eChapters

18.1. Determination of Available Micronutrient Cations (Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn) in Soil

The available micronutrient cations (Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn) can be estimated in a single extraction with diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) as proposed by Lindsay and Norvell (1978). DTPA has the excellent property to combine with free metal ions in the solution forming soluble complexes. The stability constants of metal-DTPA complexes make DTPA as a most suitable extractant for simultaneous complex formation with Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn. In calcareous soil DTPA extractant may result overestimation due to excess dissolution of CaCO_3, thus releases occluded micronutrient cations which are not plant available. To avoid this excessive dissolution of CaCO₃, DTPA is buffered at pH 7.3 using triethanol amine (TEA). At this pH major part (3/4^th) of TEA is present as HTEA⁺ (protonation) and exchanges for Ca and Mg ion from the soil exchange site. This increases concentration of Ca and Mg in the solution phase and suppresses dissolution of CaCO₃. The DTPA has the capacity to complex each of the micronutrient cations 10 times of its atomic weight and it ranges from 550 to 650 ppm depending on the micronutrient cation.

The amount of cation in the extract is determined on an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). The experimental condition such as shaking time, DTPA concentration, pH and temperature during shaking influence the amount of Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn extracted. Increase in shaking time and temperature markedly influence the extractability of these cations.

There are nine essential micronutrients, namely, iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl), vanadium (V) and nickel (Ni). Out of these, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Ni (Dominic et al., 1978) are taken up by plants in their ionic form X²⁺, Mo as MoO^2-, chlorine as Cl^– form and boron as boric acid (H₃BO₃) or as its ionic form B (OH)₄ ^–. The absorption of vanadium by plants has received only limited attention (Lepp et al., 1983); it may be absorbed as cation V or vanadyl (VO²⁺) and anion vanadate (VO₄ ^3–). Bulk of the information is available on Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu, because of the acceptability of the single DTPA (Diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid)–CaCl₂ extraction test of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) for availability of all these four nutrients followed by their estimation on Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS). Available B is estimated by hot 0.15 M CaCl₂ extraction method (Saha and Singh, 1997). Molybdenum data base is poor, because its determination is dif?cult and Mo de?ciency in crops has not been much noticed in India. Chloride is available in plenty in irrigation water and soil in India and has not received much attention in India.

Abstract

Impact of climate change and related stresses on plant productivity are being witnessed worldwide with developing countries being more vulnerable due to more dependency on agriculture. Microorganisms can play important role as economic and farmer’s friendly strategy to combat abiotic stress in agriculture. A wide range of microorganisms associate with plants, and many of them confer beneficial effects to their hosts through different mechanisms like production of growth promoting substances, nutrient acquisition, protection against plant pathogens etc. In the last few decades, role of microorganisms in imparting tolerance to plants against different abiotic stress has been reported in many crop plants. Under stresses conditions, plant-microbe interactions become more common towards coping with the stress. Selection and application of efficient abiotic stress tolerant microorganisms can be a fruitful strategy to alleviate negative effects of abiotic stresses in plants.

The adoption of modern agricultural technologies has culminated into serious problems of pesticide resistance in major pests, resurgence in minor pests, elimination of populations of natural parasites, predators and pollinators, environmental pollution, pesticide residues in food chain and health hazards. World Health Organization (WHO) estimates one million pesticides poisoning cases and 20,000 deaths every year globally. This is due to high pesticide residues in food chain including cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, milk and milk products (including mother’s milk), fishes, poultry, meat products and water. Twenty five per cent of Indian food products contain pesticide residues above tolerance level compared to only 1.2% globally.

Herbicides are the chemical substances used to kill weeds, i.e., unwanted plants that compete with crop plants for soil nutrients. Chemical herbicides are the most effective immediate solution to most weed problems. Use of chemicals, however, can be harmful to wildlife, to the environment and to humans. Chemicals are also expensive, and weeds develop resistance to the chemicals. For these reasons, there is now a move toward alternative methods of controlling the weeds. One of the most promising is biological weed control, which involves using one living organism to control the activities of another organism.

Emphasis of present day agriculture is to produce more with lesser land, water and man power. Apart from natural calamities like drought, flood etc., biotic stresses like pests, diseases and weeds also influence the crop productivity greatly. Sixty to eighty per cent of the total crop losses are attributed to the devastations caused by pests and diseases. Farmer’s income in recent years is decreasing gradually due to increased cost of inputs particularly in plant protection. The excessive dependence on chemical pesticides leads to the development of resistance in insect pests and pathogens, out breaks of secondary pests and pathogens / biotypes and occurrence of residues in food chain. To avoid this situation the concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)/ Integrated Disease Management (IDM) approach should be considered on top priority.

Sustainable agriculture or organic farming wherein biological inputs are maximum and chemical inputs are minimal, is drawing the attention of farmers across the world including India. For replacing chemical fertilizers, which supply plant nutrients by organic manure, the basic requirement is the availability of raw material i.e. the organic matter or biomass that can be decomposed to organic manure. The question that is often asked is what are the different sources of available biomass and how much of it is available? Different sources of biomass can be categorized as

1.    Yoghurt usually contains total milk solids in the range of

(a) 12-15%

(b) 8.5 to 11.5%

(c) 15-19%

(d) 20-25 %

2.    Yoghurt is usually manufactured by heating the pre-mix to pasteurize it to

(a) 61-62°C for 20 minutes

(b) 80-85°C for 15 to 30 minutes

(c) 80-85°C for 15 sec

(d) 71-72°C for 15 sec

Phosphorus is one of the essential nutrients for plant growth. It is an integral part of the cellular activities of the living organisms. It has a defined role in plant metabolism such as cell division, development, photosynthesis, break down of sugar, nutrient transport within the plant, transfer of genetic characteristics from one generation to another and regulation of metabolic pathways. Phosphorus is a frequently limiting macronutrient next only to nitrogen for plant growth and makes up about 0.2% of plant dry weight. The plants obtain their P requirement from the soil pool. It occurs in soil as inorganic phosphates, produced by weathering of parent rock or as organic phosphate derived from decayed plant, animal, or microorganisms.

Introduction

Global plastic production is on rise while the production in 1950 was 1.3 million tonnes wherein 359 million tons of plastic waste generation was recorded in 2018. It is predicted that the increase in plastic waste generation will reach around 250 million metric tonnes by 2050 (Haque and Fan, 2022). Plastics are now ubiquitous and has turn out to be the most dominant marine litter, which is an emerging global concern today. According to the UNEP, United Nations Environment Assembly 2017 estimates, annually around 4.8 12.7 million metric tonnes of plastics are introduced into the oceans (Haward, 2018). Owing to their lower costs, lightweight, durability and strength, virtually everything and everywhere are plastics.

Abstract
Microplastics, or plastic fragments smaller than 5 millimeters, have become prevalent contaminants in aquatic systems, arising from the breakdown of larger plastics, personal care products, and synthetic fabrics. Their presence disrupts marine and freshwater ecosystems by being consumed by wildlife, disturbing food webs, and polluting habitats. Additionally, microplastics can transport harmful pollutants and release toxic chemicals, worsening their environmental impact. Identifying these particles involves sophisticated methods such as microscopy, spectroscopy, and thermal analysis, although differentiating them from other particulates remains challenging. Major sources include direct releases, the fragmentation of larger plastic waste, and atmospheric deposition, with pathways like stormwater runoff and wastewater treatment aiding their dispersal. Addressing microplastic pollution requires a combination of regulatory measures, including bans on microbeads, technological advancements such as enhanced filtration
systems, and increased public and industry engagement. Continued research is essential for developing effective solutions, understanding microplastic pathways in the environment, and assessing their long-term effects on health.
Keywords: Microplastic, Environmental impacts, Detection, Sources, Mitigation strategies

Principle

Micropropagation is especially useful for include propagation of high value plants that grow slowly (bulbs, ferns, orchids, palms, etc), new cultivars having limited stock and high market demand (new cultivars produced via conventional breeding or genetic engineering), cultivars that are difficult to root by conventional techniques, and endangered plant species. In addition, virus elimination is possible via culture initiation from meristem explants. Also, micropropagation provides a source of sterile tissues that can be used for other tissue culture protocols, including genetic transformation.

Micropropagation is possible using multiple types of cultures; however, shoot cultures are typically employed, in which case five stages to the micropropagation process are typically recognized as outlined below. Nodal explants of rose are used for culture initiation. Three media, differing in hormone content, is employed and the explants should be evaluated for differences in axillary shoot growth and proliferation.

Abstract

Bamboo is nature’s unique gift to mankind. It has tremendous scope for use in eco-friendly agro-forestry programmes, to bring marginal lands into use. The requirement for bamboo is increasing for various traditional and industrial requirements. In India almost 99% of annual bamboo production comes from the natural forests and only about 1% is derived from plantations.

ABSTRACT

Dissected shoot tips from healthy suckers of banana var. Meitei Hei (local variety) were inoculated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with different concentrations and combinations of plant growth regulators viz., NAA and BAP. After 15 days of incubation 50% of the shoot tips turned green in the medium with 5.0 mgl^-1 BAP. A maximum of 85.7% of the explants produced phenolic exudates in MS + 5.0 mgl^-1 BAP. After one month the explants were subcultured in fresh medium with the respective concentrations and combinations of plant growth regulators. After 75 days of incubation an average of 2.20 microshoots were induced in 78.57% of the explants in MS + 5.0 mgl^-1 BAP. The regeneration of shoots, leaves and roots was more proportionate in MS + 0.1 mgl^-l NAA + 0.5 mgl^-1 BAP. Under the treatment the microshoots had an average height of 1.19 cm with 4.13 leaves and 2.40 roots. The multiple microshoots were separated and subcultured on MS + 0.1 mgl^-l NAA + 0.5 mgl^-1 BAP for proper development. After 120 days the completely regenerated plantlets were hardened under green house environment.

ABSTRACT

The present experiment was conducted to standardize the composition of nutrient media for callus regeneration. Shoot tip, internodal segment, leaf and hypocotyls of seedling grown under controlled condition were used as explants for callus induction. The study revealed that explants collected from younger seedlings showed greater proliferation of callus as compared to those collected from older one. The basal MS medium as well as WP medium fortified with different concentrations of auxins and cytokinins were tried. Initial better results of profuse callus growth with green colour and compact texture having regenerative capacity were obtained by using leaf explants. In all the treatments, the callus initiation occurred at the cut ends and then spread over the surface of the explant as a result of injury. The level of auxins presumable rises and quiescent cells were stimulated to divide rapidly producing callus. The leaf segment explant induced the callus after 9.50 days in medium WPM + NAA 2.5 mg/l with maximum callus growth (976.75 mg) with green, friable callus which was difficult to subculture. White and friable callus occurred within 12.00 days in MS + 2, 4 - D 5 mg/l. The green and compact callus having vigorous growth was observed in MS + NAA 2.5 mg/l within 12.75 days when subcultured on different regeneration media proved recalcitrant for shoot regeneration. On the regeneration medium the callus turned brown while some callus proliferates to produce white growth around it and dried later on.

Experiment - 1
 
Aim: Micropropagation of Tobacco plant by leaf disc culture

Principle: The totipotency of the plant cells and tissues form the basis for in vitro cloning i.e., generation or multiplication of genetically identical plants in in vitro culture. The ability to propagate new plants from a cells or tissues of parent plant has many interesting possibilities.

Orchids belong to family Orchidaceae, which is the most highly evolved among monocotyledons with over 800 genera and 35,000 species and over 74,400 natural and manmade registered hybrids. Orchid is the first horticultural plant cloned by tissue culture methods on a commercial scale (Goh, 1990). Rapid multiplication using tissue culture techniques is an important strategy for preserving the valuable orchid wealth in India. Vegetative propagation through division of rhizomes and separation of offshoots and keikis is very slow. Both these problems can now be successfully alleviated through micropropagation. The technique has revolutionized the orchid industry and now it is possible to multiply unlimited number of desirable clones. Rotor (1949) was the first to have employed tissue culture techniques to multiply Phalaenopsis, and since then micropropagation potential of a variety of monopodial taxa has been successfully tested.

ABSTRACT

Myriophyllum aquaticum (Velloso) Verdcourt, commonly known as ‘parrot feather milfoil’ is the aquatic plant belonging to the family Haloragaceae. The plant gets the name ‘parrot feather’ from its feather-like leaves arranged around the stem in whorls of 4 to 6 giving it the value of a beautiful aquarium plant. It is a commercially valuable imported aquatic plant used in aquarium plant trade. These plants are exclusively females and as such no seeds are produced. Moreover, current macropropagation techniques are insufficient to produce sufficient propagules for the domestic and export market. Tissue culture techniques offer great opportunities in this regard and attempts were made for micropropagation of this valuable species. A viable protocol has been outlined for the in vitro mass multiplication of Myriophyllum aquaticum. Shoot regeneration was induced from nodal segments and leaves in half strength Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium supplemented with 1.0 mg l^-1 benzyl adenine. Incorporation of 0.2 mg l^-1 kinetin along with benzyl adenine in the culture medium resulted in a marked increase in the frequency (1:20) of multiple shoot formation. The in vitro raised plantlets were successfully rooted, hardened and planted out. The protocol is ready for commercialization.

ABSTRACT

Cultivated turmeric consists of fertile short duration types with a chromosome number of 2n=84. In vivo crossing was done between two short duration types VK 70 and VK76 to develop a high yielding variety with high curcumin and curing percentage. Seed set and seed development was obtained by in vivo stigmatic pollination. Hybrid seed germination was obtained under in vitro in dark on moist filter paper and the seedlings were micropropagated to establish a population of six plantlets /seedling with in a period of 10 months. The multiple shoots were obtained in the medium of half strength MS + 3 per cent sucrose+ BA 2.5 mg l^-1+ NAA 0.5 mgl^-1. Coupling conventional breeding with tissue culture reduces the breeding time.

Micropropagation /Clonal propagation

Micropropagation or clonal propagation is the growing of plants from meristematic tissue or somatic cells of superior plants on nutrient suitable media under controlled aseptic physical conditions. Sexually propagated plants (through generation of seeds) demonstrate a high amount of heterogeneity since their seed progenies are not true to type whereas asexual reproduction (by multiplication of vegetative parts) gives rise to genetically identical copies of parent plant. Thus, it permits perpetuation of the parental characters of the cultivars among the plants resulting from micropropagation. Micropropagation proves useful for propagation of: 

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the growing of plants from meristematic tissue (or) somatic cells of superior plants on nutrient media under controlled conditions.
2. _____ is a group of undifferentiated palnt cells.
3. Explants used is _____ in shape.
4. Meristem forms _____ at its cut end on which a large number of shoot primordia develop.

1. DEFINITION

Micropropagation is the growing of plants from meristematic tissue or somatic cells of superior plants on nutrient suitable media under controlled aseptic physical conditions.

The term micropropagtion is also known as tissue culture. Micropropagation refers to aseptic culture of various plant parts in artificial growth medium to produce new plant. This means is recently applied in propagation of horticultural crops e.g. Orchid, banana, strawberry, papaya, grape and many other plants.

Requirements for tissue culture: It includes basic facilities including equipment, asepsis, culture medium and culture environment.

• Basic facilities including equipment: Provision of working space, large sinks, washing machine to wash glassware, oven, dryers, dust free storage, space for glass house and chemicals, autoclave for sterilizing media, solutions, water culture and instruments, supply of distilled or deionized water and various essential instruments and appliances.

Basically we need to mount and prepare the slide for observation of various stages of EPN as detailed below in Table.1

The microscopic features reveals that wood is composed of minute units called cells. The fundamental differences between different kinds of woods are founded on the types, sizes, proportions, pits and arrangements of different cells that compose the wood. Softwoods have a simpler basic structure than do hardwoods due to the presence of only two cell types, and relatively little variation in structure within these cell types. Hardwoods have greater structural complexity because they have both a greater number of basic cell types and a far greater degree of variability within the cell types. In each case, however, there are fine details of structure that could affect the use of a wood.

The structure of a typical softwood is relatively simple. The axial or vertical system is composed mostly of axial tracheids, the radial or horizontal system and the rays, are composed mostly of ray parenchyma cells. According to estimates, 1 cubic metre (about 35 cubic feet) of Spruce wood contains 350 billion to 500 billion cells. The basic cell types are called tracheids, vessel members, fibres, and parenchyma

The structure of a typical hardwood is much more complicated than that of a softwood. The axial or vertical system is composed of fibrous elements of various kinds of vessel elements in various sizes and arrangements, and axial parenchyma cells in various patterns and abundance. Like softwoods, the radial or horizontal system are the rays, which are composed of ray parenchyma cells, but unlike softwoods, hardwood rays are much more diverse in size and shape.

The following tests are used for microscopic evaluation of semen: 
    
12.1    Sperm motility
12.2     Per cent Live sperm
12.3     Sperm concentration

12.1 Sperm Motility

The following two methods of estimation of sperm motility are followed in routine practice:
 
12.1.1    Mass activity
12.1.2    Progressive sperm motility
12.1.1 Mass Activity

Mass activity can be defined as ‘en-mass activity of the spermatozoa in the semen, immediately after collection’. Mass activity is generally assessed by vigour of swirls and waves motion in undiluted semen under 20 X magnification and expressed on 0 to 5 scale.

Microscope is the primary instrument of a microbiology laboratory and it produces enlarged images of small objects which are invisible by naked eye. With a microscope the operator can get a close view of minute structures which helps in examination and analysis. Examination of minute objects with a microscope is called ‘microscopy’. In microbiology, measurement of the microbial dimension observed under microscope is known as ‘micrometry’.

Types of microscopes

There are two types of microscopes i.e. light / optical and electron microscope depending on the sources of energy to create the image. The optical microscopes use the lenses and light (artificial or sunlight) to make an image. Following types of optical microscopes are available.

For visualization and identification of fungal specimens into their genus and species, the staining of the fungal specimens and their microscopy are necessary. The simple binocular microscope can be used for microscopy of the fungal specimens.

2.1. Stains to be Used in Microscopy

1. Methylene blue stain

2. Lacto phenol cotton blue stain

3. Crystal violet stain

4. Safranin

One of the major discoveries that gave birth to the field of microbiology was the development of instruments that could magnify, so that objects too small to be seen with the naked eye could be visualized. Robert Hooke in 1665, using an instrument with two sets of lenses (a crude compound microscope), was the first person to describe cells as life’s smallest structural units. In the early 1670s Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a simple magnifying lens to observe microbes he called ‘animalcules’ in rainwater, and was possibly the first person to observe microorganisms. The development of electron microscopes in the 1930s enabled magnifications of a further hundred times greater to be achieved.

A microscope can be defined as an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for getting magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope is essentially an ordinary magnifying lens held on an adjustable stand. It can give magnification up to 20 times the size of the object.

5.1 Introduction

According to Croxton and Cowden, “Either for one’s own use or for the use of other, the data must be presented in some suitable form”.

Now – a – days everybody uses tables in one form or another, and accountants use them quite often. The work become tedious, especially if you had to do for 12 columns for the 12 months of the year, and more so if there were some modification to be done after having set up the entire table. The Americans have a special name for such tables- spreadsheet which makes life easy.

Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak two young Americans in 1976 AD developed the first desktop computer – The Apple which was not user friendly and needed programming for useful work. Dan Bricklin, Robert Frankston and Dan Fylstra proposed a program to turn the computer’s memory into a giant virtual spreadsheet where necessary corrections and modifications could be done fairly, quickly and easily and marketed the program in 1978 under the trade name VisiCalc. VisiCalc was soon succeeded by Sugercal and other computer programs which were more user friendly. The Lotus 1-2-3 designed and developed by Larry Kaplan put further step, which set the standard for many applications under the IBM, Now a days Microsoft under the leadership of Bill Gates had been working on the sidelines perfecting graphical user Interface (GUI) packages for the PC range of computers that would widen its reach. Now Microsoft office program Suite the integrated word processing, spreadsheet, presentation and data base management.

The spreadsheet package in Microsoft office is called Excel – our basic software, or program for this manual.

Abstract

In recent years microwave processing have attained increasing recognition in food industries particularly in drying and dehydration. During microwave processing, electromagnetic energy is supplied directly to the food material for volumetric heating. This provides rapid temperature rise throughout the material with reduced thermal gradients. This unique heating mechanism reduces processing time and saves energy. In-spite of advantages of microwave heating it leads to overheating in food material and formation of cold and hot spots if applied improperly during drying. To overcome these challenges different microwave assisted hybrid drying technologies have been developed by many researchers. These techniques are microwave assisted hot air drying, microwave assisted osmotic dehydration, microwave assisted vacuum drying, microwave- infrared assisted hot air drying, microwave assisted rotary drying. This chapter comprises the fundamentals of microwave and provides comprehensive update of microwave assisted hybrid drying processes for food and agricultural materials.

1. Introduction

Thermal processing used extensively in the food industry for preservation and shelf life extension of the products (Arnoldi 2001). Heat treatments remain most important in food processing unit operations, not only to achieve desirable changes in eating quality but also for preservative effect by inactivation of microorganisms, destruction of enzymes and insects.Heat is applied in various unit operations through adifferent mode of heat transfer such as conduction, convection, and radiations. 

Abstract

Hot air circulation is the most common industrial method of drying foods which has its own inherited disadvantages. Microwave drying can be an alternative method for removing moisture from foods and there has been a surge of interest in the application of microwave to process the foods, in past few years. The reason being that there is worldwide energy crisis and the growing acceptance and familiarity with domestic microwave ovens. It is well known that conventional means of heat processing irreversibly alter the flavor, colour, and texture of many foods. From the point of flavor alone, it is desirable to improve our present methods of processing foods. Some improvements have been made in this direction with a number of food products by use of high-temperature short- time processing.

A microwave oven, commonly referred to as a microwave, is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to electromagnetic radiation in the microwave spectrum.

1. Introduction
The amount of water present in the soil is called as soil moisture. The soil moisture availability is an important topic to study as it affects plant growth, agricultural outputs and the water resource management as well. The amount of soil moisture present in a place and in a time depends on the factors like soil type, Land use, vegetation cover of the place and evaporation taking place in that area at that time. The amount of water hold by the pores in the soil determines the soil moisture. This water holding by the soil depends on various factors like temperature, moisture levels, organic matters and the soil living organisms (Rasheed et al., 2022). Essential Climate variable (ECV) is very important to our planet which can be recognized by GCOS (Global Climate Observing System). Important sustainable development issues say drought, flood management, food security, ecological health and water resources are being impacted by the soil moisture. Soil moisture changes have also a role in evapotranspiration, rainfall, and the runoff distribution and intensities. (Zeng et al., 2023).
Soil moisture content (SMC) have a huge impact in shaping the water, carbon cycles of earth and energy balance in different scales of time and space. It is an important factor for the effective water management due to its influence on the precipitation, surface temperature and evaporation which will be affecting the processes say river runoff, vegetation health, and irrigation practices. The highcost traditional methods make to overlook for SMC in environmental modelling (Edokossi et al., 2020). The atmospheric and the land surface process are blinked by the key facto of SMC as said by Robinson et al. (2008). For gaining the knowledge on water, carbon cycles and energy as well as for studying extreme weather conditions, understanding soil moisture is very much needed. (Vereecken et al., 2014; Li et al., 2007; Seneviratne et al., 2010; Robock & Li, 2006).
Due to the soil moisture’s impact on the factors say when to plant, when to blossom and when to harvest the crop, soil moisture should be considered as the important factor as it is in improving the water resources and boost the agricultural output. Remote sensing methods like microwave remote sensing plays vital role in creating maps depicting the distribution of soil moisture spatially and temporally high resolutions. These maps help in effective crop planning, in-season drought assessment, irrigation and soil managements. The traditional methods like TDR probe, Soil moisture utilizing neutron probe and gravimetric methods are inefficient in studying the soil moisture with high spatial and temporal resolutions due to factors like Variations in terrain, soil type and land use pattern. We can overcome these and enhance our ability to map soil moisture in different scales through the recent advancements of microwave remote sensing (active and passive microwave remote sensing) which are having advantages like clear, accurate and timely measurements of soil moisture content.
Irrigation water sources are controlled through the soil moisture studies by executing the sustainable water management plans and by monitoring high yields despite the environmental changes, increasing water demands and climate changes. To predict the agricultural output, irrigation management, drought early warning, creating vegetation indices, soil moisture study with high temporal and spatial resolutions will be a key factor as it improves the crop stress reduction also which are the major driving forces of yield reduction (Doraiswamy et al., 2004). So, the soil moisture has a direct impact on the crop yield which are studied using variable rate technology say selective application of pesticides which can improve farmers financially as well as environmentally (Harris et al.,1964).

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ are capable of reducing the age induced damages and restoring the seed vigour by controlling free radical reactions.
2. _____ is the process of soaking the low and medium vigour seeds in water with or without adding chemicals to raise seed moisture and drying back for safe storage of seeds.
3. _____ treatment is similar to the moisture equilibration treatment.

Definition

Fracture of radius-ulna & tibia-fibula comes under middle level fracture.

Methods of Fracture Repair

External coagtation bandage along with thomas splint application.

Technique for Fracture Repair

Animal controlled with lateral recumbency with fractured limb upward.

Fracture of radius-ulna & tibia-fibula comes under middle level fracture. Pop caste application or bandage along with Thomas splint has been considered as standard method of repair.

The fracture site is immobilized extending between joint below and joint above level with either gum bandage or pop caste bandage (Fig.1).

Pop caste bandage is generally applied after 7 days. Hence gum bandage is preferred than pop caste bandage because of immediate application after occurrence of fracture (Fig.2).

For gum bandage application, a 8-16 layer thick cloth is wrapped over the fracture region covering the joint above & joint below of the site after liberal application of fevicol gum. The cotton cloth Is placed in position with few cotton thread knots (Fig.3).

4 bamboo splints are kept on the 4 sites of the limb over cotton padding. The end of bamboo splints kept padded to avoid skin damage. Splints are retained in position by thread with knots (Fig.4).

A 2^nd layer fevicol gum is applied over entire bandage & finally the entire bandage cloth is covered with bandage roll (Fig.5).

At the end the immobilized limb is over strengthened with Thomas splint (Fig. 6).

A neurotic headache, usually reflex in origin and paroxysmal in character.

The causes are many and varying in kind, making both the diagnosis and treatment the most difficult the general practioner encounters,

Migraine is clearly a hereditary condition, and the inheritance is passed down through the females rather than the males. Nervous abnormalities of the female generative organs are the most frequent of the exciting causes. Eye strain; shock; grief; worry; gastro-intestinal irregularities; mental emotions, i.e., anger, fear, love, jealously and remorse may cause migraine at one time and hysteria at another.

Many patients have lived, to suffer from the disease, for fifty years. On the other hand, many are permanently cured. The time needed to complete the cure will depend upon your ability to determine the tissue or organ, which is the cause of the disease, and the faithfulness with which the patient will follow directions.

Next to epilepsy, no disease so frequently presents premonitory symptoms as Hemicrania. These may be blurring of visions, flashes of light, balls of fire, etc.; chilliness; flashes of heat; dizziness; depression or excitation; confusion of ideas; numbness, etc. then comes the pain which is usually one sided, and may be any or all sensations, sharp or dull, continuous or intermittent, etc. There may or may not be tenderness of the affected part.

INTRODUCTION

The trend of rising unemployment is compounded by the existences of regional imbalances in development, within the country, which have collectively accelerated the phenomenon of migration. The history of migration is the history of people’s struggle to survive and to prosper, to escape insecurity and poverty, and to move in response to opportunity. In developing countries like India, migration mostly takes place not due to the so called the full forces of the destination place, as usually happens in case of developed countries, but because of poverty, unemployment, natural calamities and under development of the origin place. Migration in developing countries like India is still viewed as a survival strategy. In India internal mobility is critical to the livelihoods of many peoples, especially for people from rural areas. In the Dindigul District of Tamil Nadu, NREGA works have stemmed migration from many villages. Ministry of Rural Development (2006). It has been conceptualized that, creating job out of NREGA programme will check the migration of the people from one place to another. In Pusa block, of Samastipur district the NREGA is in operation for about two and half years. It is with this background the present article has been presented with the specific objectives toexplore the extent ofmigration check among NREGA beneficiaries, running in this block.

Introduction

Pastoralism involving rearing of different livestock species makes significant contributions to the economy of developing countries, both in terms of providing employment and income opportunities and in supplying nutrition to rural poor. Pastoralism generally has a mobile aspect, and movement of animal herds in search of fresh pastures and water is a key feature qualifying pastoralism. The term nomadic is used when mobility is high and in irregular patterns; transhumant when there are regular back-and-forth movements between relatively fixed locations; and sedentary for the rest. Pastoralists inhabit zones where the potential for crop cultivation is limited due to steep terrain, extreme temperatures and low and highly variable rainfall. Within this unpredictable, vulnerable and dynamic environment, they have developed successful mechanisms of adaptation to maintain an ecological balance between themselves and the natural environment. Thus, pastoralism is a successful strategy to support a population on less productive land that adapts well to the environment. Transhumance is the seasonal migration of livestock and pastoralists between higher and lower pastures.

BC

1750 The Sumerians brew beer.

500 The Chinese use moldy soybean curds as an antibiotic to treat boils.

250 The Greeks practice crop rotation to maximize soil fertility.

100 Powdered chrysanthemum is used in China as an insecticide.

AD: Before the 20^th Century

1590 The microscope is invented by Janssen.

1663 Cells are first described by Robert Hooke.

1675 Leeuwenhoek discovers protozoa and bacteria.

1745 Maupertuis proposes an adaptationist account of organic design

1797 Jenner inoculates a child with a viral vaccine to protect him from smallpox.

1802 The word “biology” first appears.

Year                    Milestones
1951    :    First amino acid was sequenced by F. Sanger and H. Tuppy.

1953    :    J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick proposed that DNA is a double helix.

1958    :    Discovery of DNA polymerase by Kornberg’s group and DNA replication studies began.

1959    :    Isolation of RNA polymerase.

Year         Milestones

1951       :    First amino acid was sequenced by F. Sanger and H. Tuppy.

1953    :    J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick proposed that DNA is a double helix.

1958    :    Discovery of DNA polymerase by Kornberg’s group and DNA replication studies began.

1959    :    Isolation of RNA polymerase.

1970    :    Discovery of reverse transcriptase showed that RNA can act as the template for the transcription of DNA and opened the way for cloning using cDNA libraries.

1970    :    General method was developed by M. Mandel and A. Higa for introducing DNA into cells by calcium dependent method.

1970    :    G.H. Khorana synthesized an artificial gene from DNA nucleotides.

1971    :    Restriction endonucleases for mapping DNA was first used by K. Danna and D. Nathans.

1972    :    The recombinant DNA Era begins. J. Mertz and R.W. Davis used T4 ligase to join DNA molecules.

Food adulteration is a global issue, and because there are insufficient regulations and oversight, developing nations are more vulnerable to it. But in many nations, food adulteration has gone unnoticed. Contrary to popular assumption, milk adulterants can, regrettably, present major health risks that result in fatal diseases. Modern milk adulteration involves increasingly complex techniques, necessitating state- of- the- art research to identify the adulterants. Because milk contains so many nutrients that are needed by both adults and infants, it is referred to as the ideal food. In terms of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, it is among the best sources. Regretfully, milk adulteration is a very common problem worldwide. Potential causes could be the gap between supply and demand, the perishable nature of milk, the low purchasing power of the consumer, and the absence of appropriate detection tests. Because there is insufficient oversight and inadequate law enforcement, the situation is substantially worse in developing and underdeveloped nations. While quantitative detections of adulterants in milk are varied and complex, qualitative detections can be carried out simply using chemical reactions. The type of quantitative detection methods used depends on the milk’s adulterants.

Typical Adulterants in Milk

The addition of vegetable protein, milk from different species, whey addition, and watering are the main adulterants in milk that are known to be economically motivated. There is no serious health risk associated with these adulterations. Some adulterants, though, are too dangerous to ignore. Urea, formalin, detergents, ammonium sulfate, boric acid, caustic soda, benzoic acid, salicylic acid, hydrogen peroxide, sugars, and melamine are a few of the main adulterants in milk that have been shown to have serious negative health effects.

Liquid milk is the cheapest form of milk whereas value added products like yoghurt and paneer, already popular in India are ways to earn a higher income with some raw materials. Farms should focus on dairy herd improvement, herd management etc. Milk and dairy products are always very helpful to farmers for a constant source of income besides their regular farm products. They do not required to expend extra for their feeding if the number of cattle are less. With slight extra care they can earn enough to meet their daily expenses. Cows, buffalo, all the milk giving animals are easy to care.

5.1 Introduction

Waste from the dairy processing industry is generated through production of milk products at different stages. With diversification of dairy products, by-products have also gained some importance. Utilization of dairy by- products improves economical and nutritional aspects of milk production and reduces environmental pollution originating from dairy waste. Important dairy by-products include butter milk, ghee residues and whey, the major waste arising from production of cheese, casein, paneer and chhana. Whey arises as a result of protein coagulation/precipitation in the preparation of these products. It is used for manufacture of whey powder, whey drinks and lactose (milk sugar). Whey protein concentrates can be prepared by modern technological methods like ultra-filtration and reverse osmosis. Desi buttermilk is an important domestic beverage since olden days. Ghee residue can be utilized for manufacture of chocolate burfi, samosa filling etc. Hence, utilization of dairy waste particularly whey, butter milk and ghee residues obtained during manufacturing of various main products, has not only increased the availability of nutritional milk foods but has also indicated the profitable method of by products utilization and helped in minimizing the problems of pollution. This chapter focuses on utilization of these dairy industry wastes.

    1.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in buffalo milk
        a)    5 & 9    b)    6 & 8
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    2.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  cow milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    3.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  standardized milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4.5 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None