eChapters

Q.1 We can apply the change of origin or change of scale or change of origin and scale both to the original data in case of applying ANOVA technique to make the analysis easy and speedy.

Q.2 The conclusions drawn from ANOVA based on transformed data or original data are different.

Q.1 Factorial experiment is not a design.

Q.2 In factorial experiment, all possible combinations of two or more than two factors are not considered

Q.1 If two type ot factors, say (A & B) have to be studied in the same experiment where A requires larger plot size and B requires smaller plot size and structure of the experiment is that of plots within blocks and blocks within replication then such layout is known as split plot design.

Q.1 Let there be two factors A and B with p and q levels respectively which are applied to the larger strip by dividing the experimental material into p rows and q columns. The factors A and B are applied at random to these rows and columns respectively. Such a layout is known as strip plot design.

Q.1 The replicated experiment designed to compare a number of parent plants w. r. to some attribute under study is known as “Progeny row trial?

Q.1 Analysis of covariance is an extension of ANOVA.

Q.2 In an ANCOVA technique, observations are taken on more than one variable from each experimental unit.

Q.1 In random effect model, the treatments are taken as a random sample of treatments drawn from a large group of T treatments.

Q.2 In varietal trials for plant breeding or genetics, the appropriate statistical model is not the random effect model.

Q.1 In addition to the assumption of ANOVA, the other point which is given due consideration by the statistician is “The stability of variance.”

Q.2 In any investigation, if it is possible to incorporate the “randomisation procedure” then it is customary to rely on “ Randomisation” to break up any “correlation among experimental errors”

Q.1 The most fundamental assumption to be followed by random variable for using the standard method (parametric statistic) or parametric inference is that the random variable follows normal distribution.

Q.2 The standard parametric techniques are not useful for estimating parameters and testing hypothesis about them.

Q.1 In applying varying probability sampling for information of population total of X, it is required to know the values of selection probabilities Pi (i = 1, 2, 3,..., N).

Q.2 The technique of “Double Sampling” was first time formulated by Jayman, (1938) in connection of collecting information on strata sizes in stratified random sampling scheme.

Cochan W.G. (1946). Relative Accuracy of Systematic and Stratified Random Sampling for a Certain Class of Populations. Ann. Math. Statist, 17, 164- 177.

Cochan, W.G. (1977). Sampling Technique, 3rd edition, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.

1. Which of the following states has nutrient use of < 100 kg/ ha?

(a) Madhya Pradesh                (b) Karnataka

(c) West Bengal                       (d) Uttar Pradesh

2. Which of the following is the leading state in maize production

(a) Bihar                                   (b) Uttar Pradesh

(c) Punjab                                (d) Gujarat

Plants are used as medicine since time immemorial. One of the area of Ethnobotany, Ethnopharmacology is considered as the scientific evaluation of traditional medicinal plants (Cotton, 1996). Cox (1994) has suggested that the ethno-directed sampling is most likely to succeed in identifying drugs used in the treatment of gastrointestinal, inflammatory and dermatological complaints. The Plant kingdom is a virtual goldmine of potential drug targets and other active molecules awaiting to be discovered. It has been estimated that only 10 - 15 per cent of the 7,50,000 existing species of higher plants have been surveyed for biologically active compounds.

Dietary supplements from plant sources are sometimes referred to as phytopharmaceuticals. They are produced from fresh, dried or otherwise preserved plants or parts of plants. The active ingredients are usually not completely isolated but rather are obtained along with other naturally occurring components of the plant. These other components are often believed to influence the efficacy of the active ingredient. Sometimes the active ingredients are concentrated, and undesirable substances such as chlorophyll, tannins, or resins, are removed.

Phytochemicals from various parts of a plant or tree such as the leaves, the flowers, the seeds, the barks, the roots and the shrubs can be isolated. Once one comes in from collecting plants in the field, it is good idea to freeze them immediately in a freezer at – 20°C or a commercial freezer held at – 80°C (Kaufman et al., 1999). According to Harborne (1984, 1998), fresh plant tissues should be used for phytochemical analysis and the material should be plunged into boiling alcohol within minutes of its collection. Alternatively, plants may be dried before extraction.

Extraction is a process whereby the desired constituents of a plant are removed using a solvent. The primary ways for extraction of organic molecules of interest to biologists and medical investigators involve breaking open the cells. Cell rupturing is carried out in a variety of ways. The method used depends on the type of tissue used. For plant cells grown in cell suspension culture or for plant callus tissue, a French press or a sonicator can be used to break open the cell.

The different qualitative chemical tests can be performed for establishing profile of given extract for its chemical composition. The following tests may be performed on extracts to detect various phytoconstituents present in them.

All separation procedures depend mainly on some physical characteristics of the compounds. It is relatively easy to separate compounds that have significantly different physical characteristics by simple techniques such as solvent extraction. If the various compounds are similar to each other in their molecular size, any slight difference in any one of their physical properties is exploited to achieve separation. 

For qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytochemicals, chromatography can be used. Gas chromatography is a powerful means of performing qualitative and quantitative measurements of complex mixtures of volatile substances, which are vaporizable without decomposition.Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GCMS) system is a widely used instrument for qualitative and quantitative analysis of solid, liquid, and gaseous samples. Samples are converted into gaseous ions and then separated on the basis of their mass-tocharge ratio. 

After isolation and purification of the compound, it has to be identified. It is necessary to find out the class of the compound first and then to find out the specific compound within the class. The class of compound is usually determined from the colour tests, solubility, Rf properties and UV spectral characteristics of the compound. Further identification within the class depends on measuring physical properties and spectral measurements and then comparing these data with those in the literature.

Phytochemicals are the individual chemicals from which the plants are made. Phytochemical is simply a word that means plant chemicals. Plants have the ability to synthesize mixtures of structurally diverse bioactive compounds with multiple and mutually potential therapeutic effects. The plants have the capacity of manufacturing the secondary products. Phytochemicals with antioxidant properties tend to be brightly colored because they contain chromophores, ie, a series of alternating single-bonded and double-bonded carbons. Isoprene is often the building block of such units. The darkest green vegetables contain the most chlorophyll, and vegetables with the most chlorophyll require the most antioxidants.

The following plants have been worked out in the laboratory of Prof. N. Raaman: Cynodon dactylon, Artemisia pallens, Leptadenia reticulata, Clausena dentata, Tylophora indica, Aristolochia bracteolata, A. indica, Cissus quadrangularis, Hypericum mysorense. and Solanum trilobatum. Out of some of the data of these plants have been included in the previous chapters. In this chapter, compound isolation (CD1) from Clausena dentata (worked by Dr. R. Kamaraj) and characterization of the compound are given in detail.

Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Alkaloids showed quite diverse medicinal properties (Rates, 2001). Many of them possess local anesthetic properties, but their practical use is limited for clinical purposes (Hesse, 2002). Morphine is one of the most known alkaloids isolated from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), which had been used and still is for medical purposes. This alkaloid is a powerful narcotic which is used for the relief of pain, but its usefulness is limited because of its addictive properties.

Phenolic compounds constitute a major class of plant secondary metabolites that are widely distributed in the Plant Kingdom. Plant phenolics are biosynthesized through the shikimate/phenylpropanoid pathway leading to different compound classes. They may occur in their natural sources in free forms, as glycosylated or acylated derivatives, and as oligomeric and polymerized structures, such as hydrolyzable and condensed tannins, phlorotannins or lignins. They may also be found linked to plant matrix components such as cell walls, carbohydrates or proteins. It should be indicated that although the terms “plant phenolics” and “polyphenols” are indistinguishably used by some authors, they are not synonymous.

Anthocyanins are members of the flavonoid group of phytochemicals, a group predominant in teas, honey, wines, fruits, vegetables, nuts, olive oil, cocoa and cereals. The primary players in this group include the anthocyanins (eg, cyanidin, pelargonidin, petunidin), flavonols (quercetin, kaempferol), flavones (luteolin, apigenin), flavanones (myricetin, naringin, hesperetin, naringenin), flavan-3-ols (catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin), and although sometimes classified separately, the isoflavones (genistein, daidzein) (Skibola and Smith, 2000).

Essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic oily fragrance liquid extracted from plants, containing easily evapourated chemical compounds at room temperature. Essential oils are extracted from the different plant parts including the flowers, leaves, stem, bark, and roots, and they are extracted from different techniques. The most preferable method of extraction is hydro distillation which is easy to use and cheap. Essential oils are used in every field of life, used in aromatherapy, and act as antifungal, antioxidant, anxiety, pain relievers, and depression.

Historical Development of Soil Science/Agriculture

Francis Bacon (1561-1624 A.D.): Found the water as nutrient of plants.

Van Helmont (1577-1644): Give the ideas about the role of soil as a simple source of water and minerals for the plants.

1. White alkali soils also know as

a. Acid soil                  b. Saline soil

c. Saline sodic soil    d. Sodic soil

1. Amoeba are unicellular organisms that feed on

a. Bacteria and algae     b. Bacteria and fungi

c. Fungi and algae        d. Nematode and fungi

1. Central Fertilizer Quality Control & Training Institute (CFQC&TI) is situated at

a. Mysore           b. Karnal

c. Faridabad        d. Coimbatore

1. The smallest size soil separate is

a. Sand      b. Silt

c. Clay        d. Loam

 1. A mineral that forms an original component of rock is called

a. Primary         b. Secondary

c. Essential         d. Accessory

India is an agriculture based country which is one of the few developing countries in the world. It successfully achieved Green Revolution during the late 1960s (1967-68). At present, agriculture is a principal means of livelihood for over 58.4 per cent of Indiaís population directly or indirectly (Anonymous, 2011). It is worthwhile to mention that although agriculture continued to be the mainstay of the Indian economy previously (Anonymous, 2010b) yet now its share in the Indian economy is declining year after year (Anonymous 2013d). After Independence, agricultureís sector contribution to GDP swings between 50-60 per cent. Even in 1950-51, it was 55.1 per cent, but fell to mere 17-18 per cent in 2008-09 (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009).

Agricultural production has made rapid strides in the past four to five decades and has enabled India to achieve self-sufficiency in food grain production. This was only through ìGreen Revolutionî which ushered during 1967-68 onwards, when use of old agricultural practices were mostly done away with. Neglect of old or indigenous agricultural practices such as use of organic manures (farm yard manure - FYM, compost, green manure), cultural control methods like sanitation, tillage/removal of weeds, adjusting sowing/harvesting time crop rotation, trap crops, water and fertilizer management and host plant resistance, and use of plant based insecticides like neem or nim (Azadirachta indica), drek (Azadirachta indica), nirgudhi or bana (Vitex negundo) vis-a-vis biological control measures, has resulted in outbreak of ill-effects in human beings and animals through contaminated food stuffs (Gupta, 2006a).

In modern times, soil tillage has emerged as an integral part of a crop system. Soil tillage or soil surface management has been found important in alleviating soil related constraints encountered in crop production. An important effect of soil tillage on crop productivity is through its influence on soil processes, soil Soil Tillage 39 properties and crop growth. At the same time, soil tillage has its impact on the environment e.g. soil degradation, water quality, emission of green house gases from soil related processes etc.

Water is precious, but it is a finite natural resource. Although it accounts for about three-fourth of the earthís surface yet very small fraction of it i.e., only 2.7 per cent of the global water is available as fresh water. Around 2.8 billion people live in areas of high water scarcity (Anonymous, 2014d). Out of the total amount of the fresh available water merely 30 per cent is withdrawn to meet the water requirements of the human and livestock population while the remaining 70 per cent is required to produce food crops that fuel human activities.

Now-a-days, a watershed management or watershed development has been fully recognized as a unit for over all development of rainfed areas (Gupta, 2006a and b). Hydrological problems such as excessive runoff, large scale soil erosion, inadequate or faulty drainage and occurrence of droughts are the most significant problems in almost all the rainfed areas. These problems, however, can be alleviated through running watershed based development programmes that recognize the natural topography and water movement patterns of the land.

There is no doubt that after independence, particularly during 1966-68, the use of hybrid and composite seeds of various crops, chemical fertilizers and pesticides resulted in an increase in the Indian agricultural output leading to ìGreen Revolutionî. But quite soon, the deleterious effects of farming based on chemical Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture 105 methods came to fore.

Today a number of countries have moved away from the inorganic or chemicalised farming to organic farming yet it is not possible for India to depend entirely upon this system of farming due to increase in human population. As total availability of plant nutrients from different organic sources is projected to 7.75 MT by 2025 against the total requirement of 37.50 MT for 1504 million populations, so it means if we depend on organic sources there would be deficiency of about 30 million tonnes of nutrients.

Bio-fertilizers, as the name indicates, are the fertilizers of biological origin (Gupta, 2012). In strict sense, real bio-fertilizers are green manures and organics - materials of biological origin which are added to supply plant nutrients present in them. However, in restricted scope, the term ìbio-fertilizersî or ìmicrobial inoculantsî are preparations of living organisms in alone or in combination, which may help in increasing crop productivity by way of fixing atmospheric Use of Bio-Fertilizers in Sustainable Agriculture 175 nitrogen in soils, solubilizing of insoluble plant nutrients, stimulating plant growth or decomposing of plant residues. 

Ever increasing use of chemical fertilizers without an adequate organics has deteriorated the fertility and productivity of soil and also aggravated multi-nutrient deficiencies in soil and plant system (Gupta and Singh, 2006). Further, change in the cropping pattern, intensive cultivation and indiscriminate use of pesticides with an objective to obtain more and more crop yield, has not only made agriculture a profitable commercial venture but has also brought in several problems of pests and diseases, and ecological crises. As the nitrogenous fertilizers are soluble and as such they may leach down into ground water as for example presence of nitrate in underground waters of some parts of UP, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat, has become a potent source of blue baby disease (Gupta, 2005).

The term pesticide includes fungicides, bactericides, nematicides, rodenticides, soil fumigants and herbicides. They cover a wide range of formulations: chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, metallic salts, acetic acid derivatives, thiocarbamates etc. They all have deleterious effects on humans, domestic animals, wildlife and plants.

Agriculture is the main stay of Indian economy as more than 60 per cent of the people of India are dependent upon this evocation and allied disciplines for their livelihood. Even today, at the dawn of 21st century, the Indian agriculture has continued to be the backbone of our National economy, representing countryís about one seventh of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Thus, farming families consisting both of men and women, boys and girls, known as the pillars of our agriculture constitutes backbone of the Nation. The support and contributors made by the rural women in agriculture, consisting 50-60 per cent of farm work force are, however, not less than those performed by the men, and therefore they become spine of the rural economy.

In spite of the fact that the forests are the wealth of a nation and play a vital role in the economy of the country, not much attention has been paid to their promotion, protection and conservation. The forests of India have been reduced to 19.27 per cent (Gupta and Khajuria, 2000) and/or 23 per cent including 20.55 per cent forest cover and 2.48 tree cover (Sharma, 2005). It is much less than as prescribed in the National Forest Policy (1952), according to which onethird i.e. 33 per cent of the total land area of the country must be under forest.

The concept of indigenous knowledge or indigenous knowledge system (IKS) delineates a cognitive structure in which theories and perceptions of nature and culture are conceptualized. Thus, it includes definitions, classifications and concepts of the physical, natural, social land economic environments. The dynamics of IKS takes places on two different levels, the cognitive and empirical. On the empirical levels, IKS is visible in institutions, artifacts and technologies.

In whole of the world, about 6 to 7 m ha of agricultural land is becoming unproductive every year due to one or the other reasons (Gupta, 2018a). This is, however, more so in case of developing countries (Gupta, 2003). Productive lands are utmost important to meet the countryís growing needs for food, fodder, fuel wood, medicinal herbs and timber.

North Eastern Himalayan Region comprises mostly of seven states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura (Gill, 2005). This Himalayan Region stands entirely different from the rest of the country not only in language, dress, food habits and festivals but also differs in agricultural practices. Among agricultural practices shifting cultivation locally known as ìJhumî or ìBunî is the most important. According to Ministry of Agriculture, Arunachal Pradesh stands first in the ìJhumî cultivation followed by Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya (Agnihotri, 2003). In Meghalaya, the problem has assumed an epidemic proportion in Gargo hills where tracts of forests are burnt. The farmers of Khasi and Jainta Hills usually practise the ìBunî cultivation.

It is an established fact that there is no further scope for horizontal expansion of area under plough, as the per capita land is decreasing every year due to unabated increase in human population. Hence, the future need of food has to be met through vertical expansion i.e. more intensification of agriculture. Nearly 40 million tonnes of nutrients in the form of chemical fertilizers will have to be utilized to feed upon an estimated population of 1.5 billion by 2050 AD (Sakai, 2001). However, presently the crop productivity especially rice and wheat has stagnated not only in India but in other South Asian countries also (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009). 

Agriculture is the lifeline of India that provides livelihood to about 70 per cent of its population dwelling in about 6 lakh villages. In spite of so many projects, programmes and schemes launched from time to time after independence by Government of India through Ministry of Agriculture and Indian Council of Agricultural Research, State Agricultural Universities and Departments of Agriculture, agricultural food grains production was not realized on ìsustainable basisî. Even ìGreen Revolutionî which came to fore during 1967-68 in the irrigated areas alone, could not sustain the productivity of rice and wheat. Rather, the productivity of these crops has either got declined in many cases and/or in other cases it has stagnated.

Technical Term           Definition

Soil erosion                Transportation & deposition of soil particles from one place to other after detachment from soil mass.