occurrence

• Lesions in hypothalamus and/or pituitary.

• Adenoma and adenocarcinoma of pituitary.

• Necrosis of hypothalamic nuclei due to larval migration.

All hybrids and varieties perform better under conventional farming in response to excess use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which are harmful to humans, animals and environment. Hence, there is a need to develop varieties/hybrids exclusively for organic farming. Breeding aspects of organic farming include breeding tools/methods which are used to breed varieties/hybrids including testing and multiplication under organic conditions duly following the principles of organic farming as defined by IFOAM. These cultivars should have high nutrient use efficiency, resistance to diseases and pests, competitive ability against weeds, higher yield and stability across environments along with enhanced nutritional quality. This book chapter briefly discusses the aspects of breeding that are involved in generating cultivars suitable for organic farming.

1. Introduction

Currently, organic farmers rely heavily on conventionally developed and produced varieties. Nevertheless, in order to optimize their production under organic agriculture, it is necessary to develop cultivars that are more suitable for organic cultivation. According to some studies, the naturalness of organic agriculture should go beyond simply by avoiding chemical inputs and substituting natural and organic components during the transition from conventional to organic farming.

1. Introduction

In India, though organic crop production and certification system is reasonably well established in India, the organic livestock and poultry sector is in its budding stage. Organizations such as APEDA, FSSAI and BIS along with research establishments like ICAR- National Meat Research Institute are now putting serious efforts to establish the protocols and promote organic livestock production and certification in India. As a result, in the last few years, livestock farmers are gradually getting encouraged to take up organic production and around 3000 farmers mostly from Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh have taken up organic dairy, sheep and poultry farming. Export of organic milk and ghee from India to different countries has just begun and is expected to grow very fast in volumes and revenues in the years to come.

A thorough examination of relevant literature is crucial in any scientific investigation and research. Apart from identifying previous work conducted in the problem area or the specific field of study, the primary function of a literature review is to provide insights into the methods and procedures used, while also establishing a foundation for interpreting the findings. A literature review involves a comprehensive and critical assessment of prior research, offering a summary and overview of a particular research area. This allows readers to understand why the current research program is being pursued. A well-executed literature review delves into the reasons behind selecting a specific research question, integrating and evaluating previous studies, and demonstrating how they relate to the proposed research program. It is important to present all sides of the argument in a clear manner to avoid bias, while also highlighting areas of agreement and disagreement among the existing literature.

In this chapter, we have attempted to provide a concise overview of various studies and writings related to migration. This overview serves to enhance our understanding of the significance and purpose of our current research. Some relevant reviews have been categorized and presented under the following sub headings:

The research methodology is a comprehensive plan and guide that outlines the process of conducting a study. The purpose of this chapter is to provide readers with a clear understanding of the concepts, approaches, and techniques employed in designing a study, collecting data, analyzing it, and interpreting the findings to establish validity and develop theories. For better comprehension, the entire chapter has been divided into the following subsections:

i. Research location

ii. Sampling strategy

iii. Pilot study

iv. The variables and their measures

v. Data collecting strategies

Climate change is exerting profound effects on global agriculture, posing significant challenges to food security, agricultural productivity, and rural livelihoods. This article explores the intricate relationship between climate change and agriculture, examining how changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events impact crop yields, livestock, and farming practices. It delves into the economic, social, and environmental repercussions of these changes, highlighting vulnerable regions and populations. The article also discusses adaptation and mitigation strategies, emphasizing the roles of technology, policy, and sustainable agricultural practices in building resilience. By understanding the multifaceted impact of climate change on agriculture, we can develop comprehensive approaches to ensure food security and sustainable development in an increasingly unpredictable climate.

Organic farming represents a return to traditional agricultural practices that emphasize sustainability, environmental stewardship, and health. This article explores the principles and practices of organic farming, its historical context, and its benefits and challenges. By examining case studies and the global impact of organic agriculture, this comprehensive discussion highlights how organic farming contributes to soil health, biodiversity, and food security while addressing consumer demands for healthier food and environmental protection. It also considers future directions and innovations in organic farming, emphasizing its role in building a sustainable and resilient food system

The global food supply chain is a complex system that encompasses all stages of food production, processing, distribution, and consumption. This article provides an in-depth exploration of the journey food takes from farms to tables worldwide. It examines the various components of the supply chain, including agricultural production, food processing, logistics, retail, and consumption. The article also addresses key challenges such as food security, sustainability, and safety, and discusses the impact of globalization and technological advancements. Through case studies and examples, the article highlights the interconnected nature of the food supply chain and emphasizes the importance of cooperation among stakeholders to ensure a resilient and sustainable global food system.

Agricultural policies shape the landscape of farming and food production globally. They encompass a range of interventions by governments to influence agricultural practices, food security, trade, and rural development. This article delves into the various types of agricultural policies, their historical context, and their socio-economic and environmental implications. It examines case studies from different regions to highlight the diverse approaches and outcomes of these policies. Additionally, the article discusses the challenges and opportunities in formulating and implementing effective agricultural policies, particularly in the face of global issues such as climate change, food insecurity, and market volatility. By understanding the impact of agricultural policies, stakeholders can better navigate the complexities of the agricultural sector and promote sustainable development.

The economics of modern farming is a dynamic and complex field, reflecting the intricate interplay between technological advancements, market forces, policy frameworks, and environmental considerations. This article explores the multifaceted economic dimensions of contemporary agriculture, including production costs, market structures, supply chain dynamics, and the impact of government policies. It examines how modern farming practices, such as precision agriculture and biotechnology, influence productivity and profitability. The article also delves into the challenges and opportunities faced by farmers in today's globalized economy, emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and resilience to climate change. By understanding the economic principles underlying modern farming, stakeholders can better navigate the evolving agricultural landscape and promote a more sustainable and profitable farming sector.

Agroecology is an integrated approach to farming that seeks to harmonize agricultural practices with ecological principles. It emphasizes biodiversity, sustainability, and the health of ecosystems, advocating for farming systems that work with nature rather than against it. This article explores the principles and practices of agroecology, its historical roots, and its contemporary applications. It examines the benefits and challenges of adopting agroecological methods, including case studies from various regions. The article also discusses the policy and social dimensions of agroecology, highlighting the role of community participation, knowledge sharing, and supportive policies in promoting agroecological transitions. By understanding and implementing agroecology, farmers and stakeholders can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient agricultural future.

Agribusiness and entrepreneurship in the 21st century are evolving rapidly due to technological advancements, changing consumer preferences, and the increasing focus on sustainability. This article delves into the dynamic landscape of modern agribusiness, examining the innovations driving growth and the challenges that entrepreneurs face. It explores key trends such as digital agriculture, sustainable practices, and value chain integration, highlighting the role of startups and established companies in transforming the industry. The article also addresses the economic, social, and environmental impacts of agribusiness and provides insights into the future of agricultural entrepreneurship. By understanding these developments, stakeholders can better navigate the complexities of the contemporary agricultural sector and capitalize on emerging opportunities.

Copyright is a legal entitlement granted to creators of literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works, as well as producers of cinematographic films and sound recordings. This legal right encompasses various privileges, including the reproduction, adaptation, translation, and communication to the public of the work. The composition of these rights may vary slightly, depending on the nature of the work. Along with Intellectual Property (IP), Copyright is a legal concept that safeguards the rights of creators and inventors. Copyright confers upon creators the exclusive legal right to reproduce, distribute, and exhibit their work, while IP comprises other legal rights such as patents, trademarks, and trade secrets. Copyright applies to a diverse range of creative works, including literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works, as well as sound recordings and cinematographic films. Piracy is a worldwide issue that adversely affects various content industries, such as software, television, recording, and movies.

Copyright and IP laws play a crucial role in promoting creativity and innovation by safeguarding the rights of creators and inventors. These laws grant exclusive rights to creators and inventors, allowing them to financially benefit from their work. This encourages investment in research and development, leading to the creation of new ideas, products, and services. Without copyright and IP protection, creators and inventors may be discouraged from investing their time and resources into creating new works, resulting in a decline in innovation and economic growth. These laws also protect consumers by ensuring that they receive original, high-quality products and services instead of counterfeit or low-quality imitations.

Biotechnology is a field of science that applies technology to living organisms, cells, and their molecular components, to develop products and services that improve human life. Biotechnology covers a wide range of applications, from agriculture and food production to medicine and healthcare, environmental management, and industrial biotechnology. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are legal rights that protect the creations of the human mind, such as inventions, literary and artistic works, symbols, and designs. In the context of biotechnology, IPRs are critical to incentivize research and development, protect the fruits of scientific discoveries, and ensure that the inventors and investors of biotechnological inventions can benefit financially from their investment.

The importance of protecting biotechnological inventions lies in the fact that these inventions can be expensive and time-consuming to develop, and may require significant financial resources bring to market. Without appropriate legal protection, biotechnological inventions may be vulnerable to unauthorized use, duplication, and exploitation by third parties, leading to reduced incentives for research and development and potential loss of economic benefits for inventors and investors.

Introduction

Biodiversity conservation and sustainable use are critical for maintaining the health and well-being of the Earth and all its inhabitants. Biodiversity provides essential ecosystem services, resources, and cultural values, and is under threat from various human activities. Conservation and sustainable use are necessary for preserving biodiversity and ensuring a sustainable future, and require the participation and collaboration of all stakeholders.

The protection and restoration of biodiversity are complex challenges that require a multidisciplinary approach and a commitment to sustainability. This includes addressing the underlying drivers of biodiversity loss, promoting sustainable land-use practices, protecting ecosystems and wildlife, and engaging in education and awareness-raising activities. By working together to conserve and sustainably use of biodiversity, we can ensure a healthy planet for future generations.

Although after independence, the use of hybrid and composite seeds of various crops, especially of rice and wheat resulted in an increase in the Indian agricultural output leading to “Green Revolution”. This Green Revolution came to fore during the late “Nineteen Hundred and Sixty”. In fact, during the era of “Green Revolution”, introduction of high yielding varieties of rice and wheat crops were grown which responded to more use of fertilizers, pesticides as well as water.

There is no doubt that “Green Revolution” made the country-India, self- sufficient in food grains production, particularly of rice and wheat. As a matter of fact, the “Green Revolution” created a buffer stock at times exceeding to 60 million tonnes, which made the nation or the country very proud (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009). However, continuous use of chemical fertilizers as well as inorganic pesticides and totally neglect of organic manures and botanical pesticides prepared from various plant species like Neem (Azadirachta indica) and Drek (Melia azedarach) for controlling of insects came totally to stand still. So very soon, the deleterious or ill effects of the “Green Revolution” the so called the chemical-based farming or “Industrial agriculture,” came to fore, which briefly stand discussed below

History

The history of organic farming is largely based upon the history of organic movement which came to fore as a reaction against the large-scale use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. This movement can be traced back to England during 1920, when individuals started speaking against a variety of agricultural “innovation”.

One of the earlier pioneers of Organic Farming, Sir Albert Howard, is often referred to as the father of the modern “Organic Farming”. He began to work as a British botanist and served as an agriculture advisor in India, where he observed traditional Indian farming practices and came to respect them as superior to his conventional agriculture science. He documented and developed these organic farming practices/methods. His writings and notably the 1940 book, An Agricultural Testament, have influenced many scientists and farmers of the day.

In Germany Dr. Rudolf Steiner developed biodynamic agriculture which was probably the first comprehensive farming system. In America, the agronomist F.H. King had toured China, Korea and Japan in early 1990s, closely studied the fertilization, tillage and general farming practices being followed there. He published his findings in his book Farmers of Forty Centuries (1911). King probably did not impart any view himself as part of the movement, whether Organic Farming movement or by some other name. However, in the later years, some scientists within the organic farming movement thought, about what King had encountered in Asia as kindred approach.

Pulses are an important source of proteins. One hundred grams of pulses contain about 25-32 grams of proteins and several amino acids which are not made by the human body (Sidhu, 2015). These are the staple food both for vegetarians and non-vegetarians of the country. India is not only the largest consumer of the pulses in the world but it is also the largest producer and importer. The global production of pulses is about 70 million tonnes, of which India’s share is around 25 percent.

The consumption of pulses is historically part and parcel of Indian culture. However, over a period of time, the availability of pulses has declined from69 gram per capita per day in 1961 to 51 gram in 1971 and 38grams in 1981. Marginally it arose to 42 gram in 1991 which already declined to 30 gram in 2001. The National Food Security Mission (NFSM) was started by the union Government for pulses during 2007. It did not result in a significant increase in the output because pulses are grown only in 16 per cent area which is irrigated. The area under cultivation for pulses varied from 23 million hectare in 2009- 2010 and 26 million hectares 2021-2022 and production was14.6 mt. to 28.9 mt. At present the availability of pulses is about 42 g per capita per day.

Research methodology is a way of explaining how a researcher intends to carry out their research. It’s a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem. A methodology details a researcher’s approach to the research to ensure reliable, valid results that address their aims and objectives. It encompasses what data they’re going to collect and where from, as well as how it’s being collected and analyzed. The deliberation on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods and techniques which are utilized to design the study, collection of information, analysis of data and interpretation of the f indings for the revelation of truths and formulation of theories. This chapter deals with the method and procedure used in the study and consists of eight main parts

• Locale of research

• Pilot study.

• Sampling Design.

• Empirical measurement of the Independent and Dependent variable

• Preparation of interview Schedule.

7.1. Summary

The present research had been carried out to study the social ecology of arsenic contamination in groundwater; factors, perception and impact on life and livelihood of the selected village of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at village Mitrapur in the Haringhata block of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 70 respondents from the village were selected for the study through a non-random snowball sampling method. The primary data were collected with the help of a structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

Three types of Issues are Covered in this Study

• The influence of social, cultural, and/or economic variables on how drinking water poisoned with arsenic affects people’s life, notably their health (for example socio-economic patterns of illness and social),

• Social factors influencing people’s response: especially in relation to other priorities, perceptions of arsenic, and social roles and relationships.

Seeding /Sowing

Seeding is the process of planting seeds in soil to grow crops, plants, or grass. It is a fundamental step in the cultivation of plants and is essential for agricultural production, landscaping, and reforestation. The goal of seeding is to establish and promote the growth of desirable plants, allowing them to germinate, develop, and eventually mature into a full-grown plant, tree, or crop.

The process of seeding typically involves placing seeds at a specific depth in the soil, providing the necessary conditions for germination (such as water, light, and temperature), and ensuring proper spacing between seeds to allow for healthy plant growth. The choice of seeding method and the timing of seeding can vary depending on the type of plant or crop being grown and the specific environmental conditions of the planting area.

Seeding can be done manually by hand; using specialized seeding tools and equipment, or through mechanized methods, such as using tractors and seed drills for larger agricultural operations. The success of seeding is crucial for the establishment of healthy and productive plants, making it a critical step in agriculture and horticulture.

Plant protection equipment, often referred to as PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) for agricultural or horticultural activities, includes various gear and clothing designed to protect individuals from potential hazards while working with plants, pesticides, or other agricultural materials. These items are crucial to ensure the safety and well-being of workers in the agricultural and horticultural industries. Common types of plant protection equipment:

1. Protective Clothing

Coveralls or suits to shield the body from pesticides, chemicals, and other substances.

Long-sleeved shirts and pants to minimize skin exposure.

Gloves to protect the hands from contact with pesticides, thorns, or other hazards.Safety goggles or face shields to safeguard the eyes.

2. Footwear Sturdy,

closed-toe boots or shoes to protect the feet from potential injuries and exposure to pesticides and plant debris.

Harvesting is the process of gathering mature crops from the fields. The timing of the harvest is crucial, as it directly affects the quality and yield of the crop.

Here are Some key Aspects Related to Harvesting Crops

Maturity: Crops need to be harvested when they reach their optimal level of maturity. This varies depending on the type of crop. For example, fruits and vegetables are usually harvested when they are fully ripened, while grains are typically harvested when they reach physiological maturity but before they start to shatter or lose quality.

Methods of Harvesting

Manual Harvesting: In some cases, crops are still harvested by hand. This is common for fruits, vegetables, and certain grains. Manual harvesting requires a significant amount of labor but is often necessary for delicate crops.

Pumps play a critical role in irrigation systems by providing the necessary force to move water from its source (such as a well, river, or reservoir) to the f ields where crops are grown. The selection and proper operation of irrigation pumps are crucial for the efficiency and success of agricultural practices. Here’s a detailed overview of pumps used in irrigation:

Types of Irrigation Pumps

Centrifugal Pumps

Principle of Operation: Centrifugal pumps are the most common type used in irrigation. They work by converting mechanical energy into kinetic energy in the form of fluid flow. Water enters the pump through the center (eye) of a rotating impeller and is accelerated outward.

Human migration involves the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new geographical location. The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration, within a single country, is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form of human migration globally. Migration is often associated with better human capital at both individual and household level, and with better access to migration networks. Age is also important for both work and non-work migration. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups. There are four major forms of migration: invasion, conquest, colonization and emigration/immigration.

Persons moving from their home due to forced displacement, such as a natural disaster or civil disturbance, may be described as displaced persons or, if remaining in the home country, internally-displaced persons. A person who seeks refuge in another country can, if the reason for Annual Net Migration Rate 2015–2020. Prediction by UN in 2019.leaving the home country is political, religious, or another form of persecution, make a formal application to that country where refuge is sought and is then usually described as an asylum seeker. If this application is successful this person's legal status becomes that of a refugee.

The deliberation on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods and techniques which are utilized to design the study, collection of information, analysis of data and interpretation of the findings for revelation of truths and formulation of theories. These chapter deals with the method and a procedure used in the study an consist of eight main parts-

A. Locale of research.

B. Pilot study.

C. Sampling Design.

D. Empirical measurement of the variables.

The systematic identification, evaluation, and integration of the body of published work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners is achieved through a rigorous and repeatable method called the review of the literature. It acts as a comprehensive resource, incorporating the most recent information, important discoveries, and theoretical breakthroughs linked to a certain field. The literature review is a useful compilation of important discoveries as well as methodological and theoretical contributions within a certain topic that is frequently seen in academic and scholarly journals.

In all academic areas, the review of literature is a crucial component of research. Its main goal is to assess, evaluate, and make links between our findings and previous research on a particular subject of interest. In addition, the literature review acts as a point of reference and offers helpful insights in the following ways:

i. Approaches

ii. Methods

iii. Variables

Genetic improvement of farm animal species is accelerating in developed countries with adoption of Genomic selection (GS) due to availability of complete reference genome sequence i.e. gene sequences that can be used to compare and study animal genetic traits. GS has been considered most promising for genetic improvement of the complex traits controlled by many genes (Quantitative traits) each with minor effects as using the conventional methods of selection and breeding the rate of genetic gain per generation is very slow with respect to human demand for livestock products. With this method, animals or plants can be selected for selective breeding on the basis of their genetic merit predicted by whole genome molecular markers spanning over the entire genome. Genomic selection may allow the identification of superior individuals for traits such as increased disease resistance which are not currently considered in animal breeding plans because of technical difficulties. The method can predict the genetic merit of young bulls with greater accuracy as compared to convention methods of genetic merit estimation. Genetic gain (ΔG) in animal breeding programs depends upon the intensity of selection (i), accuracy of predictions (r), genetic variance (σ2g) and generation interval (IG): ΔG = i * r * σ2g / IG (Ibañez Escriche & Gonzalez-Recio, 2011).

Introduction

Due to global population growth, rising wages, and urbanisation, the demand for animal products has been expanding quickly in many areas of the world (FAO, 2018). Meeting the rising demand for animal products, which is expected to reach 8.6 billion by 2030 (FAO, 2018) as the world’s population is projected to increase by 80 million per year (Preisinger, 2012), is one of the biggest difficulties facing modern farm animal industry (Eggen, 2012). Animal products and value-added foods are being consumed as a result of urbanisation and income growth (Hoffmann, 2005; FAO, 2011). By 2050, the world’s population will be close to 10 billion, even as the economic conditions continue to improve the demand for animal products will significantly rise. In order to boost animal production, it will be necessary to acquire a more in-depth understanding of animal biology through genomics and other related f ields of study. Understanding animal physiology remains a significant problem in the context of sustainable agriculture and animal husbandry, particularly for developing animal farming systems that cater to the new and diversified consumer demand. Livestock and poultry productivity has been greatly increased through traditional selection based on genetic merit estimated from phenotypic and pedigree data. Most breeding plans do not take population impacts on genetic diversity into consideration, and selection is geared more towards the best genetic response for the upcoming generation than the best long-term response (Meuwissen, 1997). Breeders have employed genetic analyses to find superior animals for more than 40 years.

The overall number of animals kept as livestock in India comes to 535.78 million, making it the country with the greatest livestock population. According to the 20th Livestock Census, India has a total bovine population of 302.79 Million. This includes Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun, and Yak. There are a total of 109.85 million buffaloes living in the country. The number of goats in the country currently stands at 148.88, while the total number of sheep in the country is 74.26 Million. Most of the breeds in India have evolved naturally through adaptation to varied agro-ecological conditions and have generally been named after their place of origin or on the basis of prominent morphological characteristics. The number of registered breeds in India has increased over time. Majority of livestock breeds are reared by smallholder farmers are of non-descript type. Indiscriminate crossbreeding is extensively occurs resulting in herds of females that may have very complex ancestries.

Artificial intelligence (AI) uses multiple technologies that equip machines to sense, comprehend, plan, act, and learn with human-like levels of intelligence. Fundamentally, AI systems perceive environments, recognize objects, contribute to decision making, solve complex problems, learn from past experiences, and imitate patterns. AI technologies such as deep learning allow computer systems to understand a problem, learn from examples, and make predictions.

The AI has a tremendous potential to solve the diverse application problems in the field of domestic animal breeding and management. Till date, most of the studies have been focused on animal behaviour (Valletta, et al., 2017), cognition (Lake et al., 2017), animal welfare (Neethirajan, 2021), individual identification (Norouzzadeh et al., 2018), growth or body condition scoring (Zin et al., 2020), disease detection and its monitoring (Kumar et al., 2021), precision farm management (Radun et al., 2021) etc. particularly in the pigs, poultry and cattle species. These AI based applications primarily involves data generation, data processing, use of gadgets / IoT devices, development of smart machine learning algorithms and their integration to attain precision to solve various issues in animal husbandry. Having said that, very few works have been carried out with respect to applications of AI in domestic animal breeding, and major problems like breed identification, genomics- based animal selection criteria and breeding decision, are yet to be automated. Moreover, there are some bottlenecks in application of AI in animal breeding, like the lower accuracy of a decision/outcome and large cost involved in creating AI based infrastructure.

Energy is essential for each and every single biological reaction in the body of an individual. Production, reproduction and physiological functions of an animal depend on its body state and utilization of energy from dietary source and its body reserves. Energy reserves are determined primarily by the relative amount of fat accessible as an energy source and are indicative of health condition. Adipose tissue (AT) is a primary reservoir of energy and recognized as an immunologically and endocrinologically active tissue. Cattle have the ability to utilize body reserve to meet energy demand due to negative energy balance during peripartum period, which is crucial for maintaining their health lactation and neonates. There are several methods to measure tissue reserves like body weight, metabolic and hormonal factors, respiratory calorimeter body water by dilution with D2 O, estimation of fat cells diameter, ultrasound techniques etc. Body weight is not a good indicator as it is affected by different factors such as; age, parity, gestation, body frame, gastrointestinal contents weight of vital organs and shows a greater variation in measuring fat stores. Other methods are inapplicable in field conditions as they are costly, time consuming and need laboratory facilities and skilled technicians. However Body Condition Score (BCS) is an easier and the most practical method, which is an assessment of thickness of fat cover, prominence of bone of tail and head region.

India is bestowed with a wide variety of livestock species which forms the backbone of the economy of majority of the farmers. Cattle are one of the important species domesticated by man mainly for their draftability in agricultural operations. Rearing of cattle is an integral part of the Indian agriculture as it is always considered as a subsidiary enterprise of the agriculture farming. The indigenous cattle are well known for their adaptability to the harsh tropical climatic conditions, ability to thrive in the resource poor production systems, better feed efficiency and disease resistance. Barring few dairy breeds, majority of the Indigenous cattle breeds are poor in their genetic potential for milk production. Considering the ever increasing demand from milk , the country has implemented many cattle improvement programmes like Central Herd Registration Scheme (CHRS), Intensive Cattle Development Programme (ICDP), All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Cattle National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development (NPBBD), National Livestock Mission, National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB), Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM) etc., for improving the milk productivity of cattle.

The term “artificial intelligence” (AI) refers to a wide variety of theories and technologies that are used to the resolution of issues characterized by a high level of logical or algorithmic complexity. It cuts across a wide range of f ields, such as mechanical modeling, software engineering, data science, and statistics. Many artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, which first appeared in the 1950s, have lately been refined or extended thanks to advances in computer performance. Recent advancements have been made possible by the creation of interfaces between artificial intelligence and other fields of study, such as biomedicine, and by the collection of enormous amounts of data from a variety of fields, notably those related with the healthcare industry. First, Artificial intelligence helps with situational awareness, which is relevant in animal health and animal husbandry because it allows for the detection of patterns like repeated sequences of observations, forms like a protein, and signals like increased mortality especially in comparison to a baseline at various scales. A third option is computer-based decision making, or more practically, human decision support via knowledge - based systems, diagnostic support, and resource allocation, for instance.

Introduction

In recent years, the convergence of digital technologies has ushered in a new era of industrial transformation known as Industry 4.0, characterized by the fusion of physical, digital, and biological systems. While much attention has been focused on its implications for urban industries and global supply chains, the potential of Industry 4.0 to reshape rural economies remains relatively unexplored. This paper seeks to address this gap by examining how Industry 4.0 technologies can optimize supply chains in rural contexts, with a focus on the unique challenges and opportunities present in rural India.

Rural economies play a crucial role in the socio-economic fabric of nations, particularly in countries like India, where a significant portion of the population resides in rural areas. According to the World Bank, over 65% of India’s population lives in rural regions, where agriculture remains the primary source of livelihood for millions (World Bank, 2020). However, rural communities in India face a myriad of challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, limited access to markets, and low levels of technological adoption. These challenges not only impede economic growth but also contribute to disparities in income, education, and healthcare between rural and urban areas.

Introduction

In the dynamic realm of contemporary work environments, the psychological contract has emerged as a cornerstone concept, influencing the fabric of employee-employer relationships and organizational dynamics. While traditional employment agreements delineate formal terms and conditions, the psychological contract encapsulates the implicit understanding between individuals and their employers regarding mutual expectations, obligations, and entitlements. This symbiotic agreement, rooted in perceptions and beliefs rather than written documentation, shapes the essence of the employment relationship, impacting employee engagement, organizational commitment, and overall workplace satisfaction.

The significance of the psychological contract has become increasingly pronounced in recent years, propelled by a confluence of factors such as rapid technological advancements, demographic shifts, and evolving socio economic trends. In this era of unprecedented change, the nature of work itself has undergone a metamorphosis, with traditional notions of employment giving way to flexible arrangements, remote work options, and gig economy platforms. Consequently, the traditional employer-employee dynamic has evolved, necessitating a deeper understanding of the implicit expectations and reciprocal obligations that underpin modern work relationships.

Introduction

The 21st century has witnessed unprecedented changes in the global job mar ket, driven by technological innovation, globalization, and evolving industry needs. As traditional job roles become obsolete and new ones emerge, skill development has become paramount for both individuals and organizations. This paper explores the concept, importance, key elements, methodologied and challenges in skill development.

Objectives of the study

This study carried on the basis of following objectives

1. To study the concept of Skill Development.

2. To know the Importance of Skill Development.

3. To know Key elements of Skill Development.

4. To know Methodologies of Skill Development.

5. To know Challenges in Skill Development.

Introduction

Stocks from different firms can be traded and listed on the stock market. In addition, the stock market evaluates listed firms based on their worth, effectiveness, profitability, and capability. Anybody can trade shares on the stock market, which is an open global market. GDP is the total amount of profit produced in a country over a given period. To develop products and services in a country to a plausible degree, it is helpful to measure the monetary policy of completed goods and services that are acquired for a single end consumer. It comprises all earnings generated inside a country’s borders. The GDP of any nation may be used to determine the size and state of that nation’s economy. GDP is a measure of a nation’s total production and performance and is used as a gauge of economic health. Strong GDP growth frequently signals more consumer spending, corporate profitability, and company expansion, all of which are positive indicators of optimistic mood in the stock market. On the other hand, a slow GDP growth rate might undermine investor confidence and cause stock values to decline.

Introduction

The term "artificial intelligence" was originally coined in 1956 at a conference hosted by Dartmouth College. While the aspirations and dreams of the attendees were sky-high, the reality was sobering. The thought of citizens in space or self-driving cars within a decade was ancient science fiction. The building blocks of the required computing infrastructure, as well as AI, notably deep learning and statistical machine learning methods, were not even in the distant future. The aim was to create an artificial brain for a machine, where the "brain" is the so-called "expert system", a software program that can integrate a large knowledge base and use it to solve problems in the same manner that a human expert could. The intellectual merits and achievements of a few AI systems designed solely to narrowly excel in a specific problem became the actual problem of the nascent field.

Introduction

In the last decade, digitalization has transformed every aspect of life and society, changing almost every area of our day-to day lives. Not just that; the rate of change that is happening is astonishing and only going to accelerate further. From the way, we work and communicate to how we organize our lives, digital tools and technologies are everywhere including the veterinary sector. Veterinarians are recognizing the need to depart “the analog island” and increasingly willing to embrace digital solutions. Undoubtedly, digitalization is crucial when it comes to boosting efficiency and quality in veterinary medicine and delivery of animal healthcare to masses across various geographies and resource poor setups. Uniquely these digital tools helps vets also to focus on the needs of patients and animal owners.

Introduction

Canine atopic dermatitis (CAD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease marked by itching (pruritus), redness (erythema), and recurrent infections. While traditionally considered an immune-mediated condition, recent studies highlight the significant role of skin barrier dysfunction in its development. A key aspect of CAD is the compromised skin barrier, which increases permeability to allergens, irritants, and microorganisms, thereby worsening the disease. The skin barrier is a complex, dynamic structure essential for protecting dogs from environmental challenges. The stratum corneum—the outermost layer of the epidermis—serves as a crucial defense against environmental insults, allergens, and pathogens. In dogs with atopic dermatitis, this barrier often becomes impaired, leading to increased transepidermal water loss (TEWL), greater allergen penetration, and secondary infections. This dysfunction both results from and contributes to the condition, creating a self-perpetuating cycle of barrier disruption, inflammation, and immune dysregulation.

Introduction

Mithun (Bos frontalis), or ‘Gayal’ or ‘Eso’ or ‘Sial’ or ‘Sandong’ or ‘Wei’, is a rare bovine species, exclusively found in the northeastern hill region (NEHR) of India at an altitude of 300-3000 m. It plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of indigenous tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur and is aptly referred to as the ‘Pride of Northeast India’ (Mukherjee et al. 2019). Besides India, mithun population is distributed to China, Bangladesh, Thailand, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Malaysia. The Indian mithun is a medium- to large-sized majestic ruminant with a characteristic jet-black body, an ash-colored forehead, and ‘white stockings’ on all the limbs. This unique animal has a special preference for salt feeding, is a skilled browser even in steep, hilly terrain, and does not need pasture land like cattle. Mithun is primarily reared under a free range system as an important source of lean meat, rich in amino acids, proteins, PUFA, etc. On September 1, 2023, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) officially certified the mithun as a food animal (Joshi et al., 2021; Lalchamliani et al., 2024; Ramesh et al., 2024). Compared to milk from other species, mithun milk has much larger quantities of fat, lactose, solids-not fat (SNF), calcium, important vitamins A, D, and E, essential amino acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (Devi et al., 2023).

Introduction

Avian medicine is a rapidly growing field, with an increasing number of exotic bird species being kept as pets. However, the unique anatomy, physiology, and behaviour of these birds present several challenges as well as new opportunities for veterinarians and researchers.Now a day’s birds are gaining popularity over dogs and cats because of various reasons listed below:

a. They are more suited in present life style as can be suited well in small spaces.

b. They require low maintenance with relative low cost of maintenance and live longer life.

c. They form very strong bonds with their owners.

Birds can be classified into different families, such as Psittaciformes, Passeriformes, Columbiformes, Piciformes, Anseriformes, Galliformes etc. containing numerous species (>10,000). The first documentation of parrot as a pet was found in Rig Veda, written more than 3000 years ago. Evidence of bird keeping is observed in ancient civilizations of Greece, Rome, China and Egypt. In Greek mythology, Raven (a crow) was mentioned as a symbol of good luck and was associated with God Apollo (God of prophecy). Crows are also considered as ancestors in Hindu mythology and food (pinda) is offered to crows during ritual of paying homage to dead persons. In most of the countries psittacine and passerine birds are preferred as pet birds.

By 2050, the global population is projected to reach approximately 9.8 billion, requiring a 70% increase in food production to meet the growing dietary demands. The livestock sector will play a crucial role in addressing this rising need through sustainable animal production, contributing to food security, poverty alleviation, public health, and food safety. To tackle the challenges posed by population growth and to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), technological advancements and innovations will be essential in transforming the food and agriculture sectors.

In light of these challenges, Veterinary Services are more critical than ever. They are essential for enhancing livestock health and productivity, ensuring high-quality food that meets safety standards, and mitigating risks associated with animal diseases and public health. Additionally, Veterinary Services must contribute to global efforts in addressing issues such as food security, antimicrobial resistance, climate change, and the depletion of natural resources.

Oil palm is a major source of edible oil globally and plays a crucial role in meeting the dietary needs of millions of people. India has been focusing on expanding oil palm cultivation to reduce its dependence on imported edible oils. Oil palm can yield high oil compared to other vegetable oils. Palm oil production rate depends on post-harvest handling, and milling and extraction processes. After harvesting, some quality changes occur in oil palm fresh fruit bunches which leads to reduce the oil quantity and quality. With proper handling of post-harvest bunches and adapting best extraction methods can increase the oil yield and quality. Palm oil alone has the potential to make India sustainable in edible oil production.

Introduction

Oil palm (Elaesis guineensis Jacq.) originated in the tropical rain forest of western Africa and is now being cultivated in more than 45 countries around the world especially tropical regions i.e., Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria, Columbia, and Ghana. This crop was introduced in India during the early 1990s, to meet the demand and to attain sustainable edible oil production in India due to its high oil-yielding capacity compared to other vegetable oil crops. It produces two distinct oils, i.e., palm oil and palm kernel oil. Palm oil is derived from fleshy mesocarp of the fruit and palm kernel oil obtained from the kernel of stony seed.

1. Introduction

Cattle are one of the important livestock species of the country which forms an integral part of Indian agriculture since ages. Human progress depends on the utilisation of animals and natural resources in a balanced way. Cow, in particular, is considered as a part of the family in India. Cattle have been of the utmost importance for the sustenance of agriculture, nutrition supply and religious practices in India. Frequent references on cattle farming are found in Indian mythological books and historical writings regarding their utilization in agriculture as draught power, milk production and source of manure. Approximately 200 million Indians are involved in livestock farming, including around 100 million dairy farmers. Roughly 80% of bovines in the country are low on productivity and are reared by small and marginal farmers. Most of the local cows are managed on a low input and low output system for production of milk for the household nutritional requirement and sale surplus milk to dairy co-operatives or local milk sellers. Poor genetic makeup of Indian livestock is the main reason for their lower productivity as compared to the recorded potential of animals in temperate climate. With the change in food consumption pattern due to urbanization, increase in health awareness, reduced requirement of draught animal power due to mechanisation, etc., the demand for milk and milk products have increased many folds.

Introduction

Biofortification, also known as biological fortification, involves enhancing the nutritional content of food crops to improve bioavailability for the human population. This is achieved through the use of modern biotechnological techniques, conventional plant breeding, and agronomic practices. Unlike our current agricultural system, which primarily focuses on increasing grain yield and crop productivity, biofortification addresses the nutritional needs of the human population. The prevailing approach has led to a rapid increase in micronutrient deficiency in food grains, contributing to higher rates of micronutrient malnutrition among consumers. Biofortification presents a one-time investment that offers a cost-effective, long-term, and sustainable solution to combat hidden hunger (Sow and Ranjan, 2021a). Once biofortified crops are developed, there are no ongoing costs associated with purchasing fortificants and adding them to the food supply during processing. Agronomic biofortification methods involve the physical application of nutrients to temporarily enhance the nutritional and health status of crops. The consumption of such crops subsequently improves human nutritional status. Successful implementation of the biofortification initiative requires farmers to receive support for using micronutrient fertilisers on fortified cultivars and marketing assistance. Despite challenges, the biofortification of millets holds a promising future in addressing the issue of malnutrition.

Introduction

Throughout their existence on this planet, human beings have adapted to the diverse environments they inhabit. Depending on the topography and prevailing natural conditions, individuals have successfully navigated the challenges posed by nature and their surroundings. As life has progressed, humans have gained insights into nature, its resources, and the prudent utilisation thereof. This understanding encompasses various natural phenomena, the associated challenges, and the methods to mitigate them. Over time, humans have evolved into repositories of such knowledge, collectively known as 'indigenous knowledge' or 'traditional wisdom,' passed down from one generation to the next. Each specific region possesses its unique set of indigenous knowledge reflecting the harmonious coexistence of humans with their environment.

Indigenous agricultural knowledge (IAK) stands as a crucial force in the realm of agricultural development. It represents a systematic and collective body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs that evolve through adaptation processes and are transmitted across generations through cultural channels, elucidating the intricate relationship between living beings and their environment. With this collective wisdom, farmers have adeptly cultivated food crops in diverse environmental conditions and seasonal variations, relying on indigenous techniques in the absence of external inputs, resources, and scientific knowledge. This includes refraining from the use of synthetic agrochemicals and instead embracing practices like crop rotations and soil fertility restoration through closed nutrient cycles (Melash et al., 2023).

Introduction

The importance of soil in agriculture cannot be overstated, as it serves as the foundation for crop growth and sustenance. However, many regions grapple with problematic soils characterised by issues such as poor fertility, erosion, contamination, and structural degradation. In recent years, significant steps have been made in addressing these challenges through innovative approaches and technologies. This change in outlook includes the combination of imaginative advancements, protection procedures, and biological standards to enhance farming efficiency while limiting ecological effects (Singh et al., 2011).

Farmers are challenged with the management of problematic soils characterised by fertility issues, erosion, contamination, and structural degradation. Sustainable agricultural techniques depend on the efficient management of problematic soils, which is also critical to environmental sustainability, global food security, and farming systems' ability to withstand climate change. The idea of changing soil and harvest management practices a complex system that incorporates accurate horticulture, agroecology, and computerised cultivating innovations (Fu et al., 2021).