eChapters

The stone fruit crops namely peach, Prunus persica, plum, Prunus domestica, apricot, Prunus armeniaca, almond, Prunus dulcis and walnut, Juglans regia are grown in wide range of climatic conditions ranging from subtropical to temperate regions. Peach and plum are also cultivated in mid and low hills in addition to temperate regions. Peach is the major stone fruit crop followed by plum, apricot and cherry. Walnut and almond on the other hand are major nut crops. A number of insect pests (~80) infest stone and nut fruits in various stages of the tree growth and development and cause direct and indirect loss out. Only few pests are of economic concern, the details of which are given hereunder

Peach leaf curling aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.), Aphididae: Hemiptera

It is a polyphagous pest reported infesting 175 plant species of 115 genera of 49 families. It is a regular and key pest of stone fruits viz. peach, nectarine, plum, apricot and almond and

SUGARCANE (Saccharum officinarum)
Fungal diseases
1) Red rot
Symptoms: It is one of the most destructive disease of sugarcane. Dark reddish spot with brown margin appear along the mid rib. When the diseased canes are split open red blotches with transversely elongated white centres are seen. Under humid conditions numerous black dot like acervuli develop in the central discoloured portions. The diseased tissues emit a typical alcoholic odour. The juice of the affected stalks gives a sour alcoholic smell.
Causal organism: Colletotrichum falcatum
Management
i) Select healthy and disease free setts.
ii) Dip the setts on Carbendazim 50% WP or Thiophanate Methyl 70% WP @0.15% solution for 30 minutes before planting.
iii) Avoid rationing of infested crops.
iv) Growing resistant/tolerant varieties, i.e. Co6907, Co 7219, Co838,
 

History in general reveals chronological account of important events, contribution of persons who significantly influenced the thinking of their era and the interpretations of the observed facts or phenomenon over the period of time. The progress in plant pathology leading to the major land mark in mycology, plant bacteriology, plant virology and plant disease control has been described in chronological order for easy and better understanding of the student in following sub-headings.
 

Plant diseases are classified on the basis of type of pathogenic or nonpathogenic causes of the disease. The classification is based on the plant pathogenic organisms as follows.
1. Parasites
They include both biotic and mesobiotic agents. The diseases are incited by parasites under a set of suitable environment. Association of definite pathogen is essential with each disease.
i. Biotic agents: They are also called as animate causes. They are living organisms.Biotic agents include
1. Prokaryotes
a. True bacteria or bacteria (Facultative parasites) e.g. Citrus canker.
b. Rickettsia-like bacteria (RLB) e.g. Citrus greening, Pierce’s disease of grape.
c. Mollicutes or wall-less prokaryotes
i. Mycoplasma-like organism (MLO) e.g. Sesame phyllody, Egg plant little leaf.
ii. Spiroplasma e.g. Corn stunt, Citrus stubborn.

1. Ascorbic acid is the chemical name of
a) Vitamin K               b) Vitamin C
c) Vitamin B               d) Vitamin A
2. In alkalimetric titrations, the titrant is
a) Iodine                    b) NaOH
c) EDTA                     d) Magnesium
3. EDTA is a
a) Tetradentate Ligand          b) Octadentate Ligand
c) Pentadentate Ligand         d) Hexadentate Ligand
4. The indicator used in the EDTA method is
a) Erichrome black T             b) Benzene
c) Phenopthalene                  d) Ethylene diamine

1. …………….. regulates that flow of substances in and out of the cell
a) Cytoplasm                b) Cellwall
c) Ribosome                 d) Cell membrane
2. Bacterial cell lack in which organelle?
a) True nucleus            b) Mitochondria
c) Chloroplasts             d) All
3. Bacterial cell wall is made of
a) Lipid                         b) Protein
c) Phospholipids          d) Peptidoglycan
4. Fungi cell wall is made of
a) Chitin                       b) Protein
c) Phospholipids          d) Peptidoglycan

1. The process preservation of fruits and vegetable with common salt and vinegar is
called
a) Fermentation               b) Pickling
c) Steeping                      d) Asepsis
2. The by product of apple is
a) Rags                           b) Peel
c) Pomace                      d) Stones
3. Fruit for making jelly should be rich in
a) Pectin and acids         b) Acids and protein
c) Protein and sugars     d) Sugars and acids
4. Sweetest sugar in fruit is
a) Sucrose                      b) Fructose
c) Glucose                      d) Galactose

1. Defects in fresh egg include
a) Bloom                  b) Meat spots
c) Cracks                 d) All of them
2. Green rots in eggs is caused by
a) P. fluorescens                  b) P. graveolens
c) Achromobacterperolens  d) Paracolobactrum
3. Proteus causes spoilage of eggs by producing
a) Red rots               b) Colorless rot
c) Black rots             d) Pink rot
4. Hay odor in fishes is caused by
a) Sporotrichum       b) Enterobacter cloacea
c) P. fluorescens      d) Cladosporium

1. The syndrome resulting from the ingestion of toxin in a mold contaminated food is
a) Aspergillosis              b) Enterotoxicosis
c) Mycotoxicosis            d) Neurotoxicosis
2. Patulin is toxic to
a) Mice                           b) Fishes
c) Cattle                         d) Human beings
3. Alimentary toxic aleukia isolated from grain is produced by
a) Alternaria                   b) Cladosporium
c) Fusarium                   d) All of the above
4. Mold nephrosis, a disease in pigs has been associated with
a) Aflatoxin                    b) Patulin
c) Citrinin                      d) Ochratoxin

1. Maize is deficient in
a) Methionine        b) Lysine
c) Tryptophan        d) None
2. Winterization is accomplished to remove.
a) Waxes             b) Cloudiness of Oils
c) SFA                  d) All the above
3. What do you mean from ‘Dhal’ ?
a) Whole dehisced pulse             b) Whole cleaned pulse
c) Dehusked and splitted pulse   d) All the above
4. The separation of the bran from the endosperm of which cereal grain in more difficult.
a) Rye             b) Wheat
c) Triticale       d) None of above

1. The food qualities such as taste, odour, colour etc. are measured in term of
a) Quick index            b) Organoleptic scale
c) Score card              d) Hedonic scale
2. In UV spectroscopy samples are typically placed in a.
a) Transparent cell     b) Cuvette
c) Silicon glass           d) Both a and b
3. A definite area or a space where some thermodynamic process takes place is known
as.
a) Thermodynamic law            b) Thermodynamic process
c) Thermodynamic system      d) Thermodynamic cycle
4. LMTD in case of parallel flow compared to counter flow would be.
a) More                       b) Less
c) Same                      d) Negative

1. Which the increase in temperature, the tensile strength and elastic modulus of material
a) Increase                     b) Decrease
c) Remains constant      d) None
2. Screens are used for mechanical reparation of
a) Solid liquid mixture     b) Solid gas mixture
c) Solid solid mixture      d) Liquid liquid mixture
3. Primary treatment of waste water in a plant will cause a drop of about ……… in the BOD.
a) 60%                           b) 50%
c) 30%                           d) 40%
4. Kicks assumed that the energy required to reduce the material in size was _____________ proportional to the size reduction ratio.
a) Directly                     b) Inversely
c) Equally                      d) None

1. Which acid is found in carbonated non alcoholic beverages?
a) Propionic acid         b) Acetic acid
c) Citric acid                d) Phosphoric acid
2. Ripening of cheese in presence of fungus penicillium roqueforti results change in
a) Texture                    b) Flavor
c) Colour                     d) Both a and b
3. Microorganism responsible for discoloration in fish during spoilage.
a) Alcaligenes             b) Flavobacterium
c) Pseudomonas        d) Rhodotorula
4. Common microbial contaminant is poultry (freshly dressed, eviscerated) food product in
a) Coliforms                b) Pediococcus sp.
c) Bacillus subtilis       d) Pseudomonas

1. Texture property of paneer can be best represented by
a) Hardness                    b) Gumminess
c) Springiness                 d) Chewiness
2. Electromagnetic radiation wave length for UV, VIS, NIR radiation should be
a) 300-400 nm, 400-765 nm, 765-3200 nm
b) 765-3200 nm, 400-765 nm, 300-400 nm
c) 400-765 nm, 300-400 nm, 765-3200 nm
d) 300-400 nm, 765-3200 nm, 400-765 nm
3. Voigt model (Kelvin model) consists of
a) Spring and dashpot in series      b) Spring absent
c) Dashpot absent                           d) Spring and dashpot in parallel
 

1. Speed of bucket elevator ranges from
a) 2.5 to 2.8 m/s                    b) 2.5 to 4.0 m/s
c) 3.5 to 6.0 m/s                    d) 5.0 to 10.0 m/s
2. The fundamental principle of pressure nozzle is the conversion of pressure energy into
a) Mechanical energy          b) Rotational energy
c) Kinetic energy                 d) Static energy
3. Which conveyer is used for transporting the large quantifier of materials over a very large distance at a low cost
a) Belt conveyer                  b) Chain conveyer
c) Pneumatic conveyer       d) Screw conveyer
4. …………………..conveyer is used to convey sticky materials.
a) Belt conveyer                  b) Chain conveyer
c) Pneumatic conveyer       d) Screw conveyer

1. Euricic acid containing group mainly contains which oil
a) Cocoa butter                         b) Groundnut oil
c) Rapeseed /mustard oil         d) Sesame oil
2. Other name of lecithin is
a) Phosphatidyl choline            b) Phosphatidic acid
c) Phosphatidyl ethyl amine     d) Phosphatidyl alcohol
3. Denaturation of proteins means
a) Loss of primary structure
b) Loss of three dimensional structures
c) De-polymerization
d) Copulation

1. In tea, fermentation, the micro organisms involved in
a) Fusarium                b) Aspergillus
c) Alcaligens               d) None
2. The content of CO2 in beer is about
a) 0.02 – 0.06 %         b) 1.78 – 2.01 %
c) 0.45 – 0.52 %         d) 0.60 – 0.92 %
3. Meat is irradiated to present the outbreak of
a) Shigella                  b) Salmonellosis
c) T.B.                        d) Fever
4. Egg quality is manually checked by seeing it through a temperature it is called
a) Lightening             b) Lamping
c) Sorting                  d) Candling

1. Pressurized packed foods are called
a) Baro foods      b) Aerosols
c) Aceituno         d) Barges
2. Fo value is F value when Z is equal to
a) 10                    b) 12
c) 16                    d) 18
3. Dole process is the example of
a) Heat- cool- fill               b) Bold sterilization
c) Batch pasteurization    d) Fast canning
4. Mustard oil is effective against
a) Saccharomyes cerevisae            b) Penicillium notatum
c) Clostridium botulinum                  d) All the above

1. All microorganisms need
a) Nutrients                     b) Water
c) Specific temperature  d) All of above
2. Antioxidant in foods
a) Enhance shelf life             b) Prevent oxidation reaction
c) Decrease deterioration     d) All the above
3. Thermophilic bacteria grow at
a) Low temperature               b) High temperature
c) Medium temperature         d) All of the above
4. Preservation method which involves removal of water
a) Drying                           b) Canning
c) Sterilization                   d) Pasteurization

Ice cream cones: Thin, slightly sweetened, wafers baked on a waffle iron and curled before cooling to form a cone shape. It is used to hold one or more scoops of ice cream.
Ice cream mixes: Commercial products used in manufacture of ice cream. Contain all the main components of the final product, including milk, cream, sugar, flavourings and emulsifiers.
Ice cream wafers: Thin, slightly sweetened, waffle textured wafers that are usually triangular or rectangular and served as an accompaniment to ice cream or used to make an ice cream sandwich.
Ice cream: Frozen dairy product with creamy, smooth and crystalline consistency. In addition to milk and dairy products such as cream, milk powders, butter and sweetened condensed milk, also con- tains sugar, flavourings and additives such as emulsifiers and stabilizers. The ingredient mix is processed in an ice cream freezer where it is frozen by contact with the refrigerated wall, blades scraping the mixture from the walls while whipping air into the ice cream. The soft-serve ice cream produced can be hard- ened further by placing in a suitable freezing apparatus. Ice nucleation activity: Promotion of the formation of ice crystals. Agents displaying ice nucleation activity include small particles, such as food particles, and large molecules, such as ice nucleating proteins.
Ice: Frozon or solid form of water, used for numerous food processing applications, including chilling and glazing of foods (e.g. fish). It is used in place of water where intense agitation or prolonged processing might overheat a mixture. The energy necessary to melt ice would heat the same mass of water by 80°C. Small pieces of ice, e.g. ice cubes or crushed ice, may be added to beverages to cool them, while ice crystal characteristics play an important role in determining the quality of frozen foods. Flavoured ice is consumed in the form of ice lollies and water ices. It is also used for cooling.

Abstract
Government initiatives to boost agricultural exports are critical for driving economic growth, promoting rural development and enhancing food security. This paper provides an overview of the importance of such initiatives from various perspectives including economic growth, rural development, trade balance, food security, foreign investment, global competitiveness and environmental sustainability. It examines the strategic steps involved in government efforts, including policy formulation, market research, product development, infrastructure development, trade facilitation, export promotion, financial support, policy advocacy and monitoring and evaluation. Furthermore, the paper highlights common government initiatives implemented worldwide to enhance agricultural exports, such as trade agreements and negotiations, export promotion programs, market diversification efforts, quality and safety standards compliance, infrastructure development, financial support mechanisms, research and development investments, branding and certification promotion, sustainability and environmental stewardship and capacity building and training. Additionally, the advantages of government initiatives in boosting agricultural exports are discussed, including expanded market access, increased competitiveness, market diversification, better quality and safety standards, infrastructure development and financial support. However, the paper also acknowledges several limitations of these initiatives, including policy inconsistency, bureaucratic red tape, lack of coordination, limited access to finance, infrastructure deficiencies, market access barriers, environmental and social concerns and dependency on external factors.
Keywords: Government Initiatives, Economic Growth, Rural Development, Trade Agreements, Export Promotion and Market Diversification

Sclerotinia Stem Rot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Early symptoms of the disease are noticed forty days after sowing.
• Stem is usually infected at or near the soil line.
• Brownish lesion develops at the base of the stem and eventually girdles the plant. A white fan-like inoculum growth forms over the infected tissues and often radiates over the soil surface.
• Silky appearance of plants can be spotted from a distance and a row effect can be observed in heavily infected soil. Later the entire plant withers and dies.
• The lesion grows up the stem, destroying the cortical tissue and leaving the fibrous vascular strands as the tissues dry out.
• White cottony mycelium and mustard seed type sclerotial bodies are conspicuous on the affected stem near soil level. This also causes collar rot in the seedling stage (Fig.2).

1. Gummosis.
Diagnosic Symptoms
• First symptoms are dark staining of bark which progresses into the wood.
• Bark at the base is destroyed resulting in girdling and finally death of the tree.
• Bark in such parts dries, shrinks and cracks and shreds in lengthwise vertical strips.
• Later profuse exudation of gum from the bark of the trunk (characteristic symptom).
• The infection spreads both upward to the leaves and even fruits and downward to the roots causing fibrous root rot.
• The fibrous root rot destroys a major portion of the root system.
• However, the trunck and root infections may usually result in ultimate drying of the tree (Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota

1) Phomopsis fruit rot or Blight
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Plants are attacked at all stages of growth.
• On leaves, circular to irregular, clearly defined grayish brown spots having light centers appear. The diseased leaves become yellowish in colour and may drop off.
• Several black pycnidiacan be seen on older spots.
• Lesions on stem are dark brown, round to oval and have grayish centers where pycnidia develop.
• At the base of the stem, the fungus causes characteristic constrictions leading to canker development and toppling of plants.
• On fruits, small pale sunken spots appear which on enlargement cover entire fruit surface. These spots become watery leading to soft rot phase of the disease. A large number of dot like pycnidia also develop on such spots.
• Infection of fruit through calyx leads to development of dry rot and fruits appear black and mummified (Fig.1).

1. Anthracnose or Fruit Rot and Die Back
Diagnostic Symptoms
The disease occurs in two forms: the die back and the ripe -rot Die back symptoms
• Small, circular to irregular, brownish black scattered spots appear on leaves.
• Severely infected leaves defoliate.
• Infection of growing tips leads to necrosis of branches from tip backwards.
• Necrotic tissues appear grayish white with black dot like acervuli in the center.
• Shedding of flowers due to the infection at pedicel and tips of branches.
Fruit symptoms
• Ripe fruits are more liable for attack than the green ones.
• Small, circular, yellowish to pinkish sunken spots appear on fruits.

1. Alternaria leaf spot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Spots are small, dark coloured.
• They enlarge, soon become circular & 1mm. in diameter.
• Under humid conditions groups of conidiophores will be formed in the spot.
• Spots develop concentric rings.
• Finally the spots coalesce leading to blighting of leaves.
• Pathogen is seed borne and cause shriveling of seeds and poor germination.
• Linear spots also appear on petioles, stems, pods & seeds (Fig.1).

1) Powdery mildew
Diagnostic Symptoms
• A white, powdery fungal growth on the upper, lower or both leaves and shoots.
• There may be discolouration of the affected parts of the leaf, and heavily infected young leaves can be curled and distorted.
• Mildew growth may also be found on the stems, flower stalks, calyces and petals.
• Heavily infected flower buds frequently fail to open properly.
• Mildew growth on stems and flower stalks is usually thicker and more mat-like than that on the leaves.
• Mildew growth on all parts may turn browner as it ages (Fig-1).

English name : Vanilla
Botanical name : Vanilla fragrans (Salisb)
Family : Orchidaceae
Chromosome number : 2n =32
Centre of origin : Mexico
Orchid (Vanilla fragrans Salisb Syn. V. Planifolia Andrews) is an orchid belonging to the family Orchidaceae. Vanilla is cultivated primarily for its beans, which are prized for their sweet scent, rich aroma, and delightful flavour. As the most expensive spice, vanilla serves as the primary source of vanillin, a key ingredient used to flavour a variety of products such as ice cream, chocolate, beverages, cakes, custards, and other confectioneries. It is also widely utilized in the perfume industry and in its medicinal applications. Vanilla beans contain natural vanillin (1.3-3.8%), resins, fats, glucose, fructose, 26 volatile constituents, 144 additional volatile compounds, and moisture. “Vanilla sugar,” derived from these beans, is crucial in chocolate production. The curing process is essential for producing vanillin, the primary aromatic compound.

Natural farming is about keeping the long-term health of the soil in mind. Soil health is an active state or condition in which soil functions as a vital living ecosystem, enhancing plant, animal, and human health. Healthy soil has a good balance of minerals, organic matter, and moisture. With life processes occurring constantly, it has many complementary internal resources that allow it to be less reliant on external inputs. Natural farming helps to build this soil health, so that many years down the line, soil is in good health without being weakened by prolonged input redundancy. Regular tillage, which turns the soil over and breaks up the mycorrhizal fungi that connect the plants, is unnecessary in natural farming. We do not till. When we encourage life in the soil, it produces better soil heading towards fertility. Feeding the soil is the goal of natural farming. Ensuring robust health in the soil will, in turn, produce healthy plants, and by extension, a nutritious offering of produce. Soil health is a critical factor for natural farming. In every action we take to improve the health of the soil, we are addressing a component of healthy farming and being kind to the land. Soil health is the foundation of natural farming. The following sections detail the importance of organic matter, the role of microorganisms, water conservation, and preparation of natural inputs. By understanding these facts, we can truly understand soil health. Commercial inputs like pesticides, herbicides, and chemical fertilizers cost money. Natural farming aims to avoid the profit-zapping reliance on these costly inputs. Healthy soil produces hardy crops; strong plants do not get sick. Kept at their peak of health, strong, lifefilled soils have a congress of life in their root zones, providing steady food and balance to crops. There are no external inputs constantly taxing the health of these crops. By tending to the farm as a living system, soils and plants are helped to be as healthy as possible, of their own accord.

shrubs with crops and livestock in ways that create diverse, productive, and sustainable land-use systems. In natural farming, where minimal chemical inputs are used, agroforestry offers numerous environmental and economic benefits, making it a valuable approach for sustainable agriculture.
1. Soil Health and Fertility
Soil health and fertility are the cornerstones of any sustainable agricultural system, particularly in natural farming, where synthetic inputs are minimized or avoided altogether. Agroforestry, an agricultural practice that integrates trees and shrubs into farming systems, plays a key role in maintaining and enhancing soil health and fertility through natural processes. Here’s how agroforestry significantly improves soil conditions and sustains fertility over time. One of the primary ways agroforestry enhances soil fertility is through nutrient cycling. Trees and shrubs shed leaves, twigs, and other organic matter onto the soil surface, forming a layer of mulch. As this organic matter decomposes, it releases essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium back into the soil, which are then available for uptake by crops. This process mimics the natural nutrient recycling seen in forests, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and supporting the goal of low-input natural farming. Some tree species used in agroforestry are nitrogen-fixing, such as certain types of legumes like Gliricidia and Leucaena. These trees form symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules, converting atmospheric nitrogen into forms that plants can use. As a result, these trees contribute nitrogen directly to the soil, boosting its fertility and helping to meet the nitrogen needs of companion crops without synthetic fertilizers. Agroforestry improves soil  structure by encouraging the formation of stable soil aggregates.

Abstract
The global population is projected to reach 9 billion by 2050, with rural youth (aged 15–34) in developing countries of Africa and Asia facing significant challenges like unemployment, poverty, and limited access to resources such as land, credit, and education. Despite agriculture's potential to provide livelihoods and contribute to 32% of global employment, rural youth are increasingly disengaged, perceiving farming as unattractive due to its image of drudgery and lack of profitability. Agri-preneurship, blending agriculture with entrepreneurial skills, offers a solution by fostering innovative, profitable farm businesses. Initiatives like India’s ARYA program and private efforts such as the Green Shoots Foundation promote skill development, encouraging youth to pursue agriculture through training, microfinance, and market linkages. Empowering rural youth with entrepreneurial competencies can enhance food security, reduce rural outmigration, and support sustainable development.
Keywords: Agri-preneurship, Rural Youth, Agriculture, Skill Development, Food Security, Sustainable Development, Rural Outmigration, Entrepreneurial Competencies, Employment, Market Linkagesk

Introduction
Crop production is weather dependent and almost every crop has been affected by the changing climate. The favourable weather may result bumper production sometimes or even complete destruction of crop may take place under severe weather aberrations. The number of events of sudden aberrations is increasing in a cropping period with the gradual climate change in the recent past. It has been recorded too severe in case of perennial crops. Ready to harvest crops have several times been completely destroyed due to thunderstorm or cyclone in coastal regions or even in main land. Thus, Indian agriculture is being impacted by the climatic changes, and its affect is very much visible now (Aggarwal, 2008). Horticulture sector is not escaped from its’ ill affect and new challenges are coming for production (Singh et al., 2021). The role of adaptation strategy has now been felt crucial (Babu et al., 2021; Banerjee et al., 2022) and importance of agro advisory not only protects the crops from such types of risks but also provide guidance to farmers about the right time for activities in crop husbandry (Adak et al., 2018). Issuance for improving water productivity in water limited areas (Adak and Babu, 2024), micronutrient management for nutrient richness and enhanced yield (Adak et al., 2023; Shukla et al., 2020), rejuvenating unproductive orchards (Shukla et al., 2021; Mishra et al., 2007), disease (Misra et al., 2013; Shukla et al., 2015, 2019, 2020, 2021a,b; 2022; Kumari et al., 2021) and insect pest (Gundappa et al., 2016; 2018) management are becoming very crucial and essential for the benefit of growers.

Standard Operating Protocol for Export of Banana
Banana is one of the important fruit grown in India, as far as its export is concerned it is very limited which is below 1%. For export market it should be harvested at 85% maturity or the bunch is ready to harvest in 80-82 days after shooting initiation. Bunches are to be harvested carefully with two people. One person cut the hand and another person put the bunch onto the padding shoulder. Bunches should be slant cut with sickle shaped sharp knife free from any contamination. For export purpose banana fingers should be square, lie close together, hard, clean and free from any infestation and mucilaginous thread of pulp should be 4-5 cm in length. Skin should not be separated from pulp and no brown spot under the skin. De-handing must be done with sharp chisel type de-handing tool, by leaving maximum crown attached to the hand. The crown should be cut evenly; otherwise its outer finger may be detached. Other way to De-handing by using the nylon thread. It is easy method and it allows maximum crown attach with the land with minimum latex flow. The hands should be carefully paced in clean water which has alum 1 gm litre-1 or sodium hypochlorite (200 ppm) as surfactant for removing the latex and killing the micro-organism after that fruit must be packed in 20-25 kg capacity crates having foam in bottom and in between hands also. The most effective control of post harvest diseases and control of ripening of banana is treating the hands with 1.0% CISH METWASH an organic formulation for 30-60 seconds after that it should be carefully removed from this organic formulation and keep it in front of high speed fan for drying.

Objective: Equip participants with the skills to communicate clearly, confidently, and empathetically in verbal, non-verbal, and written forms to foster collaboration, reduce misunderstandings, and build stronger workplace relationships.
Why It Matters
Effective communication is the cornerstone of professional success. It ensures ideas are conveyed clearly, builds trust, and prevents conflicts. Poor communication can lead to misaligned expectations, decreased productivity, and strained relationships. For example, a vague email can cause project delays, or a misunderstood tone in a meeting can create tension. This module empowers participants to master communication in diverse workplace scenarios.
Learning Outcomes: By the end of this module, participants will:
1. Understand the components of effective communication (verbal, nonverbal, written).
2. Practice active listening and empathetic responses to enhance interpersonal connections.
3. Craft clear, professional written messages tailored to their audience.
4. Apply communication strategies in real-world scenarios through interactive exercises.

Introduction
Jasmine is commonly known as Chameli, Champa, Juhi, Mogra, and Motia in India. French jasmine, Spanish jasmine and Catalonian jasmine are also found in India. It consisted of both as vines/climbers and shrubs.
Origin
‘Jasminum’ word is derived from an Arabic word ‘Yasmin.’ It is native to the Himalayas and mostly found in tropical and sub-tropical regions. It originated in the north-east foothills of Himalayas in Indo-Burma. It is known
for characteristic smell and beautiful colours of flowers for our indoor as well as outdoor gardening. Jasmines are a group of ornamental domesticated plants, grown perennial for their fragrant flowers. However, its potential for production of perfume has also been first exploited in France.
Distribution
It was first introduced on commercial scale for production of essential oil in Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, Syria, Algeria, Tunisia, United Arab Republic, China and India. Keeping in view the manual picking of flowers, it is labour
based agro-industry. Presently,

Introduction
Lemongrass grows widely in many tropical and subtropical parts of Asia, Africa and America. East Indian or true lemongrass (C. flexuosus) is indigenous to India and large variability occurs in the Western Ghats comprising Kerala, Karnataka and T.N., besides Sikkim and A.P. Its cultivation and distillation of oil started first in Kerala and now grown in Assam, Maharashtra and U.P. The strong lemon like odour of the oil of the grass is responsible for its nomenclature. Predominantly, there are two types of lemongrass under cultivation, viz., the East Indian or Cochin or Malabar grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) with superior oil quality (75-85% citral) and preferred by the industry.
The other West Indian or American lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (D.C.) Stapf. is mainly cultivated in West Indian islands, Guatemala, Brazil, Mexico and Madagaskar; and comora islands, Thailand, Bangladesh and China. It has lower citral content and lower solubility in 70% alcohol. It is indigenous to India and spread over Western Ghats, comprising Kerala, Karnataka, TN, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Maharashtra, parts of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
Besides, a separate culture called Jammu lemongrass (Cymbopogon pendulus) is another indigenous species found wildly growing in West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and M.P. It also has high citral content, but cultivated to a limited extent in parts of Jammu in northern India.

Introduction
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) was first introduced in India at Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu during 1952 from Japan (Kapoor et al., 1955); and then to Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu at Chakrohi farm. Subsequently, it was introduced to CIMAP Northern Zonal Research Station at Haldwani in Nainital district (U.P.) during 1963-64. In India,  the crop is mainly grown in Tarai districts of U.P. (Nianital, Badayun, Bilaspur, Rampur, Moradabad and Bareilly); extending to parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (Barabanki and Lucknow); and parts of Punjab (Ludhiana and Jalandhar) in the north-western India. Mint or Pudina comes under a small genus Mentha of aromatic perennial herbs which belongs to family Labiatae (Laminaceae), distributed mainly to temperate and sub-temperate regions of the world. It has blue, laverder or white flowers in whorls.
Peppermint (M. x piperita) and spearmint (M. spicata) are largely cultivated in America, mainly in Oregan, Indiana, Idaho and south Michigan states. It was introduced in India during early 1980s. Uses
The above-ground herb (foliage) on distillation yields essential oil containing a large variety of aroma chemical command a large and world-wide demand in industry as given below.

Introduction
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) was first introduced in India at Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu during 1952 from Japan (Kapoor et al., 1955); and then to Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu at Chakrohi farm. Subsequently, it was introduced to CIMAP Northern Zonal Research Station at Haldwani in Nainital district (U.P.) during 1963-64. In India,  the crop is mainly grown in Tarai districts of U.P. (Nianital, Badayun, Bilaspur, Rampur, Moradabad and Bareilly); extending to parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (Barabanki and Lucknow); and parts of Punjab (Ludhiana and Jalandhar) in the north-western India. Mint or Pudina comes under a small genus Mentha of aromatic perennial herbs which belongs to family Labiatae (Laminaceae), distributed mainly to temperate and sub-temperate regions of the world. It has blue, laverder or white flowers in whorls.
Peppermint (M. x piperita) and spearmint (M. spicata) are largely cultivated in America, mainly in Oregan, Indiana, Idaho and south Michigan states. It was introduced in India during early 1980s. Uses
The above-ground herb (foliage) on distillation yields essential oil containing a large variety of aroma chemical command a large and world-wide demand in industry as given below.

Introduction
Among flowers, the rose enjoys the greatest adorable position over the world. In real sense, rose almost hypnotised the man most by its colour and fragrance. Apart from its aesthetic value, the roses are of high economic benefits, and religious significant. Besides, it finds it place in art and culture from times immemorial. The rose thus merits pride of place as the ‘Queen of flowers’.
Origin
The damask rose is originated in ancient Persia (now Iran), and later on spreading over Europe and Northern Africa. Further, widespread farming of R. damascena for rose oil manufacturing began in Turkey and Bulgaria. Many countries of the world grow scented roses for extraction of the volatile essential oil. The genus Rosa grows wild in many parts of the temperate and sub-temperate regions. The major growing countries are Bulgaria, France, Italy, Turkey, Russia, China and India. Bulgaria is the principle European country for supply of rose oil to the world market. Among different species, Rosa centifolia Linn. is largely grown in France and Italy, whereas Rosa
damascena Mill. in Turkey, Bulgaria, Russia and Persia. Rosa damascena Mill. was first introduced successfully in middle east countries during 1680, resulting in the establishment of entire area as ‘Valley of flowers’. It belongs to family rosaceae.

7.1 What is Chemotaxonomy?
The approach of taxonomy in which chemical features of plants are used in developing classifications or in solving taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy, chemosystematics, chemical taxonomy, chemical plant taxonomy or plant chemotaxonomy. Some of the basic chemical features or evidentiary characters include alkaloids, flavonoids, carotenoids, polysaccharides, terpenoids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds, etc.
The chemical evidences are useful in establishing relationships among taxa is exemplified (Cronquist, 1980) by the (i) Presence of aromatic plants in Juglandales, (ii) Production of betalains and not anthocyanins by the members of caryophyllales, (iii) Presence of highly aromatic compounds in the members of Lamiaceae, (iv) Presence of alkaloids in Solanaceae, and (v) Presence of tanniferous plants in Sapindaceae.
7.2 Purpose of Chemotaxonomy
Chemotaxonomy has been used at all levels of the hierarchy of classification starting from the rank of ‘variety’ up to the rank of ‘division’ in plants. Moreover, chemical evidences have been used in all the groups of the plant kingdom starting from simple organisms, such as fungi and bacteria, up to the most highly advanced and specialized groups of angiosperms. These evidences are used in the classification of plants with two main purposes, (i) To develop such taxonomic characters which may improve the existing systems of plant classification and (ii) To develop the present day knowledge of phylogeny or evolutionary relationships of plants.

In flowering plants, each anther has four numbers of pollen sacs. Two anther lobes contain 4 pollen sacs in which pollen grains are produced. Pollen grains develop from the diploid microspore mother cells in pollen sacs of anthers. Thus, palynology alynology is the science of pollen and spore morphology and its applications. It is derived from the Greek word ‘palynein’ meaning ‘to scatter’. Morphological and comparative studies in palynology may solve intricate taxonomic problems. Pollen characters are useful in solving several complicated problems of interrelationships between various taxa and assessment of their status in the classification (Zhigila et al., 2018). Pollen grains are in the binucleate stage at the time of pollination.
Wodehouse (1935) and Erdtman (1943, 1952, 1954, 1963 & 1969) made the most remarkable contribution in the field of pollen morphology. The significance of pollen attributes in taxonomy has been realized during the last three decade Erdtman (1952); Wagenitz (1976); Stix (1960), and Nair (1974). Dr. Parmeshwaran Krishnan Kutty Nair, fondly referred to as P. K. K. Nair (Fig. 8.1) and considered as the father of Indian palynology. Palynological renaissance, which started in 1952 with the contributions of Erdtman (1952) and Faegri and Iversen (1950), grew with the scientific activities of Nair and took a concrete shape in 1964 when he conveyed a symposium at NBRI, Lucknow.

Genome editing has emerged as a powerful tool for accelerating crop improvement in horticultural crops by enabling precise modifications in their genetic architecture. Considering the development and advantages of genomeediting technologies in improving diverse characteristics of horticultural crops, substantial increase has been reported in recent years including ZFN, TALEN, and especially CRISPR/Cas systems. The CRISPR/Cas technology has proved its potential in altering many genes of interest in horticultural plants including fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants for improving agronomically important traits and attributes such as growth rate, seed size, flowering time, flower color, storage time, resistance to biotic stresses, tolerance to abiotic stresses, herbicide tolerance, metabolism, fruit color, fruit ripening etc. This technology opens new avenues for more favorable and precise manipulation of plant genomes to improve crop performance.
Genome editing has emerged as a powerful biotechnological tool with transformative potential for horticultural crops. It involves the precise modification of plant DNA to enhance desired traits, increase crop yield, and confer resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. Molecular tools like CRISPR-Cas9, TALENs, and ZFNs act as molecular scissors, allowing for the targeted alteration of specific DNA sequences with unprecedented accuracy. This technology allows scientists to introduce or enhance beneficial traits in crops, including disease resistance, improved nutrition, and drought tolerance. Horticulture is a critical component of global food production and human well-being as it involves cultivation and management of plants for food, aesthetics, and medicinal purposes. Horticultural crops comprising fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and medicinal herbs, not only contribute to nutritional needs of populations worldwide but also enhance the visual appeal of our surroundings. However, productivity and quality of horticultural crops face significant constraints due to challenges such as biotic and abiotic stresses, limited genetic variation, and increasing demands for improved traits. Plant breeders have employed various techniques, such as hybridization, selection, and genetic manipulation, to enhance horticultural crops. These approaches have contributed to improved yield, disease resistance, and other desirable traits.

A family of about 73 genera and over 1,600 species (Hickey and King, 1988),Amaryllidaceae are usually distributed in tropical and sub-tropical regions. About 9 genera and over 60 species have been reported from India. Some of the larger genera along with the number of their world over reported species are Crinum (110), Hippeastrum (75), Narcissus (60), Hymenocallis (50), Haemanthus (50), Cyrtanthus (47), Zephyranthes (40), Galanthus (20), Polianthes (15), and Pancratium (15).
Hippeastrum (popular name Amaryllis) is one of the most beautiful bulbous ornamental plants grown in the world. It is very suitable for planting in pots, greenhouses, window gardens, flowering beds, rockeries, popular as cut flower, and useful in floral arrangements. Hippeastrum and Amaryllis are synonyms for ‘Trumpet lily’ or ‘Night Star lily’ in Indian gardens. In USA, A. belladonna is known as Callicore rosea sometimes as Hippeastrum equestre, and in South Africa as ‘March lily’, being a variable species. Plants of the genus A. belladonna are known as ‘Belladonna lily’, ‘Naked Lady’ or ‘Amarillo’. Hippeastrum hybridum is popularly known as ‘Royal Dutch’ amaryllis or ‘Dutch’ amaryllis hybrids. Hippeastrum takes its name from the Hippeus meaning ‘a knight rider’ or horse and ‘astron’ meaning a star, due to some fancied resemblance in H. equestre, perhaps of the equitant leaves and the star shaped corolla opening.

With the advent of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-associated protein9 (CRISPR/Cas9) genome editing, a fast and efficient new breeding technology, precision breeding in vegetable crops has become possible now. Several genes have been edited and functionally characterized using CRISPR/Cas9 in tomato for multiple traits such as plant type, floral morphology, fruit traits, disease resistance, and abiotic stress tolerance. The CRISPR/Cas9 has been proven in successful introgression of de novo domestication of elite traits from wild relatives to cultivated tomato. The progress in CRISPR/Cas9 based improvement in vegetable improvement, has been discussed.
Vegetables are an important source of healthy diet, as they provide essential nutrients including vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, antioxidants and other phytochemicals. Dietary fiber-rich vegetables improve digestion, while also lowering the risk of obesity, diabetes, high cholesterol and heart disease (Behera et al., 2021). A world vegetable survey showed that around 392 vegetable crops are cultivated worldwide, representing 70 families and 225 genera. Over 97 species of higher plants are being cultivated and consumed as vegetables in India. These crops belong to 20 different families such as Cucurbitaceae (25 crops), Fabaceae (16 crops), Brassicaceae (12 crop) and Solanaceae (6 crops). The world’s total vegetables production was 1,155 million tonnes in 2021 where China ranks first with a total production of 600 million tonnes, accounting for 52.18% of the total world production. The top 5 countries (China, India, the United States of America, Turkey and Vietnam) account for 70.36% of total world’s production. As far as India is concerned,  it is the largest producer of ginger (2.23 million tonnes) and okra (6.47 million tonnes) in the world, while ranking 2nd in potato (54.23 million tonnes), dry onion (26.64 million tonnes), cauliflower and broccoli (9.25 million tonnes), brinjal (12.87 million tonnes) and cabbage (9.56 million tonnes) (FAO 2023).

A family of about 15 genera and 705 species showing cosmopolitan distribution. About 35 genera and over 195 species have been reported from India. Some of the largely represented genera along with the number of their world over reported species are Smilax (350), Aloe (300), Asparagus (300), Dracaena (150). Ornithogalum (150), Haworthia (150), Tulipa (100), Fritillaria (85), Lilium (80), Colchicum (65), Sansevieria (60), Yucca (40), Asphodelus (12) and Ruscus (7).
Lilium is a bulbous ornamental plant commonly known as lily. The flowers are associated with religious feasts and symbolism. In the language of flowers, the lily is the symbol of purity, and innocence. It is one of the sixth major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Lilium ranks 4th among cut flower trade in international market. Certain species of Lilium are edible, and valued for medicinal properties also.
Tulip is one of the most important bulbous geophytes in the world and popular due to its beauty and economic value. It is the top rated flower bulb in the international cut flower market. Modern tulip cultivars, predominantly T. gesneriana, are grown for bulb production, cut flowers, flowering potted plants, and landscaping. The current commercial assortment still consists mainly of cultivars from T. gesneriana. The second group of cultivars, the Darwin hybrids consists has been obtained from interspecific crosses between cultivars T. gesneriana and genotypes of T. fosteriana. Tulipa suaveolens, a kind of tulip discovered wild in southern Europe, has played an important role in the evolution of the garden tulip (Bailey, 1963).

A family of about 244 genera and 4,225 species, Malvaceae are distributed widely in tropical and temperate regions. About 22 genera and 125 species of Malvaceae have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger
genera, along with their common names and/or number of reported species in parenthesis, include Hibiscus (rose mallow, 300), Sida (200), Abutilon (Indian mallow, 100), Alcea (60), Malva (mallow, 40), Lavatera (25), Gossypium (cotton, 20) and Althaea (12). The family is recognized by Hibiscus rosasinensis (Rose of China) because of its beautiful large flowers and hundreds of its known cultivated varieties.
Hibiscus commonly called as ‘Chinese hibiscus’ or ‘Rose of China’ or ‘Hawaiian hibiscus’ or ‘Blacking plant’ or ‘Shoe flower’ is a flowering plant of hot and warm climate, and hence, known as ‘Queen of Tropics’. Florida is the
prominent hibiscus growing centre of the world. The commercial species have wide variety of uses including fibers, food, medicinal and ornamental, either as a potted plant, fence or hedge plant or as a landscape shrub. Ethno medicinal value of hibiscus is documented

Probably since the beginning of human life on the planet, they have used local fruits and vegetables. For a long time, they have enjoyed the fruit of the wild trees without knowing how to successfully produce them. Such native fruit trees have many advantages. These trees have an extraordinary genetic diversity that can be exploited in breeding programs and genetic advancement of domestic varieties (Khadivi et al., 2020). Many indigenous fruits are still highly valuable, and the harvesting and selling of these forest fruits contribute significantly to the local economy of families in the area. The product collected from forest trees is completely healthy and in terms of quality, they may even be equal to “organic fruits”. In a most recently published book chapter entitled organic pomegranate production in Iran, compiled by Alizadeh and Varasteh (2024), wild pomegranates were considered as noble source of healthy food. Given the multifunctional, ubiquitous nature of wild edible fruits the present chapter was compiled to introduce wild fruit trees of northern Iran with a focus on providing more detailed information about wild pomegranates.
Geographical Aspects of Northern Iran Northern Iran
is a geographical region encompassing a relatively large and fertile area, located along the southern border of the Caspian Sea and the Alborz Mountains. Upon closer examination of the map of Iran (Fig. 1), one can identify three northern provinces: Golestan, Mazandaran, and Gilan. These provinces all share borders with the Caspian Sea and the Alborz Mountains. The Alborz mountain range extends from the western border with the Republic of Azerbaijan to the eastern border with Turkmenistan (Fig.1).

Introduction
In India, the government policy regarding the import and export of processed fruits is primarily regulated by the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), which requires exporters to register with them to export notified processed food items, including processed fruits, and implement various export promotion schemes to facilitate this trade; the overall goal is to boost the export of agricultural and processed food products through the Agriculture Export Policy (AEP).
1. Key features ofAgriculture Export Policy (AEP)
i. Governing body: APEDA, established under the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority Act, 1985.
ii. Registration required: All exporters of processed fruits are required to register with APEDA to export their products.

French bean, Phaseolus vulgaris under the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and having chromosome No.2n = 2x = 22 is an important leguminous vegetable crop grown worldwide for its tender fruit (pod) as vegetable and dry seeds as pulse. French beans are unique among plant foods due to their high protein content. It is a highly variable species that has a long history of cultivation. Most of the bean varieties for processing (canned, frozen, and freeze-dried) are round podded, while fresh market cultivars are often flat or oval shaped. French bean is a valuable source of the amino acids lysine and tryptophan; minerals likes, iron, copper and zinc; and beneficial phytochemicals, antioxidants and flavonoids.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
French bean is thought to have been originated in South and Central America. Southern Mexico and Central America are considered to be the primary centre of origin, while secondary centres lies in Peru-Bolivia-Ecuador region of American continent. It was actually domesticated in Mesoamerica first and travelled south, probably along with squash (Cucurbita species) and maize. Multi-locus sequence data have indicated that the domestication of common bean was initiated 8000 years ago. Cultivation of French beans started by the American Indian tribes settled in Tehuacan Valley of Mexico and in Callejon de Huaylas, Peru. When Christopher Columbus returned from his second voyage to the New World in the year 1493 he brought French beans with him in the Mediterranean region. French beans were considered to be rare to find and expensive but soon became one of the commonly used beans in the 19th century. In France, French beans were introduced in the year 1597 by the Conquistador (Spanish explorers). In Europe, the French bean spread rapidly in the 16th and 17th centuries and reached England by 1594.

Dolichos bean or Hyacinth bean, Lablab purpureus (L).Sweet. (Syn. Dolichos lablab Roxb.) under the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and having Chromosome No.: 2n = 2x = 22 is one of the most ancient among the cultivated plants. Young, immature pods are cooked and eaten like green beans. It is grown throughout the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. In India, it is grown extensively in the cool season in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Maharashtra. The pods are one of the rich sources of protein and it also provides fair amount of carbohydrates, calcium, phosphorus sodium, magnesium and iron, b-carotene, riboflavin, thiamine and nicotinic acid.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Dolichos bean or Hyacinth bean has been originated in India as wild forms of this bean are found in this country. From India, it was introduced to China, Western Asia, Egypt and other tropical countries of South and South-east Asia and Africa. Vegetable and pulse type dolichos bean belong to two distinct botanical varieties under Lablab purpureus viz., Lablab purpureus var. typicus and Lablab purpureus var. lignosus, respectively. Various forms and cultivars of both the cultivated types are available in India.