eChapters

Introduction

E-Portal otherwise called as an electronic portal is a webpage that allows business application procedure developed by framework to be easily deployed via internet. Portals are usually created in standard Java format. It utilizes an Extensible Mark- up Language (XML) interface protocol in addition to Java Server Pages (JSP). Portals are given different names based on the field they are created. For example, if the portal is developed to improvise agriculture, then they are termed as agri-por- tals. Similarly, if a portal is developed for academic reasons they are called web portal. Examples of web portals are iGoogle, MSNBC, Netvibes, and Yahoo.

Portal concept has opened new possibilities to address some of the issues concern- ing the personal management of academic information and knowledge through internet. Some of the main issues are the lack of integration, personalisation and customisation of existing academic information sources and systems. A Web por- tal can be defined as a Web site that aggregates an array of content and provides a variety of services including search engines, directories, news, e-mail and chat rooms. Portals have evolved to provide a customised gateway to Web information. A high level of personalisation and customisation is possible (Melzer 1999; Boye 1999). It was felt that the portal concept could be further developed to function as a sophisticated Web interface that can support the task performance (teaching and research) of academics.

Introduction

Knowledge and Knowledge management are concepts, which are debated extensively by managers, analyst and academicians. When we refer to knowledge, most of us mainly tend to think of codified and documented knowledge like patents, databases, manuals, white papers etc. knowledge is intuitive, contextual, linked to experience, past memories and difficult to codify, document and communicate. Unfortunately, there is no universal definition of Knowledge Management (KM), just as there’s no agreement as to what constitutes knowledge in the first place. In broadest context KM is the process through which organizations generate value from their intellectual and knowledge-based assets. It is the practice of harnessing and exploiting intellectual capital to gain competitive advantage and customer commitment through efficiency, innovation and faster and more effective decision-making. Most often, generating value from such assets involves sharing them among employees, departments and even with other companies in an effort to devise best practices.

Today, knowledge is still considered power - an enormous power in fact - but the understanding has changed considerably, particularly from the perspective of organizations. The new paradigm is that within the organization knowledge must be shared in order for it to grow. It has been shown that the organization that shares knowledge among its management and staff grows stronger and becomes more competitive. This is the core of knowledge management - the sharing of knowledge. Knowledge management (KM) is all about managing organization’s knowledge effectively by sharing and having a systematic activity for creation of knowledge and exploiting it for the market and benefit of the organization. KM techniques and processes provide such a structured approach to explicate a significant part of this tactic knowledge document in knowledge repositories and also share in teams, through intensive dialogue and discussions. KM refers to the critical issues of organizational adaptation, survival and competence against discontinuous environmental change.

Introduction

e-Literacy as defined by the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO) refers to the awareness, skills, understanding and reflective approaches necessary for an individual to operate comfortably in information-rich and IT enabled environments. Most definitions of e-literacy or digital literacy covers three abilities

• The ability to use digital technology, communication tools or networks to locate, evaluate, use and create information

• The ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers

• The ability to perform tasks effectively in a digital environment

To promote e-literacy, every state in India has initiated a project in their own names. For example, in Kerala the e-literacy is promoted in the name of Project Akshaya. Initially, this project was started with a noble intention of making at least one member in each of 64 lakh families e-literate. The pilot project started in Malappuram, and was inaugurated by His Excellency Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, former President of India on 18th November 2002. 100% eLiteracy was achieved in eight districts in Phase 1 and the project has been roaring success. Nowhere has such a feat been attempted or accomplished. The vision and scope of the project is beyond comparison. The operations of Akshaya as unfolded so far consist of three distinct phases. The first phase is that of enabling the masses by imparting basic skill in computer operations and making them familiar with internet. This phase is the period of eLiteracy training. In the initial phase, the Akshaya ecentre imparts basic training that not only familiarizes people with the basics and the scope of IT, but also ensures hands-on-skill in operating a computer, using the Internet etc to at least one person in the 64 lakh families in the state that makes it the largest rural eliteracy training project worldwide. Malappuram is declared as the first eliterate district in India. Malappuram and Kannur districts were already declared 100% eliterate. Kollam, Kozhikode, Thrissur and Kasaragod districts achieved eliteracy above 90%. So far around 33 lakhs beneficiaries were trained.

Introduction

Interactive media is the integration of digital media including combinations of electronic text, graphics, moving images, and sound, into a structured digital computerised environment that allows people to interact with the data for appropriate purposes. The digital environment can include the Internet, telecoms and interactive digital television. No wonder it is difficult for new entrants to understand. The important concepts to hold on to are ‘interactive’ and ‘media’ across a range of ‘delivery channels’ or ‘platforms’. There are many terms used to denote the interactive nature of digital applications—multimedia, new media and interactive design are common examples. Because the interactive sector has quickly evolved through phases, the terms have often been coined to reflect a phase that then gets surpassed. A quick historical overview will give the background that causes confusion for those joining the dynamic sector.

The word Multimedia used to have a specialist connotation for the audio-visual industry. Uses of multiple or mixed media in such analogue systems as slide shows or overhead projectors were known as ‘multimedia’. But this specialist use was superseded by the arrival of digital technology. Integrated digital media was termed interactive multimedia and usually shortened to plain multimedia for convenience. The need to differentiate between analogue (linear) and digital (interactive) uses of media spawned other terms like New Media and Digital Media. The term ‘New media’ carries its own problems as the media associated with the original term are replaced with newer instances of the ‘new’. Obsolescence is endemic in the interactive arena. However, the term remains in use although Digital Media and Interactive Media are more stable terms and are being used increasingly. The term Interactive Media highlights the interactive connotation that is a key characteristic of the difference between the older style media and the new. ‘Social media’ has evolved to describe the more recent success of digital social sites such as Facebook and MySpace, and would include the phenomenon of mobile texting, especially twitter.

Introduction

India is well-known around the world for its rapid economic growth rates over the last fifteen years or so, fuelled in part by the spectacular growth in its export- oriented software and ICT-based services sector. Many other countries look to India as a model for global outsourcing and try to imitate elements of this in their own strategies (Carmel 2003; Heeks and Nicholson 2004). Success at a particular period of time does not, of course, guarantee its continuation and commentators have expressed concerns such as rising wage rates and skills shortages of ICT professionals (CACM 2007), and increasing competition from countries such as China (Negroponte 2003). It is likely, however, that India will remain a major player in the ICT industry for years to come and thus its global image as an ICT success story will continue. Viewed from a broader development perspective, things are not so simple. The new wealth that has arisen in India from the ICT boom benefits the relatively wealthy and educated in the first instance (Kambhampati 2002). Will this trickle down to the poor and uneducated? Statistics paint a mixed picture of the current situation. On the one hand, India is now the world’s fourth largest economy in purchasing power parity terms, and has enjoyed high growth rates for over a decade rising to an average of over 8% per annum in the period 2004-7 (World Bank 2007).

On the other hand, India was ranked as 128th out of 177 countries on the human development index 2005 (UNDP 2005) which is a composite index based on life expectancy, literacy and education levels, and economic standard of living. Shocking statistics include the percentage of malnourished children under 5 being 46%, the adult female literacy rate as only 48%, and the percentage of the rural population using adequate sanitary services as 18% (World Bank 2007, UNICEF 2004). A major development issue, therefore, is whether India can seriously address the needs of all of its people, including the vast numbers of poor and uneducated in the rural areas and the urban slums. A related sub-question is whether, and to what extent, can ICTs be used to provide development benefits to all Indian citizens. There are increasing attempts to use technology in this way through projects such as e-government services and telecentres in poor areas.

Introduction

In today’s world, the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) have become more common and part and part of human life. It plays many roles for a country’s overall growth and economic development. Among all developing countries, the presence of ICT is greatly felt in India. People here use ICT devices mainly to access and share data information available around the world from any part of the country and at any time with just one click. In the last fifteen years, India’s economic growth has been remarkable in trade and commerce, communication technologies, education, transportation, agriculture and administration mainly due to development of advanced software and service based applications. India stands as a role model for many other countries in framing ICT based policies and implementing independent strategies for global contracts (Carmel 2003; Heeks and Nicholson 2004). Since, its significance is highly realised by the Government, bureaucrats and policy makers’ efforts are now being carried out to utilize ICT tools for improving the lives of the Indian rural maases and people below poverty line.

Organizational communication can be defined as the process of the flow (Transmission and Reception) of goal oriented messages between sources, in a pattern and through a medium or media. And organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context, or the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in communicating / organizing.

An additional elements in organizational communication (not present in interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus here are 6 elements in organizational communication.

1. The transmitting source

2. The receiving source

3. Source (the target)

4. The transmitted message

5. The goal of the message

6. The medium or media and the flow pattern (which is called network). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people sending and receiving the message.

The word communication comes from the Latin communis meaning common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish commonality with someone through a message. Communication then is a conscious attempt to establish commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like with others. In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages.

According to Thayer (1968) there are four types of communication. They are:

Intrapersonal Communication

This refers to communicating with one’s self. It refers to organizing and converting sensory data into meaningful messages having some relevance or utility for an individual’s past, present or future behaviour. Because the psychological system of a human being is constantly engaged in making sense of its environment in the service of that orgnaism’s adaptive and goal seeking needs, the question is not whether communication is going to occur, but what communication and with what consequences. Communication is a continuous process and is determined by an individual’s take-into-account abilities and take - into - account susceptibilities. However, these take - into - account abilities are a function of the capacity of an individual’s conceptual system to ascribe meaning or significance to certain patterns and sequences of the events going on in his internal and external environment.

Intrapersonal communication is a co-function of the individual and of what is going on in his environment that has immediate relevance for him. All that we perceive and comprehend, must be perceived and comprehend through ourselves.

Mass Communication

The term ‘mass communication’ was coined at the end of the 1930s. The term ‘mass’ denotes great volume, range or extent (such as of people or production), while ‘communication’ refers to the giving and taking of meaning, the transmis- sion and reception of messages.

The term ‘mass’ was first formally defined by Herbert Bhumer (1939) as a new type of social formation in modern society, by contrasting it other formations, es- pecially the group, crowd and public.

Gerbner’s (1967) definition of mass communication is hard to beat. He defined it as social interaction through messages.

Mass communications comprise the institutions and techniques by which special- ized groups employ technological device (press, radio, films etc.) to disseminate symbolic content of large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed audience.

Models Definitions

In social science research a model is a tentative description of what a social process, say the communication process or a system might be like. It is a tool of explanation and analyses, very often in a diagrammatic form, to show how the various elements of a situation being studied relate to each other.

The term model can also refer to a particular process or object, which is used as a point of reference, when an attempt to explain the unknown is being made. It basically comprises involving an analogy to throw up the similarities between the phenomena to be explained and one, which is well known, i.e., the model.

The simplest definition of a model is that it is an analogue. A model is a relatively well-developed analogy. Given two objects or processes which are dissimilar in many respects, one is an analogue of the other to the extent that the physical or logical structure of one re-presents the physical or logical structure of the other.

The advantage of models in communication research is that it allows the researcher to account for different variables in different communication situations. Models only represent systems or processes. Since they are not real, they are just symbolic ways of looking at systems to help us to think about them more lucidly. Again since models do now show every part of a system, they are usually incomplete in that sense. Even those that are shown are represented only in enough detail to help us look at the processes or features in which we are interested. Models give us an idea of complicated objects or events in a general way. They enable us to see how a particular communication event fits into the general pattern. They provide a classification for an old problems, and familiar events. They help us by providing a structure of references for purposes of study. Theories are not models and the most fundamental difference between a theory and a model is that the former is an explanation whereas the latter is a representation.

Concepts

The concepts of development communication has now been adopted by almost all the countries of the third world. It is all about to inform, motivate and influence all sectors and levels of peoples of a developing country to use unfamiliar ideas, skills and instruments, thus adding the long neglected social component without which the process of development remain dormant. Thus importance of communication as a tool to motivate and persuade people for eliciting positive response to various developmental ideas grow manifold.

The evolution of the term ‘ development’ has had a fascinating history about itself. In its broadest sense ‘ development’ tends to be umbrella under which several phenomena - varying from human and spiritual development to economic and community development, as well as technological development have become related. Defining ‘development’ is not an easy talk. It has been interpreted in various ways by sociologists, economists and development planners. They defend the term according to their own frame of reference. Modernization, social change and enhancing quality of life are often used in one way of the other in explaining the term. In all cases development suggest some amount of improvement, self-reliance, uplift and progress as also awareness and self-awareness to some extent.

The eminent communication scholar, Everett M. Rogers, has development this process of thinking about development in this book communication and development critical perspectives (1976), as under “Development as a widely participatory process of social change in a society, intended to bring about both social and material advancement (including greater equality freedom and other valued qualities) for the majority of the people through their gaining greater control over their environment.

The new paradigm of development does not envisage the role of communication as that of magic multiplier of development, however, it is certainly envisaged to play a facilitate role in the process of development.

Communication is a key to understand things between two people. Today’s communication is entirely different from pre-historic era and has taken many evolution throughout the years. Before alphabets, signs, symbols, letters and telephone evolved, communication was restricted to interpersonal interaction (i.e.) from one person to another in the form of gestures. It is in other terms called non-verbal communication. Today, communicating between two or more people has become too easy that one can communicate with more than 10 members at a time which is in technical means called conferencing.

The growth of internet has paved way for innumerable means of communica- tion. In other words it can be told as, communication is re-defined by technol- ogy. Texts, email, tweets, tele and video conferencing have widely saved much time of people and made them recipients of today’s fast moving world.

Introduction

One of the major problems being faced by cities and towns relate to management of municipal solid waste (MSW). Waste quantities are increasing day by day due to the increasing population and the municipal authorities are not able to upgrade or scale up the facilities required for proper management of such wastes. In many cities and towns, garbage is littered on roads and foot-paths. Citizens are also not accustomed to use the available storage facilities (dust bins) set up by the authorities. At large, lack of organized system of house- to-house collection of waste has created the littering habits. By and large, hardly we can see any city/town complying with the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 in ‘totality”. As per information provided by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 1,27,486 TPD (Tons per day) municipal solid waste was generated in the country during 2011-12. Out of which, 89,334 TPD (70%) of MSW is collected and 15,881 TPD (12.45%) is processed or treated.

In spite of various measures taken towards the proper waste collection, segregation and disposal, proper waste processing units were established as per the following details as per CPCB. The waste processing technologies reported in the country are; composting, vermi composting, biogas plant, RDF- pelletisation and others. Some of the sepelletization plants are associated with power plants for generation of electricity. However, mechanical composting and vermi composting are more popular in the country.

Introduction

India contains around 7517 km of coast line, which is surrounded by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean to its south. The Indian Coastal ecosystem, where land and water join to create an environment with a distinct structure, diversity, and f low of energy. They include salt marshes, mangroves, wetlands, estuaries, and bays and are home to many different types of plants and animals. (Marale. 2013). The geographic and land use details of Indian coastal zone is presented in Table 1.

Coastal ecosystems of india

India has a long coastline of 7,517 km that span 13 maritime states and union territories, surrounded by the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 2.02 million square kilometers. The country has a diverse range of habitats: continental area and offshore islands and a variety of coastal ecosystems such as estuaries, lagoons, coral reefs, mangroves, salt marshes, sea grass beds, backwaters, rocky coasts, mudf lats, sand dunes, and coastal beaches. Coasts and islands form 2.8% of India’s geographical area. The coastal ecosystem consists of 43,230 km² of coastal wetlands with 97 major estuaries and 34 major lagoons; 4921 km² of mangroves with 31 mangrove areas, and 3062.97 km² of coral reefs with 5 coral reef areas (MoEFCC, 2018). A network of 14 major, 44 medium and numerous minor rivers together with their tributaries with a total length of over 40,000 km, contribute to the coastal sea directly or indirectly. By area, tidal/mudf lats are predominant and by length, more than half of the Indian coastline is sandy. The states of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh have extensive coastline (Fig. 1).

Introduction

Global warming is a phenomenon of climate change characterized by a general increase in average temperatures of the Earth, which modifies the weather balances and ecosystems for a long time. In fact, the averages temperature of the planet has increased by 0.8° Celsius (33.4°F) compared to the end of the 19th century. Each of the last three decades has been warmer than all previous decades since the beginning of the statistical surveys in 1850. At the pace of current CO₂ emissions, scientists expect an increase of between 1.5° and 5.3°C (34.7° to 41.5°F) in average temperature by 2100 (Solarimpulse foundation, 2018). Most of the several dozens of predictive models indicate that average temperature can increase by 1.7-5.3°C, as a result of doubling CO₂ concentration within next 60-100 years. 2.3°C is a value most often mentioned what means an increase by 0.3°C a decade.

Climate change has emerged as the most pressing global challenge of the 21st century and which is one of the largest and most complex problems, the developed community has ever faced. The impacts of higher temperatures, variable precipitation, and extreme weather events have already begun to impact the economic performance of countries and the lives and livelihoods of millions of poor people. India is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change. It has one of the highest densities of economic activity in the world, and very large numbers of poor people who rely on the natural resource base for their livelihoods, with a high dependence on rainfall. By 2020, pressure on India’s water, air, soil, and forests is expected to become the highest in the world.

During the last few decades, the global agricultural production has risen and technology enhancement is still contributing to yield growth. However, population growth, water crisis, deforestation and climate change threatens the global food security.

Introduction

Vetiver, commonly known as Khus grass is a perennial grass of Indian origin. Vetiver roots contain fragrant essential oil, which is a perfume by itself. Aroma chemicals such as vetriverol, vetriverone and vetriveryl acetate are prepared from this volatile oil. In India, it is mainly used in perfumes, cosmetics, and aromatherapy, food and f lavouring industries. Since the plant has extensive finely structured fibrous roots, it is useful in both soil and water conservation and the plant itself is drought tolerant. The world production of vetiver oil is around 300 tons per annum of which India contributes about 20-25 tons only. The world major producers are Haiti, India, Java and Reunion. In India, it is cultivated in the states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, with an annual production of about 20 tons of oil. The present consumption of vetiver oil in India is about 100 tons and 80% of the domestic consumption is met by export only. As the internal demand for vetiver oil is very high, concerns are risingover the improved production and quality of raw materials used. Vetiver is a miracle crop and a big boon for the farmers to increase incomes. This would increase farmer’s income by three to four times. This crop has demand not only in India but also across the world. India is gaining big ground in cultivation of vetiver.

Global warming has become a worldwide concern after feeling the rise of temperature much more clearly after 1990. Global warming has negatively affected agricultural production throughout the world attributed by the climate change parameters. Effects of climate change on horticultural crops reported nowadays include problems of biotic and abiotic stress, yield loss, quality loss, etc. To understand the impact of climate change problems in horticulture, it is prerequisite to comprehend the issues related to global carbon cycle, climate change phenomenon, relationship between climate change variables and direct as well as indirect climate change effects.

Agriculture is dependent directly on weather and indirectly on the consequences of climate change. Changes in temperature, precipitation, incoming solar radiation and CO2 concentration are expected to impact crop growth to a greater extent. The overall impact of climate change on worldwide food production is considered to be low to moderate only when there is successful adaptation strategies towards climate change (IPCC, 1998). Global agricultural production could be benefited by the doubling CO2 concentration. All sectors including agriculture will be impacted by the adverse effect of climate change imposed on water resources (Gautam and Kumar, 2007; Gautam, 2009). India is expected to face more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers (Christensen et al., 2007; Cruz et al., 2007). The frequency of drought occurrence is increasing due to variations in the monsoonal rainfall. Climate change is posing a great threat to agriculture and food security. Water is the most critical agricultural input in India, as 55% of the total cultivated areas do not have irrigation facilities.

Even with the variations in climate conditions, food accessibility for the present generation is assured, but as far as the future is concerned there is still the uncertainity of agricultural production. All climate models predict that there will be more extreme weather conditions, with more droughts, heavy rainfall and storms in agricultural production regions. Such extreme weather events will inf luence pest and disease occurance, imposing severe risks of crop failure. In India, climate change could be a potential threat towards food security due to population growth, industrialization and economic development. India’s climate could become warmer under conditions of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Introduction

The coastal tract of peninsular India extends from Rann of Kutch in Gujarat to Malabar Coast in Kerala on the western coast and from Coromandal coast in Tamil Nadu up to Sunderban delta in West Bengal on the eastern coast. The eastern coast is generally characterized by a wider coast line when compared to its western counterpart. Coastal ecosystem in India occupies an area of about10.78 million hectares (1,07,833 km²) extending in nine states. It also occupies considerable area underLakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands. The extent and distribution of coastalarea have been shown in Table 1.

Life on Earth is dependent on microorganisms for many essential services. Microbes are intimate partners in global agriculture by way of mobilization of nutrients, antagonism against pathogens and exploitation of plant- microbe interactions and optimization of plant microbiome allows farmers to apply less chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and improving plant growth and yield for sustainable development.

India has 2.4% of land area of world and 8.1% global species diversity. India has 7500 km long coast line in nine states and three union territories. About 14% of Indian population (17 crores) lives in coastal area. In 10.78 million ha of coastal ecosystem, rice is the major coastal crop. Coastal rice accounts for 15% of total area and production of India. Coconut, cashew, areca nut, spices, plantation and fruit crops are the other important coastal crops. The east coast in four states (Tamil nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal) and one union territory (Pondicherry) has sandy coast and plains with medium to high rainfall (100-250 cm), and hot humid climate. It has marshy lands and mangroves. The west coast in five states (Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Gujarat) and two union territories (Diu and Daman, Dadar and Nagarhaeli) has fertile sandy plains with high rainfall (250-300 cm) and hot humid climate suitable for horticulture and plantation crops. Western Ghats near west coast is a hot spot with high biodiversity. ICAR established the Central Coastal Agriculture Research Institute (CCARI) at Goa in 2015 to carry out research on coastal agricultural crops.

Soil salinity in coastal regions is not only a soil type character, but also due to low quality irrigation water. The plant associated microorganisms “Plant microbiome” play a significant role in conferring resistance to soil salinity. The endophytic bacteria- rhizobium, rhizobacteria- azospirillum, azotobacter, phosphobacteria, PGPR bacteria, cyanobacteria, symbiotic fungi- ecto and endo mycorrhiza, alleviate the impact of soil salinity. Minimal microbiome for plants is the key determinant of plant health and productivity. The plant- microbe interactions are of three types: (i) Positive: Beneficial organisms- nitrogen fixers, phosphobacteria, mycorrhiza; (ii) Negative: Harmful organisms - plant pathogens; (iii) Neutral: Transient organisms. Millions of microbes inhabit plants, form complex ecological communities to improve plant growth, crop quality and productivity.

Plants are frequently subjected to environmental stresses such as water deficit, freezing, heat and salt stress. Soil salinity is a major problem in arid and semi- arid regions, where rainfall is insufficient to leach salt and excess of sodium ion down and out of root zone. In Asia, around 21.5 million ha of cultivable land was affected by salinity. India had 8.6 million ha of salinity affected cultivable land. It is observed that the area of salinity has been increasing in India. In Tamil Nadu, the area affected by salinity is around 6 lakh ha. Salinity affected areas are Chengalpattu, Salem, Thanjavur, Trichy, Tirunelveli, Dharmapuri and Ramanathapuram. Salinity is the most serious threats to the agriculture especially in the arid and semi-arid region. The presence of salts in the soil and their effects on the plant physiological mechanisms was major restrictive factor for agricultural productivity. Investigations on such soils have revealed that they were charged with high and abnormal soluble salt concentrations that lowered agricultural yield, limited crop distribution and even lead to extinction of certain species.

Salinity adversely affects plant growth and development, hindering seed germination, seedling growth, enzyme activity, DNA, RNA, protein synthesis and mitosis. There has been a variation in the response of plants to salinity with its growth stages according to quantity and period of exposure to salt. Salinity by competing in nutrition element absorption causes growth reduction. Primary salt injuries include metabolic disturbance and inhibition of growth and development. Secondary salt effects include nutrient deficiency and osmotic dehydration. Excessive amounts of salts, especially sodium chloride (NaCl), in the soil induce osmotic effects, leading to changes in plant metabolism. General symptoms of damage by salt stress are growth inhibition, accelerated development and senescence and death during prolonged exposure. Salt stress causes the reduction of rice yield and severe salt stress may even threaten survival.

Introduction

Rice is known as the grain of life, and is synonymous with food for Asians. In addition to being a staple food and an integral part of social rites, rituals, and festivals in all Asian countries, it has a medicinal value too, which was clearly recognized by the medicine systems of the region. Ancient Ayurvedic treatises laud the Raktashali red rice as a nutritive food and medicine. The medicinal value of other rices such as Sashtika, Sali, and parched rice have been documented in the Charaka Samhita (c. 700 BC) and the Susruta Samhita (c. 400 BC), in the treatment of various ailments such as diarrhea, vomiting, fever, hemorrhage, chest pain, wounds, and burns.

According to late Dr. Richaria, the well known rice scientist, 4, 00,000 varieties of rice existed in India during the Vedic period. According to his estimates, even today 2, 00,000 varieties of rice exist in India - a truly phenomenal number. Farmers in every part of country have a deep knowledge of their own rice varieties, This has enabled them to harvest a crop even under the most severe stress situations. Traditional paddy varieties are location specific and has its own advantages viz. saline tolerant, drought tolerant, pest tolerant, used for specific purpose such as roofing material for houses etc.

Introduction

Pulses belong to the taxonomic family Fabaceae, containing over 18,000 species divided into the three sub-families Mimosoideae, Caesalpinoideae and Papilionoideae. Pulses are commonly cultivated for several decades in all over the world because of the nutritional value of their seeds. Among different pulses, soybean, chickpea, common bean, cowpea, green gram, black gram and pigeon pea contribute significantly to serve the major protein source for the diets of large numbers of people living in Asia, Africa, and South America.

Production and Productivity of Pulses in india

In India, the production of pulses has not been able to keep pace with their domestic demand, resulting in import of 4-5 million tonnes of pulses per annum, especially from the countries like Canada, Myanmar and Australia to meet its domestic requirement (Kumar et al., 2018). India is the largest producer (around 25% of global production), however it consumes 27% and imports around 14% of its pulses requirements. The yield of pulses in India is quite low at 781 kg/ha which might be due to various factors. Pulse crops does not show any significant increase in area and production during 1950-51 to 2009-10, however, significant growth in area and production has been recorded during the last five years (i.e., 2010-2011 to 2016-17), with the adoption of high yielding varieties, increased usage of agricultural inputs like fertilizers and manures etc. The pulses under irrigation are cultivated in about 37% of the area while 63% of pulses are grown under rainfed conditions.

The productivity of pulses has increased about 77% at 779 kg/ha during 2016-17 from the level of 441 kg/ha during 1950-51. It is imperative to mention that the New Agriculture Technology (NAT) introduced during mid-sixties has increased the production of food-grains from 50.82 million tonnes during 1950-51 to 275.68 million tonnes during 2016-17 with the increase in area from 97.32 million hectares to 128 million hectares. In order to achieve self- sufficiency in pulses, the projected requirement by the year 2025 is estimated at 27.5 MT and to meet this requirement, the productivity needs to be enhanced to 1000 kg/ha.

Introduction

Food supply is a major concern in the near future as the human population touches 9 billion in 2050 and therefore, more food has to be produced. This has to be achieved in the face of climate change amounting to constant pressure of biotic and abiotic stresses. However, Swaminathan (2007) opined that science and technology can play a very important role in stimulating and sustaining an evergreen revolution leading to long-term increases in productivity without associated ecological harm. Rice is considered as global grain since it is consumed by more than half of the world population. In India rice supplies calorie requirement to more than 70 per cent of its population. This is evident from the fact that rice is cultivated in all the 30 states and 5 union territories of the Indian subcontinent of diverse ecologies ranging from below sea level to mountainous regions. Though India tops in rice acreage (43.61 mha) its productivity of 3.19 t/ha (rough rice) is far below world average of 4.12 t/ha and that of Asia’s average of 4.19 t/ha (Shobharani et al., 2010). This low productivity is mainly due to unfavourable ecologies of the varied ecosystems which, rice encounters during critical stages of its growth. Salinity and submergence are major abiotic stresses, next to drought, limiting rice production in South East Asia including India.

In India nearly 8 mha are salt affected of which 2 mha are coastal saline and 3.4 mha are sodic (Singh, 1994). Rice is predominant crop in these areas especially in vast stretches of eastern and western coasts of India. The presence of salts, in excess to plant growth, in the soil solution makes the soil detrimental to crop growth. The source of the excess salt may be from soil or irrigation water. The content and composition of salts (ions) in tandem with types of soil and weather conditions prevailing during the crop period decides the severity of salt stress. Similarly, f lash floods or short-term submergence regularly affect rice growing areas in South and Southeast Asia. Even more favorable irrigated areas experience flooding problems during the monsoon season. It is also prevalent in rainfed lowlands where most of the present day rice varieties do not survive complete submergence for more than a week. In India 30% of the rice growing area is prone to such menace resulting in severe yield losses (Neeraja et al., 2007).

Introduction

Global warming directly ref lects on rising sea levels due to melting of ice caps and natural expansion of sea water as it becomes warmer. Consequently, areas adjoining the coast and wetlands could be frequently flooded and the distribution pattern of monsoon rains may alter, through more intense downpours, storms and hurricanes. The meteorological data available at the Annamalai University, for the tail end of the Cauvery river delta region of Tamil Nadu State, India, shows that the average annual rainfall during the last 10 years segment has increased by 233 mm compared to the average of the previous 10 years segment (1588 mm and 1355 mm, respectively). In contrast, annual evaporation has reduced by 453 mm (2153 mm and 1700mm, respectively) (Kathiresan, 2011). The year 1990 was the hottest year in the last century with all other five of the warmest years in the century falling within the last 22 years. This trend indicates that f lash floods in wetlands and droughts in uplands have become more frequent. Such a changing climate warrants reinforcement of climate resilience in farming to protect the livelihoods of farmers and the biodiversity. The sub-project of the National Agricultural Innovation Project implemented by Annamalai University in Tamilnadu, sponsored by ICAR has identified three types of clusters in each of the four disadvantaged districts, based on the prevailing agro-ecology viz. wetland clusters, rainfed upland clusters and coastal shore farming clusters. The constraints for farming and livelihoods in these clusters are identified as frequent floods, inundation, drought, weed problems, crop failure, and lack of diversification (Kathiresan, 2009a and Kathiresan, 2010). Farming systems that would be resilient to such climatic and farming constraints designed through rigorous institutional and on-farm experiments (Kathiresan, 2007; Kathiresan, 2009b and Kathiresan, 2012) were disseminated for adoption by the farmers in these clusters.

Coastal areas are defined as the interface or transition areas between land and sea, including large inland lakes. Coastal areas are diverse in function and form, dynamic and do not lend themselves well to definition by strict spatial boundaries.

Economic importance of coastal areas

Many of the world’s major cities are located in coastal areas, and a large portion of economic activities are concentrated in these cities. The coastal zone is an area of convergence of activities in urban centres, such as shipping in major ports, and wastes generated from domestic sources and by major industrial facilities. Many of the world’s most productive agricultural areas are located in river deltas and coastal plains, which contribute for national economic growth.

Introduction

Any computer that has Microsoft office excel in it can operate this statistical calculator. Operating system requirement is Windows 7 or its higher version. Usually looking at a data we become nervous and start thinking that how to analyse the data using computer programme, how to write the report of the research analysis etc. This newly developed statistical calculator will remove the fear of data analysis and make our life easy. This calculator will get the data analysis done within a very reasonable computing time.

This chapter introduces a new statistical calculator which provides a step-by-step guide to data analysis of the research data generated in agriculture, biological sciences and in other fields (Singh and Chaudhary, 1985; Chandel, 1998; Bhattacharya and Chowdhury, 2010). The process used to develop the program is quite involved with statistical theories and is not understandable to those who do not have any background in statistics and data analysis. Here we will explain the procedure adopted and the programme used, step-by-step so that it becomes easily comprehensible. We have provided examples in each spreadsheet for analysis. Data analysis with this statistical programme is not really difficult. According to the draft format required for analysis, you only need to arrange and enter the raw data. It does not require much information and knowledge about the formula used as well as the program developed to analyze the data (http://www.sbear.in/).

Introduction

Climate change and agriculture are interrelated issues, both of which take place on a global scale. Global warming is projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including fluctuation of temperature, carbon dioxide, glacial run-off, precipitation and the interaction of these factors (Sehgal et al., 2006; Kalra et al., 2008). These conditions determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for the human population and for domesticated animals. The overall effect of climate change on agriculture will depend on the balance of these effects. Assessment of the effects of global climate changes on agriculture might help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to maximize agricultural production. Droughts, which have frequented different parts of India through the history, have been responsible for many famines, rural poverty and migration despite development of impressive irrigation potentials. Similarly, abnormal temperatures, high velocity winds and humidity during critical stages are known to significantly affect crop growth and development, pest incidences and epidemics, demand on irrigation resources and finally food production. Over the past few decades, the main-induced changes in the climate of the earth due to multifarious human activities linked to develop have become the focus of scientific and social attention. The predicted changes to agriculture vary greatly by region and crop. Findings for wheat and rice are reported here: The study found that increase in temperature (by about 2 ºC) reduces potential grain yield in most places. Regions with higher potential productivity (such as northern India) were relatively less impacted by climate change than areas with lower potential productivity (the reduction in yields was much smaller). Climate change is also predicted to lead to boundary changes in areas suitable for growing certain crops. (Kalra et al., 2002-2003). Reduction in yields as a result of climate change is predicted to be more pronounced for rainfed crops (as opposed to irrigated crops) and under limited water supply situations because there are no coping mechanisms for rainfall variability. The difference in yield is influenced by baseline climate. In sub-tropical environments, the decrease in potential wheat yield ranged from 1.5 to 5.8%, while in tropical areas the decrease was relatively higher, suggesting that warmer regions can expect greater crop losses.

Introduction

Soil, a dynamic living matrix, is an essential part of the terrestrial ecosystem. It is a critical resource not only to agricultural production and food security but also to the maintenance of most life processes. Soils contain enormous numbers of diverse living organisms assembled in complex and varied communities ranging from the myriad of invisible microbes, bacteria and fungi to the more familiar macro-fauna such as earthworms and termites. The diversity in soils is several times higher than that above ground. Each hectare top soil contains approximately 1,000 kg of different fungi, 500 kg of bacteria, 750 kg actinomycetes and 150 kg of algae and many protozoa (Table 1). These diverse micro-organisms interact with one another and with the plants and animals in the ecosystem forming a complex system of biological activity. Environmental factors, such as temperature, moisture and acidity, as well as anthropogenic actions, in particular, agricultural practices affect soil biological communities and their functions to different extents. Diversity of soil micro-organisms has emerged in the past decade as a key area of concern for sustainable soil health and crop production. Besides, the well-being and prosperity of earth’s ecological balance, the sustainability of agricultural production systems directly depends on the extent and status of microbial diversity of soil.

Introduction

Drought is the most important abiotic factor that adversely affect growth and crop production. Drought stress can altered the normal physiological processes that influence one or a combination of biological factors for yield and yield attributing traits (Ashraf, 2010). The abnormal metabolism due to stress may reduce plant growth (Claves et al., 2002). Production is limited by environmental stresses, according to different scholar estimates, only 10 per cent of the world’s arable land is free from stress, in general, a major factor in the difference between yield and potential performance, environmental stresses. Drought is one of the most common environmental stresses that almost 25 per cent of agricultural lands for agricultural farm products in the world are limited (Loresto, 1976; Chaves, 2002). Drought occurrence in India is also very frequent. Drought occurred in past 1967, 1968, 1969, 1972, 1974, 1979, 1987, 2002, 2009 and had considerable impact on food grain production. For example, the drought of 1966-67 reduced overall food grains production by 19%. The drought of 1972-73 reduced the food grains production from 108.95 million tonnes to 95 million tonnes, causing a loss of about $ 400 million $. The 1987 drought in India damaged 58.6 million ha of cropped area affecting 285 million people (Ray et al., 2015). Drought in 2002 has reduced food grains production to 174 million tonnes from 212 million tonnes resulting in decline of 3.2% GDP (Rathore et al., 2009; Ray et al., 2015).

The water deficit reduces crop yield due to decrease in photosynthetic area, decreased radiation use efficiency and harvest index (Earl and Davis, 2003). Drought stress affect the water balance and plant metabolisms. Plants under drought conditions use various changes to tolerate stress conditions and increase drought tolerance which includes changes in whole plant, tissue, at physiological and molecular levels. Appearance of a single or a combination of inherent changes determines the ability of the plant to stand under aridity conditions. Tolerant plant adjusts its water balance by osmotic adjustment, deep root systems and by transient leaf rolling.

Introduction

Soils are formed by weathering of rocks and minerals and all soils contain some amount of soluble salts. Many of these act as a source of essential nutrients for the healthy growth of plants. However, when quantity and quality of salts in the soil near rhizosphere exceeds a particular value, growth, yield and/or quality of most crops is adversely affected. Such a soil is called salt-affected. The degree of adverse effects depends upon the type and quantity of salts, crop and its variety, stage of growth, cultural practices and environmental factors viz. temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall etc. Development of salinity and waterlogging is a serious problem in arid and semi-arid regions of the world and threatening the sustainability of irrigated agriculture.

Salt-affected soils occupy an estimated 952.2 million ha of land in the world that constitutes nearly 7% of the total land area and nearly 33% of the potential arable land (Dudal and Purnell, 1986). In India, the salt affected soils account for 6.727 million ha i.e. 2.1% of geographical area of the country. These soils are mostly found in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh. In the last 25 years 1.1 million ha of alkali soils have been reclaimed in the states of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. These have contributed to the additional food grain production of 10 million tonnes annually. Reclamation of alkali soils have also decreased the incidents of floods and malaria and increased the groundwater recharge.

Introduction

The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), with geographical coverage of over 5.3 lakh km², constitutes a large proportion of the hotspot and, therefore, contributes greatly to richness and representativeness of its biodiversity components at all levels. Out of this 5.3 lakh km², 33.13 million ha area is being constituted by the North-Western Himalayas.^. Further, most of the water used to grow maize crop in the sub-humid foothill region of northwest Himalayas, is derived from rainfall. Erratic rains, fragile ecosystems and traditional indigenous management practices are mainly responsible for the current situation (Kukal and Bhatt, 2010). IHR covers 11 states entirely (i.e. Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya), and two states partially (i.e. hilly districts of Assam and West Bengal). The region represents nearly 3.8% of total human population of the country and exhibits diversity of ethnic groups which inhabit remote terrains. Further it is reported that the Northwestern Himalayan region (NWHR) which spreads to an approximate area of 33.13 million ha, comprising of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand is 10.1% of country’s total geographical area, supports 2.4% and 4% of human and cattle population of the country, respectively. This region has a diverse climate, topography, vegetation, ecology and land use pattern. The annual average rainfall varies from 80 mm in Ladakh to over 200 cm in some parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The major natural resources are water, forests, floral, and faunal biodiversity. Forests constitute the major share in the land use of the region with only 15% of the net sown area and 162% cropping intensity (Bhatt, 2011).

Introduction

Farm mechanization is application of machine power to work on land, usually performed by animate and mechanical power. It is also defined as an economic application of engineering technology to increase the labour efficiency and productivity. However, it not only includes production, distribution and utilization of a variety of tools, machinery and equipment but also planting, harvesting and primary process. Mechanization has a major impact on demand and supply of farm labour, agricultural profitability and a change in rural dynamics.

Introduction

Worldwide, salt–affected areas are estimated to range from 340 million ha to 1.2 billion ha (FAO, 2007; Oo et al., 2015; Ahmad et al., 2016; Drake et al., 2016). Millions of hectare of these salt affected soils are suitable for agricultural production but are unexploited because of salinity/sodicity and other soil and water related problems (Abrol et al., 1988). Salt-affected soils are reported to comprise 42.3% of the land area of Australia, 21.0% of Asia, 7.6% of South America, 4.6% of Europe, 3.5% of Africa, 0.9% of North America and 0.7% of Central America (El-Mowellhey, 1998). In India, out of 329 million ha geographical land area of the country about 175 million ha suffers from different problems and is getting further degraded through natural or man-made processes. Majority of these lands is treated as wastelands as their productivity is low due to soil based constraints like water logging, salinity and sodicity. According to FAO, salinization of arable land will result in 30% to 50% land loss by the year 2050 if, remedial actions are not taken. Recent estimates indicate that 6.73 million ha (NRSA and Associates, 1996) land is suffering from salinity and sodicity problems in India. High salt deposits inherited by the soil from the original parent material during soil forming processes and poor drainage are important factors contributing to the development of such soils. These lands occur in different biogeographic zones and therefore consist of diverse morphological, physical, chemical and biological properties. These soils are universally low in fertility and due to the adverse edaphic environment; they are devoid of any vegetation because of excessive exchangeable Na+ associated with high pH (>8.5) which impairs the physical condition of the soils and adversely affects water and air movement, nutritional and hydrological properties of the soils (Suarez et al., 1984; Gupta and Abrol, 1990; Sumner, 1993; Garg, 1998).These lands are largely carbon-depleted but can be brought back to their native carbon-carrying capacity by reforestation through agroforestry systems. The presence of CaCO3 concretions at various depths (caliche bed) causes physical impedance for root proliferation, therefore, making it difficult for tree establishment and restrict the choice of arable crops to be grown (Shukla et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2012a).

Introduction

Livestock is an important component of Indian agriculture contributing 28% of agricultural gross value added (GVA) of the country. Agriculture, as such, contributes 16.4% of country's GVA (Economic survey, 2017-18). Livestock as a source of income has seen a steady increase from 4% to 13% in a decade time (2002-2012). India, with 2.29% of the world land area, is maintaining about 10.71% of the world’s livestock population. The milk production in the country increased from 17 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 187.7 million tonnes in 2018-19. The feed and fodder play an essential role in the health and productivity of livestock. Even though India is the world largest milk producer with 21% of global production, the productivity (1700 kg/year) is far below the world average (2574 kg/year) (FAO STAT, 2018). One of the main responsible factors (50.2%) for this low productivity is the deficiency in feed and fodder. Although forage crops are the critical component of livestock-based farming system, the area under cultivated fodder is static to around 8.4 million ha (5.23%) since last two decades due to the competition of land use with other crops. Availability of the fodder determines the productivity and profitability of the livestock rearing because fodder and feeds constitute about 60% of the total cost of milk production, which can be lowered by enhancing the green fodder-based feeding system. The traditional grazing lands are gradually diminishing because of urbanization, expansion of the cultivable area, grazing pressure, industrialization etc. These factors coupled with stagnation of area under cultivated fodder resulted in a severe shortage of feed and fodder to the extent of 26% in dry crop residues, 35.6% in green fodder and 41% of concentrates (IGFRI, 2011). This gap in demand and supply may further rise due to consistent growth of livestock population at the rate of 1.23% in the coming years. The share of the in-milk population to total population has increased from 23% to 27% in the case of cattle and from 33.64 to 34.74% in buffaloes from 2012 to 2019. The year-on-year growth rate of milk is approximate 6%. Thus, to sustain this growth rate and for further expansion to meet the demands of the ever growing human population, livestock needs a sustainable supply of feed material. To reduce the demand and supply gap, the production and productivity of fodder crops need to be enhanced. The productivity of cultivated fodder crops is low, due to the least attention and allocation of minimal production resources and lack of dissemination of the production techniques to stakeholders involved in the forage resource development. The present chapter highlights the recent advances in the forage crop production technologies. The comprehensive compilation of information at one place provides the opportunity to get the holistic picture of forage production altogether.

Introduction

The various kinds of plants present on earth have been used over the millennia for human welfare in the promotion of health and as drugs and fragrance materials. About 80% of the world’s inhabitants rely mainly on herbal medicines for their primary health care, while medicinal plants continue to play an important role in the health care systems of the remaining 20%. The use of herbal medicine and medicinal plants in most developing countries, as a normative basis for the maintenance of good health, has been widely observed (UNESCO, 1996). According to WHO (1998), herbal medicines are finished, labelled medicinal products that contain as active ingredients, above ground or underground parts of plants or other plant materials, or combinations thereof, whether in the crude state or as plant preparations. The plant materials referred to above include juices, gums, resins, fatty oils, essential oils and any other substances of this nature. Herbal medicines may contain excipients in addition to the active ingredients (WHO, 1991). Remarkably, even today there is no real definition for this special group of plants that has been accompanying mankind throughout history. Most frequently, medicinal plants are defined as feral and/or cultivated plants that, based on tradition and literature records, can be directly or indirectly used for medical purposes. The basis of medicinal use is that these plants contain so called active ingredients (active principles or biologically active principles) that affect physiological (metabolic) processes of living organisms, including human beings.

The conception about aromatic plants is even less definite. The term aromatic indicates plants having an aroma; being fragrant or sweet-smelling, while the word aroma is supposed to imply also the taste of the material (aromatic herbs). Since, large number of plants possess both medicinal and aroma properties which leads to complexity and overlapping uses of active ingredients, making impossible to establish rigid categories or a practical classification for medicinal and aromatic plants. For example; Anise, dill, coriander, thyme, etc. are equally known as medicinal, spice and essential oil crops. Thus, frequently these plants are simply referred to as medicinal plants, disregarding their specific features. More recently, the term “Medicinal and Aromatic Plants” (MAPs) has been used in a slightly broader sense, distinguishing the fragrant (aromatic, ethereal) ingredients containing group of medicinal plants.

Introduction

The general recommendation for intake of fruits and vegetables is at least 400 g/ person as recommended by World Health Organization (WHO), which amounts to five servings of 80 g/day or about 146 g/person/annum. For vegetables, the recommended intake requirement is at least 300 g per day per individual. This 300 g requirement must include 50 g leafy vegetables, 50 g roots and tubers and 200 g other vegetables (Kapur, 2016). Current annual vegetable production including potato, based on recent three years (2015-16, 2016-17, 2017-18) average is around 177 million tonnes from 10 million ha giving a productivity of 17.7 tonnes/ha. With this average and stagnating production and assuming Indian population at 133 crores (1.33 billion) and 25% post-harvest losses, per capita per day availability of vegetables comes to 273 g leaving a gap of 27 g between the recommended dose and the availability of vegetables/head/day in India. By 2050, the projected population of India is 1.5 billion and to meet the requirement of this population, vegetable production will have be 220 million tonnes, of course making allowance of 25% post-harvest losses. Considering all kind of constraints on the available land area of vegetables, the vegetable area will be around 10 million ha and consequently, major gain of production will have to come from productivity increase from current level of about 18 to 22 tonnes/ha and this seems to be a gigantic task as during last several years, the productivity of vegetables in India has been between 17 and 18 tonnes/ha, an indication that perhaps productivity has reached to a plateau. This situation will call fall massive interventions on technological fronts in terms of innovative products with focus on better hybrids with higher yields, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses coupled with horizontal scaling up of modern production technologies. This chapter looks into the modern production technologies as applicable to vegetable crops in India to boost the productivity further from current 18 tonnes/ha to at least 22 tonnes/ha.

Introduction

Sugarcane is a vital commercial crop of our country that occupies around 5.11 million ha of land with an annual cane production of around 400.16 million tonnes and yield of 78.25 t/ha. Sugarcane occupies 2.67% of the cultivated land area and about 7.5% to the agricultural production in the country (DAC, 2020). This crop is a source of earning and livelihood for about 35 million farmers and approximately equal number of labourers. After textile industry, the sugar industry holds its place for the largest agro-based industry in country. Around 40-50% of the cane is utilised in 435 sugar industries present in India for the manufacture of about 15 million tonnes of sugar.

This crop is also a source of raw material for two important small scale industries, i.e., gur and khandsari. These industries utilises about 50-55% of the sugarcane produced for production of about 10 million tonnes of these products altogether. Besides, sugarcane crop is also the producer of molasses, chief by product, which is the main source for production of alcohol. In the year 2018-19, about 13.79 million tonnes of molasses is produced by our country. Apart from this, the left over fibrous material of sugarcane termed as sugarcane bagasse is also a source of production of electricity in the sugar mills. The left over extra bagasse is now-a-days utilised for even production of paper in paper industries. Also, co-generation of power by this product of sugarcane as fuel is considered to be best practical thing in most of the sugar mills. Using this as a raw material, about 3500 MW power may be generated each year without the use of any extra fuel and money being less than normally utilised in case of fuel production from thermal powers. Press mud is also one of the by-products obtained from sugarcane which is considered to be rich source of organic matter and micro and macro nutrients. Even the green tops of sugarcane are being used as cattle fodder. Besides, the cool sugarcane juice full of energy is in great demands in urban area to quench the thirst of people, especially in hot summer seasons (Anonymous, 2008). The trend of sugarcane production over the years is given

Introduction

Oilseeds are the third most important group of crops after cereals and pulses in India. These are important food crops which also find their place in industrial use. Oilseeds have been an integral component of Indian agriculture since time immemorial. On the oilseeds map of the world, India occupies a prominent position, both in terms of acreage and production. India is the 4^th largest edible oil economy in the world and contributes about 10% of the world oilseeds production, 6-7% of the global production of vegetable oil, and nearly 7% of protein meal. The oilseeds production statistics of the world for the year 2016-17 includes a production of 549.98 million tonnes from an area of 234.57 million ha with the productivity of 2.34 tonnes/ha. The top countries include U.S.A., China and India with U.S.A. ranking first in all area, production and productivity of 39.25 million ha, 126.94 million tonnes and 3.23 tonnes/ha, respectively. Next is China which ranks 2^nd in production and productivity but 3^rd in terms of area; the area, production and productivity being 22.72 million ha, 54.92 million tonnes and 2.42 tonnes/ha, respectively. India ranks 2^nd in terms of area, i.e. 33.83 million ha but 3^rd in both production and productivity being 36.32 million metric tonnes and 1.07 tonnes/ha respectively.

Introduction

Pulses are the second most important group of crops after cereals in India. They are important food crops for nutritional security, soil health and sustainable agriculture. Consequently, they remained an internal component of Indian agriculture especially under rainfed since time immemorial. They are among the ancient food crops with evidence of their cultivation for over 8,000 years. India, China, Brazil, Canada, Myanmar and Australia are the major pulse producing countries with relative share of 25%, 10%, 5%, 5% and 4%, respectively. In 2017, the global pulses production was 95.98 million tonnes from an area of 95.17 million ha with an average yield of 1008 kg/ha. Dry beans contributed 32.7% to global total pulses production followed by chickpea (15.4%), dry peas (16.89%), lentil (7.91%) and pigeonpea (7.1%). About 70% of the global pigeonpea, 60% of chickpea and 17% of lentil area falls in India (FAO STAT, 2018). India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world contributing around 25-28% of the total global production.

India can be proud of growing the largest number of pulse crops (grain legumes) in the world. Over a dozen pulse crops including chickpea (Cicer arietinum), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), mungbean (Vigna radiata), urdbean (Vigna mungo), cowpea (V. unguiculata), lentil (Lens culinaris), lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.), frenchbean (Phaseolus vulgaris), horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum), field pea (Pisum sativum), moth bean (V. aconitifolium), etc. are grown in one or the other part of the country throughout year. The latest data (2017-18) indicate that the present production of pulses is 25.23 million tonnes from an area of 29.99 million ha with productivity of 841 kg/ha (DAC, 2019) (Fig. 1). The stagnant growth of pulse production and continuous increasing human population in the country led to decline in per capita consumption of pulses from 67 g/day/person during 1951 to 35 g/day/person during 2010 (Indian Council of Medical Research recommends 65 g/day/person).

The most important pulse crops grown are chickpea (48%), pigeonpea (15%), mungbean (7%), urdbean (7%), lentil (5%) and field pea (5%). To fulfill domestic demand of pulses in the country, India has to import 3-4 million tones of pulses every year. In order to ensure self-sufficiency, the pulse requirement in the country is projected to be about 50 million tonnes by 2050 which necessitates an annual growth rate of 4.0% (IIPR, 2013).

Introduction

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) is the most widely grown type of millet and it is an important staple food grain crop for millions of people in arid and semi arid regions of the world. Pearl millet is very well adapted crop to growing areas characterized by drought, low soil fertility, and high temperature. It is also performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Because of its tolerance to difficult growing conditions, it can be grown in areas where other cereal crops, such as wheat or maize, would not survive. Physiologically, it is a C₄ plant which imparts it potential to grow under hot and dry climatic conditions. Among cereals, it is highly responsive to fertilizers and has highest water use efficiency. Pearl millet is being grown as dual purpose crop for both grain and fodder in dry areas like Rajasthan where animal production is complimentary with crop production. Pearl millet is also a good source of important essential minerals for human health like Fe and Zn hence it is useful to alleviating malnutrition.

Introduction

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most versatile promising crops having wider adaptability under diverse agro-climatic conditions. Worldwide, maize is known as “Queen of cereals” because it has the maximum genetic yield potential amongst the cereals. It is cultivated on nearly 197 million ha in about 170 countries having wider diversity of climate, soil, biodiversity and management practices that contributes 36% (1135 million tonnes) of the global grain production. The United States of America (U.S.A.) is the largest producer of maize contributes nearly 33% of the total production in the world and other important growing countries are China, Brazil, India, Argentina, Indonesia, Ukraine and Mexico (Table 1).

Introduction

Wheat is pre-eminent both in regard to its antiquity and its importance as a food of mankind in the world. In prehistoric times, it was cultivated throughout Europe and was one of the most valuable cereals of ancient Persia, Greece and Egypt. Wheat has been cultivated for several thousand years in India with the evidence of presence of wheat grains in the Mohen-Jo-Daro excavations. Till 1947, the total wheat production was only about 6 million tonnes and was not sufficient to meet the demand, leading to large scale importation of wheat. Subsequently production increased due to an increase in both total cropped and irrigated area. Wheat crop has exhibited a robust growth trend since the onset of the ‘green revolution’ in 1968. India, one of the greatest success stories of ‘green revolution’, is the second largest producer of wheat in the world after China. During 2018-19 (Fig. 1) India produced a record breaking 101.20 million tonnes of wheat from 29.62 million ha area indicating 3.42 tonnes/ha wheat yield (ICAR-IIWBR, 2019). On the other hand, India is also the second largest wheat consumer after China. Thus, wheat and its various products play an increasingly important role in managing India’s food security and India became the wheat surplus nation as against the wheat deficient nation during 1960’s. The tremendous progress in area, production and productivity of wheat to the tune of 2.9, 12.2 and 4.2 times, respectively as compared to 1950 has made India (Table 1) the member of elite group of wheat exporting countries (Workman, 2018).

Introduction

Rice is the staple food for over half the world’s population. China and India alone account for ~50% of the rice grown and consumed. Rice provides up to 50% of the dietary caloric supply for millions living in poverty in Asia and is, therefore, critical for food security. Globally, share of Asia continent in rice production is more than 90% followed by America (5.2%), Africa (3.4%) and Europe (0.6%). It is becoming an important food staple in both Latin America and Africa. Record increases in rice production have been observed since the start of the ‘Green Revolution’. However, rice remains one of the most protected food commodities in world trade. Rice is a poor source of vitamins and minerals, and losses occur during the milling process. Populations that subsist on rice are at high risk of vitamin and mineral deficiency.

The Indian population of 1.32 billion is projected to reach 1.53 billion by 2030 A.D. Goyal and Singh (2002) estimated a demand of 146 million tonnes of rice (taken as 50% of total cereals) by the year 2030. On the other end of the scale, 3^rd projection puts rice demand to be 156 million tonnes by 2030 (ICAR, 2010). To meet this, it is immensely necessary to increase the productivity levels without adversely affecting the natural resource base. Achievement of the targeted production would be an uphill task in the coming decades with the shrinking natural resource base, deteriorating soil health and soil productivity, declining input use efficiency, plateauing of yields in irrigated ecologies and lack of a major yield breakthrough in rainfed ecologies. Further, slowdown in the growth rate of cereal production and growing population pressure have emerged as formidable challenges for the future food and nutritional security in India. These challenges will be more extreme under emerging situations of natural resource degradation, high energy demands, volatile markets and risks associated with global climate change (Jat et al., 2016; Lal, 2016). Since, rice is the staple food for our country’s food security primarily depends on this wonderful crop. Globally rice is cultivated now in 167 million ha with annual production of around 769 million tonnes (499.3 million tonnes, milled rice) of rough rice and average productivity of 4.6 tonnes/ha (3.62 t/ha, milled rice) of rough rice (FAO STAT, 2017). In Asian countries, >90% of the rice is produced and consumed. The other continents in which rice is grown are Africa (7.78% of the global area), South America (6.4%) and North America (1.4%).

Tropical forest bird community

Species richness at Silent Valley and Mukkali were similar. Most of the birds at Silent Valley were sighted with in a distance of 4m during the census. At Mukkali this distance was up to 9m. Yellowbrowed Bulbul was the most common and dominant species found at Silent Valley. Most common species found at Mukkali was Black Drongo and dominant species was Jungle Babbler. A total of hundred and thirty-seven species of birds were recorded from the study area. There is no significant difference in bird species richness between years during monsoon and summer seasons at Silent Valley. But a significant difference in species richness is obtained between years in both seasons, at Mukkali.

Four endemic and threatened species of birds were recorded from the study area. This shows the conservation value of the study area. Total number of birds sighted in each month showed significant difference at Silent Valley and Mukkali. This is due to the movement of birds influenced by the climatic and other parameters. Overall density of birds was high at Silent Valley (1122 birds/km²) and low at Mukkali (780 birds/km² ). This indicates the ability of tropical evergreen forest to harbour more birds than tropical moist deciduous forest. The number of individuals/km² recorded is comparable to other tropical forests in the world and from this observation we can also conclude that the study area is supporting a rich bird community.

Wetland birds serve an important ecosystem function of accelerating the nutrient cycling in the feeding grounds (Morales and Pacheco, 1986) and regulating fish populations (Miranda, 1995). According to Drent and Dann (1980), the availability of food is of primary importance to the birds during migration when, they store energy for winter survival and successful completion of migration. Many migrant shorebirds relay on a few key stopover sites to complete their annual migratory cycle (Myers et al., 1987), which provide a unique combination of food resources and habitat necessary to support these large numbers of birds (Myers, 1984).

When animal species assemble at a particular area, they utilise individual but overlapping segments of the habitat (MacArthur, 1958). Karr (1980) stated that resource utilization pattern and the community organization are determined by a combination of variables. The availability and preference of the food organisms, feeding behaviour and utilization of the habitat for feeding and reproduction differ in co-existing animal species. Periods of rapid change in prey populations offer important opportunities to study the relationship between predators and their prey. In particular, such studies can yield information on the functional response of predators to a changing prey environment and the role of prey dynamics in the regulation of predator population size.

Habitat is the most valuable variable in ornithological studies as it provides food and cover essential for the survival of the population (White and Garrott, 1985). Habitat is an area containing or influenced by the suitable resources and environmental conditions that determine the presence, survival and reproduction of a population (Morrison et al., 1998). Cody (1985) described habitat as areas where an organism’s need for food and shelter are met. Habitat selection and use by birds is fundamental in understanding their biology and management and it has been one of the most well studied aspects of avian biology, particularly as habitats are altered by human activities (Pain and Pienkowski, 1996).

According to the optimal foraging theory, animals may use the areas offering higher food extensively (Stephens and Krebs, 1987). By using the most productive patches, birds may have a high ingestion rate, allowing to reduce the time exposed to predators and having more time to other activities. However, some authors have obtained contradictory results also. They have not found clear relationship between bird abundance and food availability (Wiens, 1984 and Herrera, 1988). The ability to exploit food resources is one of the most frequently suggested reasons for habitat selection by birds (Caraco, 1980) and would be expected to be primary basis for selection of foraging habitat.

Population studies have been traditionally used to monitor large scale, long term changes in avian population and to assess both habitat quality and the responses of birds to both management practices and natural and human caused environmental changes (Wiens, 1989). Species composition, abundance and behaviour of birds are known to vary seasonally (Morrison et al. 1980). Some species are permanent residents in an area, others occupy an area only during winter or summer months. In this chapter, seasonal variations of wetland bird community in the Kole wetlands are described in terms of species richness, abundance, diversity and density.

METHODS

Seasonal pattern

The study area has three distinct seasons viz. dry season (December to April) wet-I, the period of southwest monsoon (May to August) and wet-II, the period of northeast monsoon (September to November). Based on the arrival of migratory birds, the months are divided into migratory season (September to March) and non-migratory season (April to August). Occurrence of birds in each month obtained through the daily census data was used for the seasonality analysis. Monthly changes and seasonal changes of the community were analysed. Species richness, abundance, diversity indices of each season and also in migratory and non-migratory season were calculated and presented. Population fluctuations of 36 wader species in the four intensive study areas during three migratory seasons were estimated. Apart from these, detailed information on the population fluctuation of selected bird species was presented.

Number of individuals in a population increase under favourable environmental conditions. Sudden or violent changes in the environment or in the biological characteristics of the individual could lead to decline. Fluctuation in the population is usually because of the effect of a combination of several factors responsible for their survival, growth and reproduction. It is necessary to understand the cause of such fluctuations for better scientific management of the population as well as the habitat (Acharya, 2000). In most of the studies, community has largely been expressed in terms of species richness, abundance, density and diversity. All these have been used as indicators of habitat quality, because an increase in the value of the component is generally thought to reflect larger amounts of the necessary resources to sustain larger population within a given area. Moreover, it is believed that if the factors determining the distribution of the animals are known, predictions can be made concerning the responses of animals to specific perturbations and hence, such animals can be used to monitor environment quality (Gokula, 1998).