eChapters

1. Detection means the existence of whatever do you want detecting but diagnosis is that the analysis in depth of existing thing.
2. Objectively look for, listen to the credible complains, symptoms that is sometimes not visible at all.
3. It is art or skill of identifying some abnormalities, i.e. which is below or higher than the normal permissible range/threshold.

A. Evaluation of the efficacy and resistance of anthelmintics against Helminths Anthelmintic resistance According to WAAVP (World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology) anthelmintic resistance is a failure to reduce feacal nematode egg count by at least 95%. Technically accurate definition is that resistance is a genetically determine decline in the efficacy of an anthelmintic against a population of parasite that is susceptible to the drug. The history of parasite resistance to anthelmintic starts with the first report on phenothiazine resistance in 1957. Haemonchus contortus was the first nematode to develop resistance against different anthelmintic. The World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology has recommended two tests for detecting anthelmintic resistance in ruminants, horses and pigs. These are in vivo test (FECRT) and an in vitro test (the egg hatch test). Detection Technique

Objectives

1. To know the methods of essential oil extraction of spices and condiments.
2. To know the various chemicals present in the essential oil of different spices and condiments.

Essential oil: Essential oils are the liquids that are isolated from plants when introduced to solvents. They are liquefied versions of the plants.

Extraction methods of essential oil

1. Steam Distillation
2. Solvent Extraction
   1. CO₂ Extraction
   2. Maceration
   3. Enfleurage
3. Water Distillation
4. Water and Steam Distillation

Detection and identification of the causes and diagnosis of the diseases rapidly and precisely are the basic requirements for developing effective crop disease management systems suitable for different ecosystems. Incorrect diagnosis leads to failure to contain the disease spread and consequent additional expenditure to the growers. Hence, it is essential that proper diagnostic procedures are followed to achieve the goal of reducing both quantitative and qualitative losses of agricultural and horticultural produce. Morphological, biological, biochemical, physiological, immunological and genomic characteristics of microbial plant pathogens have been carefully considered to develop rapid, sensitive and reliable methods of detection and identification of cause(s) of newly observed disease (s) in the locations concerned. Various methods of establishing the nature of microbial plant pathogens are discussed in detail in earlier publications

2.1  Write True/False

Q.1    From theoretical point of view, the most general method of estimation is the “Maximum Likelihood Estimation Method.”
Q.2    The method of “maximum Likelihood Estimation” was initially formulated by the statistician named as “C.F. Gauss.”

4.1 Introduction

Extraction is a process whereby the desired constituents of a plant are removed using a solvent. The primary ways for extraction of organic molecules of interest to biologists and medical investigators involve breaking open the cells. Cell rupturing is carried out in a variety of ways. The method used depends on the type of tissue used. For plant cells grown in cell suspension culture or for plant callus tissue, a French press or a sonicator can be used to break open the cell. Plant cells grown in culture can also be ruptured with a glass tissue homogenizer. Silicified or highly lignified plant tissues within the organs such as roots, stems, leaves, fruits and seeds are usually frozen and pulverized using liquid nitrogen in a mortar and a pestle (Kaufman et al., 1999). Softer tissues can be ground in a small volume of buffer in a mortar, washed white sand and a pestle to rupture the cells.

When the cells have been ruptured, the extraction is performed using the appropriate techniques. Water soluble compounds and proteins are extracted in buffers or water. Organically soluble compounds are extracted with organic solvents. Boiling ethanol is a good all-purpose solvent for preliminary extraction (Harborne, 1998). The success of the extraction with alcohol is directly related to the extent chlorophyll (when isolating substances from green tissue) is removed into the solvent. The most common chemical procedure for obtaining organic constituents from dried plant tissues is to continuously extract powdered material in a Soxhlet apparatus with a range of solvents, starting with petroleum ether and chloroform (to separate lipids and terpenoids) and then using alcohol and ethyl acetate (for more polar compounds). This method is useful when working on the gram scale. However, one rarely achieves complete separation of constituents and the same compounds may be recovered (in varying proportions) in several fractions. The extract obtained is clarified by filtration and is then concentrated in vacuo in a rotary evaporator. To prevent fungal growth, a trace of toluene may be added to the concentrated extracts and they should be stored in refrigerator. There are short cuts in extraction procedures which one learns with practice. The concentrated extract may deposit crystals on standing.

Extraction is a process whereby the desired constituents of a plant are removed using a solvent. The primary ways for extraction of organic molecules of interest to biologists and medical investigators involve breaking open the cells. Cell rupturing is carried out in a variety of ways. The method used depends on the type of tissue used. For plant cells grown in cell suspension culture or for plant callus tissue, a French press or a sonicator can be used to break open the cell.

Methods of fertilizer application

Two major methods are used to apply fertilizers  
I) Application of fertilizers in solid form 
II) Application of fertilizers in liquid forms

In order to get maximum benefit from manures and fertilizers, they should not only be applied in proper time and in right manner but any other aspects should also be given careful consideration. Different soils react differently with fertilizer application. Similarly, the N, P, K requirements of different crops are different and even for a single a crop the nutrient requirements are not the same at different stages of growth. The aspects that require consideration in fertilizer application are listed below:

Objective

1. To know the different types of fertilizer application methods applied in spices and condiments.

Methods of fertilizer application: The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:

a) Broadcasting

1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.
2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil, large doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate are used.

Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types

1. Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application): The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.

Developments in recombinant DNA technology have made it possible to transfer gene from any source across species barrier. In fact, transfer and expression of foreign genes in plant cells is now a routine procedure. Of the several methods tried so far, the system based on Ti plasmid of Aprobacterium tumefaciens appears to be most successful for transformation of plant cells.

Dry Methods
1. Decortication and dehulling: The process of decortication for groundnuts and cottonseeds enhances the nutritional profile of the resulting cakes by eliminating the outer layers, which are notably high in crude fiber. Similarly, dehulling or dehusking of pulses and grains also contributes to an improved nutritional value.
2. Cracking and dry rolling: This technique involves the fragmentation of the kernel into smaller particles through the application of pressure using dry rollers. This method increases the surface area of the grains, thereby enhancing their digestibility.
3. Crimping: In this method, the traditional rolling of grains is substituted with the use of corrugated rollers, a process referred to as crimping.
4. Crumbles: The term “crumble” refers to the process of grinding pellets into a granular form, which is particularly beneficial for chick feed.
5. Popping or puffing: This technique involves the dry heating of grains, which must contain a moisture content of 10-14%. The final moisture content in the popped grains is approximately 3%. During this process, grains are subjected to temperatures ranging from 370 to 425 degrees Celsius for 15 to 20 seconds, leading to the rupture of the endosperm due to the rapid expansion of steam. This results in an increase in grain size and enhances both palatability and digestibility.
6. Micronizing: This process employs infrared heat energy on grains, resulting in the breakdown of glucosidic bonds between starch molecules.
7. Roasting: In roasting, grains are exposed to direct flames at a temperature of 148.9 degrees celsius. This method not only expands the grains but also inactivates protease inhibitors in whole soybeans, thereby improving their nutritional quality.

8.1 Introduction

After isolation and purification of the compound, it has to be identified. It is necessary to find out the class of the compound first and then to find out the specific compound within the class. The class of compound is usually determined from the colour tests, solubility, Rf properties and UV spectral characteristics of the compound. Further identification within the class depends on measuring physical properties and spectral measurements and then comparing these data with those in the literature. The physical properties include melting point (for solids), boiling point (for liquids), optical rotation (for optically active compounds) and Rf. The spectral measurements include Ultra Violet (UV) , Infra Red (IR) , Mass Spectrum (MS) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). Data on X – ray crystallography of the compound are also useful for identification of the compound.

On completion of the analysis of the spectra obtained, the pieces that have been identified are listed. Then the pieces, the MW and / or molecular formula are checked and the pieces are refined to fit. Finally, the pieces are assembled paying particular attention to ¹H-NMR chemical shifts and coupling patterns. The answer should be checked with the ¹H-NMR data very carefully and it is probably the most critical test to pass. The ¹H-NMR spectrum is potentially the most useful for assembling the structure of the compound.

A known compound can usually be identified on the basis of the above mentioned physical and spectral characteristics. For final confirmation, direct comparison with authentic compound (if available) should be carried out Authentic compounds can be obtained from commercial companies. In the absence of authentic compound, the data from literature can be carefully compared for the identification of the isolated compound. If a new compound is present, all the above data are sufficient enough to identify it. However, data on chemical degradation or laboratory synthesis of the compound are necessary to confirm the identification of the new compound.

After isolation and purification of the compound, it has to be identified. It is necessary to find out the class of the compound first and then to find out the specific compound within the class. The class of compound is usually determined from the colour tests, solubility, Rf properties and UV spectral characteristics of the compound. Further identification within the class depends on measuring physical properties and spectral measurements and then comparing these data with those in the literature.

13.1 Incubation
The silkworm eggs are to be incubated properly to avoid irregular hatching. An ideal incubation is to maintain a temperature of 25oC and 75-80% humidity continuously. In most of the places incubators are not available. In such cases, the eggs are kept spread in wooden trays provided with paraffin paper for base and the cover and foam pads kept wet all around inside the trays to maintain 70-80% humidity. In each chawki tray of 90 cm × 120 cm about 4 sheets of eggs can be kept for incubation. The room temperature is maintained at 25°C. On 9th day the egg sheets are rearranged. About 25 dfls (disease free layings) are kept in a chawki tray of 90 cm × 120 cm to enable brushing and proper spacing for young worms later. The egg sheets are covered with a sheet of black paper or paraffin paper. On the due date of hatching and when a few larvae have started hatching, black paper and the paraffin paper are removed and the eggs are exposed to dim light for about an hour. This facilitates the uniform hatching of larvae.
13.1.1 Methods of Incubation
There are two methods, i.e., constant temperature incubation and raised temperature incubation

The deliberation on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods and techniques which have been executed for delineating the study, collection of information, analysis of data, and interpretation of the findings for the revelation of hard evidences and formulation of theories. This chapter deals with the method and procedure used in the study consisting of eight main parts

A. Locale of research

B. Pilot study

C. Sampling Design

D. Item analysis and experts rating for devising scoring technique on dependent variables

E. Empirical measurement of the variables.

This chapter deals with an in-depth description of the methods and procedures employed in conducting the research in an organized manner. The research methodology gives the study’s work plan. The research objectives and theoretical base offer an initial framework for identifying the appropriate methodology to answer the research questions.

The procedures followed were described under the following headings.

5.1 Research design

5.2 Locale of the study

5.3 Content analysis of websites

5.4 Statistical tools used for the analysis of data.

5.5 Preparation of report

8.1 Introduction

After knowing when to irrigate and how much to irrigate, next important thing is how to irrigate the crop field. Methods of irrigation play a very crucial role in deciding how to irrigate the crop fields since all the crops do not require same methods of irrigation. Depending on the sources of water available for irrigation, type of crop to be irrigated, quantity and quality of water to be applied and other economic considerations, methods of irrigation will vary. Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by flooding it on the field surfaces as surface irrigation, by applying it beneath the soil surface as subirrigation, by spraying it under pressure as sprinkler or overhead irrigation or by applying it in drops around the root zone of the crop as trickle irrigation. The commonly used methods of irrigation are described in schematic diagram as follows:

Irrigation Methods

Surface

Sub-surface

Pressurized irrigation

12.1 Surface Irrigation

Surface irrigation method refers to the manner or plan of water application by gravity flow to the cultivated land wetting either the entire field (uncontrolled flooding) or part of the field (furrows, basins, border strips). Most irrigated areas have characteristic land features and differ from those in other areas. Hence, for efficient application of water it is important to select such method of irrigation, which fits one’s own land.

The adoption of a certain method need not be necessarily based on convention or that followed in the adjoining farm. The factors, which determine the suitable method of irrigation are local conditions (soil type - its permeability & water storage capacity; land topography, climate, water availability & water quality), crop type, type of technology, previous experience with irrigation, required labour inputs etc. Good yield of crops can be obtained from irrigated land only if the water is applied judiciously to meet the needs of the plant, but not to cause waste and damage. Irrigation water is applied to cultivated land by the following surface methods of irrigation:

1. 1 Introduction

Irrigation is the artificial application of water needed to the crop field. It is the process of uniformly wetting the root zone depth. The wetting may be done over the land surface or below of it. The application of water in excess to the requirement or accumulation of water in crop field due to rain or unplanned seepage is not considered as irrigation. However, irrigation is supplemental to rainfall. Irrigation water is considered as single most important inputs for crop production.

9.1 Introduction

After knowing when to irrigate and how much to irrigate, next important thing is how to irrigate the crop field. Methods of irrigation plays a very crucial role in deciding how to irrigate the crop fields since all the crops do not require same methods of irrigation. Depending on the sources of water available for irrigation, type of crop to be irrigated, quantity and quality of water to be applied and other economic considerations, methods of irrigation will vary. Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by flooding it on the field surfaces as surface irrigation, by applying it beneath the soil surface as sub irrigation, by spraying it under pressure as sprinkler or overhead irrigation or by applying it in drops around the root zone of the crop as trickle irrigation. The commonly used methods of irrigation are described in schematic diagram as follows

1.1 Introduction
Irrigation is the artificial application of water needed to the crop field. It is the process of uniformly wetting the root zone depth. The wetting may be done over the land surface or below of it. The application of water in excess to the requirement or accumulation of water in crop field due to rain or unplanned seepage is not considered as irrigation. However, irrigation is supplemental to rainfall. Irrigation water is considered as single most important input for crop production.

Object: Methods of measurement of water status and water saturation deficit in plant parts. 

Material required: Leaf samples, leaf borer, water, petridishes, forceps, oven and blotting paper. 

Theory: Plant water status strongly influences plant growth and biomass production through its effects on leaf and root expansion and on photosynthesis. Therefore, measurement of plant water status is an important component of understanding plant processes and maximizing yield under different ecosystems. 

Method: Plant water status can be measured and computed by any one of the following methods

Atoms and molecules are the essential building blocks of every object. The manner in which things are constructed with these basic units is vitally important to understand their properties and their reciprocal interactions. An efficient control of the synthetic pathways is essential during the preparation of nanobuilding blocks with different sizes and shapes that can lead to the creation of new devices and technologies with improved performances. Traditionally nanoparticles were produced only by physical and chemical methods. Some of the commonly used physical and chemical methods are ion sputtering, solvothermal synthesis, reduction and sol gel technique

Basically there are two approaches for nanoparticle synthesis namely the Bottom up approach and the Top down approach. In the Top down approach, scientists try to formulate nanoparticles using larger ones to direct their assembly. The Bottom up approach is a process that builds towards larger and more complex systems by starting at the molecular level and maintaining precise control of molecular structure.

These two different methods highlight the organization level of nanosystems as the crossing point hanging between the worlds of molecular objects and bulk materials.

The top-down approach has been advanced by Richard Feynman in his often-cited 1959 lecture stating that “there is plenty of room at the bottom” and it is ideal for obtaining structures with long-range order and for making connections with macroscopic world. Conversely, the bottom-up approach was pioneered by Jean-Marie Lehn (revealing that “there is plenty of room at the top”) and it is best suited for assembly and establishing short-range order at the nanoscale. The integration of the two techniques is expected to provide, atleast in principle, thewidest combination of tools for nanofabrication.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that up to 40% of food crops are lost due to plant pests and diseases annually. Such losses not only threaten global food security but also have the potential to limit food access due to unavailability of food, or sharp increases in food prices. But this challenge is also an opportunity to find new ways to help crops better withstand adverse conditions in a farmer’s field.

19.1 Introduction

In self-pollinated crops, the methods of selection aim at improving individual plants. On the other hand, in cross-pollinated crops they aim at improving a population of plants. A population is a large group of interbreeding individuals. Hence, selection is called population improvement in cross-pollinated crops. Selection in self-pollinated crops results in isolation of pure breeding lines which is the end product. But in cross-pollinated crops, it results in an improved population which is used as the commercial cultivar. Improved inbred lines (also called inbreds) for producing hybrids can be obtained from such populations. Again, like many rounds of selection being practised in different inbreeding generations in self-pollinated crops we are also practising many rounds of selection in cross-pollinated crops. But, unlike self-pollinated crops selection in cross-pollinated crops is followed by intermating to develop a new population before starting another round of selection. One cycle of selection consists of selection of individual/family and intermating of the selected units. Such cycle is repeated till we get the improved population. This method of practising the cycles of selection and recombination in a population is called recurrent selection or population improvement. Frey (1983) prefers the use of recurrent selection for closed populations where no new germplasm is added to the population during selection. Population improvement was used for a group of breeding techniques where all aspects are similar to recurrent selection but with the provision of adding new sources of germplasm whenever feasible. It is only a matter of coincidence that past history of application of recurrent selection has been limited to closed populations, but its basic aim has always been the accumulation of favourable genes, without any restriction on the migration of new genes during the course of selection. Apart from a slight nuance, population improvement and recurrent selection are two titles of the same principle and procedure of manipulating the genetic potential of populations. Recurrent selection can also be applied in self-pollinated crops.

17.1 Introduction

Self-pollinated vegetable, spice and ornamental crops may be heterogeneous. It is exemplified by landrace cultivars. They may have originated from single plant selections but have been grown over a long period of time. Landrace cultivars are a mixture of genotypes, perhaps because of breeders’ lack of appreciation of selection techniques to produce a pure line, spontaneous mutations, chance hybridization, or a combination of factors. Natural selection in landraces has resulted in a cultivar that is well adapted to the local environment. Depending on amount of human selection, differences among genotypes in a landrace cultivar may be small and inconspicuous. On the other hand, a lack of human intervention may mean that differences among plants in a landrace cultivar will be conspicuous. After years of self-pollination, individual plants are homozygous. Selection of such individuals would result in a true-to-type reproduction of their phenotype within the limitations imposed by the environment.

18.1 Introduction

The genetic variability present in populations of self-pollinated vegetable, spice and ornamental crops is rapidly exhausted by pureline selection. For further improvement, genetic variability must be created. This is generally achieved by hybridization. After the cross has been made, F₁ is grown and seeds set on it are harvested. This makes the seed source for raising F₂ population, and so on. The segregating populations from crosses are handled according to a suitable method. The three basic methods available for this purpose are: (1) pedigree method, (2) bulk method, and (3) backcross method. There are also certain modifications of these methods.

18.2 Pedigree Method

Pedigree method is developed from the pureline system and widely used method of plant breeding for self-pollinated crops. A main difference between pedigree selection and mass selection or pureline selection is that hybridization is used to create variability for the base population in case of the former, whereas in mass and pureline selections variability is naturally present in the base populations. The pedigree method was first described by H.H. Lowe (1927). This method predominated the crop improvement programme throughout the world until 1980s. Pedigree method is common in horticultural crops, especially where readily identifiable qualitative traits are involved. Vegetable crops in which pedigree system is used include tomato, cucumber, pepper, pea, lettuce, snap and field beans, all self-pollinated crops. In general, selection is done on F₂ plants. Yield is important in many horticultural plants, but quality is equally or even more important. Quality may be associated with identifiable traits, making the pedigree system ideal for self-pollinated vegetable crops.

An animal breeder usually interested in various economic traits and when wishes to improve them in the herd/flock, he has three general methods at his disposal. Tandom method, independent culling level method and  index selection method.

Tandom Method

It involves selection for one trait at a time and until it reaches at a satisfactory level, and then for a third trait etc. This method is applicable only when the different traits in question are entirely independent or positively genetically associated to each other. Its effectiveness decreases with the increase in number of traits. This method is least desirable of all the methods.

Tandem Selection
Selection is practiced for one trait at a time until satisfactory improvement has been achieved in this trait. Then, selection efforts for this trait are relaxed and efforts are directed towards the improvement of a second, then for a third and so on, until finally each trait has been improved to the desired level. This method is the least efficient of all the three methods, from the stand point of the amount of genetic progress made for the time and effort by the breeder. Efficiency of tandem selection depends a great deal upon the genetic correlation between the traits selected for. If the genetic correlation is positive and desirable, improvement in one trait by selection would automatically result in improvement in the other trait not selected for, and then the method could be quite efficient. Otherwise, if there were little or no genetic correlation between the traits, which means that they are inherited independently, the efficiency would be less. When the two traits are negatively correlated, improvement in one trait is nullified or neutralized by the regression in the other. For example, in poultry, selection for egg number will result in reduction in egg weight, as they are negatively correlated.
Independent Culling Level (ICL) Method
Method of selecting two or more traits but they both need to meet a minimum standard. It is very strict that if the animal didn’t meet one trait it would be rejected. Independent Culling level (ICL) Method selects several characteristics or traits simultaneously.
Breeders set minimum or maximum culling levels or standards or criteria for each trait of selection objectives. Any animal not meeting all criteria is not selected for use in the breeding program regardless of the level of excellence of other traits. With each successive generation of progeny, the minimum quality of each characteristic is raised thus ensuring improvement of these traits. For example, a breeder has a view of the minimum requirements for milk yield, fat yield, and service period for which cows are breeding. The breeder will determine what the minimum acceptable quality for each of these traits will be for progeny to be folded back into her breeding program. Any animal that fails to meet the quality threshold for any one of these criteria is culled from the breeding program. Thereby, it causes the loss of excellent genes from the population for a particular trait.

Objectives • Seminal evaluation and processing • Evaluation of bull fertility on the basis of its seminal characters • To make the Artificial insemination programme successful History Related to Semen Collection • The use of artificial vagina was started by Milovanov for semen collection. Before that method of placing the cotton ball in vagina was used. • AV for Dog was discovered by Amantea in 1914. Milovanov discovered AV for Bull, ram and stallion. Mckenzie discovered AV for boar (1931). • The electroejaculatory method of semen collection was initiated in a bull by Laplaud & Cassou and in ram by Gunn. • Burrows and Quinn (1937) developed the method of abdominal massage and pressure to collect semen in poultry.

2.1 Simple Random Sampling
The simplest and common most method of sampling is simple random sampling. In this procedure, the sample is drawn unit by unit with equal probability of selection for each unit at each draw. It is sometimes referred to as unrestricted random sampling.

2.1 Simple Random Sampling

The simplest and common most method of sampling is simple random sampling. In this procedure, the sample is drawn unit by unit with equal probability of selection for each unit at each draw. It is sometimes referred to as unrestricted random sampling.

2.1.1 Definition

“A sampling procedure which gives equal chance to all possible samples each of size n which can be drawn from a population of size N, is called simple random sampling.”

Progeny testing in India was introduced in the late 1950’s the first sire index in our country was suggested by Krishnan (1956) which was, however, similar to the herdmate and contemporary comparison methods. Robertson and Rendel (1954) stated that an efficient method of sire evaluation should satisfy two conditions: 

There is urgent need to increase the production in order to meet the demand for the exploding population. This could be achieved by applying various modern methodologies in selection and breeding of livestock. Increasing the productivity through genetic improvement requires adequate identification and intensive selection of genetically superior sires. About 93 per cent of the total herd improvement comes from breeding of young bulls from tested sires and only six per cent from selection of dams.
With the advances in artificial insemination and cryopreservation of semen, a sire has a potential of serving 3/4th million cows and producing 1/4th million progenies.
Thus, selection of bulls is of great importance in dairy herd improvement.
For maximising the genetic gain by sire selection, it is essential that the method of estimating breeding values of sires should be unbiased and efficient. The breeding value refers to the average genetic effect of the genes passed on by the individual to its offspring and is estimated to know whether the individual is genetically superior to other individuals or not for the trait concerned.

Since commencement of the settlement of world, the search for food had been uppermost, thereby, practising the conservation of food is a basic need for ensuring its ample supply to human being. The problem of food storage is growing fast day by day with the increase in the population. The existing shortage of protein and caloric requirements will not only be solved by growing more food and resorting to family planning measures but also by saving the produce from deterioration and wastage, and its efficient allocation to meet the growing requirement of population. In countries with varied climatic conditions, it is a steady struggle of man with insects, mites, rodents and microbes in getting the food stuff.

Need and Objectives of Storage

Since times immemorial, man adopted a particular system of storage and certain produce storage standards. Some of the storage methods are still in use in several regions, in the capacity varying from one kg to several hundred quintals, like hollowed gourds, skin bags, mud bins, excavated stones, woven baskets, underground pits etc., particularly in the tropics. The problems of storage in developing countries are more acute than that in well developed countries and a considerable disparity seems to be there in food availability. All need a food supply that should be nutritious, clean; free from insects, rodents, birds, other animal filth and harmful chemical residues. There are two types of needs, one immediately after harvest and the other in off season. There is no need of storing the produce for immediate requirement but for the latter case, the need to conserve produce properly is inevitable. Further, the need for storage has always arisen for one reason to distribute commodity in deficit production areas and the other based on improved quality standards. In all the way, therefore; growers, processors, transporters and warehouse owner must assist to comply with these requirements.

Vegetable breeding is the purposeful genetic manipulation of qualities in vegetable crops to create new varieties with a set of desired characteristics that are better suited for cultivation, give better yield, quality and are resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. Vegetable breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from plant introduction, simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics, to more complex molecular techniques. Classical plant breeding includes hybridization followed by selection and mutation to develop the desirable plant types. With the advancements in genetics, molecular biology and in vitro culture, different molecular genetics tools are also being used in vegetable breeding.
Sexually propagated vegetable crops
1. Plant Introduction
The term “Plant introduction” describes the movement of crop plants, species, varieties, wild species, etc. from their original growing sites to other locations where it was not grown earlier. Plant introduction is essentially the method of cultivating crop plants in a new environments. The agro-climatic conditions can differ greatly depending on the origin of the plant species and the area where they are introduced. Plant introduction is a time-honored strategy for improving crop diversity.

1. Forecasting Rain and Frost

i. Behavior of Ants and Goats:

• Ants: When ants come out of their nest carrying their pupae, it indicates that rain will come soon.

• Goats: Goats can sense approaching rain and signal it 2 to 3 days in advance through behavioral changes. They change their usual resting places, show little interest in taking food or water, and bawl and shout throughout the day.

2. Tree Fruiting Patterns:

• Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica): If the neem tree bears plenty of fruit.

• Baval Tree (Acacia nilotica): If the baval tree produces plenty of pods.

• These observations suggest that the total rainfall for the monsoon will be high.

Weed control methods may be classified into two groups as follows:

    1.    Preventive method
    2.    Curative or remedial measures. Curative measures are sub-divided into eradication and control.

(a) Preventive Methods

Prevention is the measures taken to prevent the introduction or spread  of the weeds to new areas and to check the infestation prior to the germination of weed seeds. To achieve this, a wise step to be followed the principle- “Prevention is better than cure”.

Skeleton Leaves

Skeleton leaves are semi-transparent leaves, also called fossil leaves. They are prepared by soaking the fresh leaves in bleached water and then by hand rubbing the soft green flesh from the network of veins. The leaves can be then dyed to variant colors to give them a beautiful and pleasing appearance. Although delicate by nature, they are actually sturdy and can easily be glued to a variety of surfaces. They come in several colors and sizes to meet a complete line of crafting needs. The delicate beauty of these leaves is sometimes meant to capture life, hope and memories. These delicate, gorgeous skeleton leaves are a perfect accent for all craft projects. They make a beautiful and elegant statement when they adorn your wedding invitations. They work surprisingly well on gift tags, greeting cards, scrapbooks, collages, papermaking, stenciling, and stamping. They are perfect for decorating bridal bouquet, wedding reception table, candles, and wedding favors.

Introduction

Impact assessment is the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. It is used to ensure that projects, programmes and policies are economically viable, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable. Programme Monitoring and Evaluation (PME) efforts are critical issues in management of agricultural research and development (R & D). In times of fiscal constraint, more emphasis is placed on accountability and programme effectiveness. As a management tool, PME is an integrated approach that incorporates the viewpoints of clientele, policy-makers, researchers and donors to address the intended goals. Public and private support to research will depend largely on efficiency issues and ability to reckon with multiple objectives, ranging from food security to sustainability, poverty alleviation, gender issues, export, etc. The PME of agricultural R & D projects is critical when the intended R&D has multiple outcomes. Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of development activities provides government officials, development managers, and civil society with better means for learning from past experience, improving service delivery, planning and allocating resources, and demonstrating results as part of accountability to key stakeholders (World Bank, 2004).

To comprehensively analyse the perceived effects of contract farming on employment generation and poverty alleviation, it is imperative to adopt a systematic and scientific approach. This chapter elaborates on the research design, methodology and tools employed in conducting the present study. It encompasses the rationale behind the study locale selection, sampling techniques, instrument construction, data collection, variable operationalization and analytical methods. These methodological decisions are aimed at unearthing empirical evidence and formulating theoretical insights into the socio-economic implications of contract farming.
The study primarily seeks to understand the perceived outcomes of contract farming on rural livelihoods, particularly its influence on employment and poverty. Furthermore, it explores associated constraints and socio-economic characteristics of contract farmers, thereby constructing a robust conceptual framework grounded in empirical observations. The chapter is structured under the following sub-sections:
a) Locale of research
b) Sampling design
c) Pilot study
d) Hypothesis
e) Variables and their measurement
f) Method of data collection
g) Statistical and analytical tools

Methylene-cyclo-propyl-glycine (MCPG), is a cyclopropyl derivative, grouped into the amino acids that have been isolated from the higher plants (Fowden, 1960). MCPG was identified to be closely related to two other cyclopropyl derivatives (Fig. 1), 1-aminocyclopropane – 1 – carboxylic acid from Vacciniumvitis-idaea and perry pears (Vahatalo and Viertanen, 1957; Burroughs, 1957) and â- methylenecyclopropyl alanine (MCPA or Hypoglycin A) from Blighia sapida (Hassall and Rayle, 1955; Anderson et al., 1958; Ellington, Hassall and Plimmer, 1958).

ABSTRACT

Methylotrophy is a phenomenon by which microorganisms derive energy, and in many cases, cell carbon from reduced molecules that have no C–C bond (also called C1compounds). This gains significance because of its unique mode of nutrition, the ability to utilize more than one metabolic pathway and its vast distribution among various groups of bacteria and yeasts. It is one of the earliest modes of energy metabolism present in microorganisms, through which microorganisms are able to utilize a wide range of compounds, which are considered unsuitable for most forms of life. In the present chapter we focus on various aspects of methylotrophy, and the application of methylotrophic bacteria in a spectrum of biological activities and commercial possibilities.

Metritis is a condition seen in cattle in which there is the inflammation of the entire thickness of uterine wall (endometrium, myometrium and serosa). When it occurs just after parturition, it is called puerperal metritis. It usually occurs after abnormal birth like in case of dystocia, abortion, RFM etc. The animal shows systemic signs like increase in temperature initially, increase in respiration rate, anorexia, toxemia etc. There is expulsion of large volume of foul smelling reddish to brown discharge from vagina frequently associated with straining. The expelled discharge from vagina is often with pieces of degenerating placenta.

1.    The word “economics” has been derived from the Greek word_______ which means household management?

(a) OIKONOMICAS

(b) OIKOS

(c) NOMOS

(d) OICONOMICAS

2.    The term “microeconomics” has been derived from a Greek word ____________.

(a) MICROS

(b) MIKROS

(c) MACROS

(d) MACROS

10.1 Introduction

As one ofthe oldest and most widely used renewable energy sources, hydropower generates electricity by using the natural flow of flowing water. Streams and rivers have been used for producing mechanical energy for thousands of years. Hydroelectric power plants are located near or on water sources since they derive their power from flowing water. The amount of energy that can be released in moving water depends on the volume of the water flowing and the elevation change from one point to another, often called head. Generally, hydropower plants can produce more electricity when there is more water flow and a higher head. 

As the name indicates, micro-organisms are very minute, cellular, living organisms which cannot be seen with the naked eyes (however, large colonies of fungi can be seen). Micro-organisms affecting stored grain can be divided into the following groups in order of their significance:

1. Fungi
2. Actinomycetes
3. Yeast
4. Bacteria
5. Protozoa (not found in sound food grains)

Fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes are grouped under the Thallophyta of the plant kingdom. The most important factors for their normal development are: (i) Nature of Food, (ii) Moisture, (iii) Oxygen and (iv) Temperature.

Micro propagation in also called as in vitro propagation. In vitro is a Latin word, meaning ‘in glass’. It refers to procedures done in controlled artificial environment, outside a living organism. These procedures naturally occur in the living system. Opposite to in vitro is in vivo which is also a Latin word, meaning ‘in living’. Biological processes that occur within the living system.

Micro propagation refers to the multiplication of plants, in aseptic conditions in containers under controlled nutritional and environmental condition. Micropropagation is done in artificial growth medium from various plant parts like meristem tip, embryos, anthers, axillary buds, leaf section, shootlips etc. It is a method by which a true to type and disease free plant can be regenerated from a miniature piece of plant throughout the year. Some popularly grown crops from tissue culture are as follows

Ornamental plants - orchids, lilium, gerbera, cordyline, begonia, ficus, etc.

Micropropagation refers to the production of plants from very small plant parts, tissues or cells, grown aseptically in a test tube or containers under controlled nutritional, environmental and aseptic conditions. It is also called as in vitro propagation, which implies clonal, true-to-type propagation of plants by a variety of tissue and cell culture methods and is considered as the most efficient and commercial method of plant propagation. Tissue culture or in vitro culture is two broadly used terms for micropropagation, which basically include aseptic culture of various plant parts. Micropropagation was developed as the result of accidental findings of French Professor G. Morel in 1958, when he was attempting to obtain virus-free plants through meristem culture in dahlia and orchids. All the biological principles of micropropagation technique are based on the phenomenon of totipotency of cell, in which a cell of a plant has the capacity to regenerate in to a full-fledged plant having different organs. German plant physiologist, Haberlandt (1902) is known as the father of tissue culture technique, who for the first time coined the term totipotency.