eBook Chapters

A. General Morphology

2.1 The Root

It is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil.The root is best defined as the non-leaf, non-nodes bearing parts of the plant’s body. However, important internal structural differences between stems and roots exist. Root spices are, rather surprisingly, rare. Some popular examples of spices having roots are: Apium graveolens (Celery), Armoracia rusticana (Horse radish), Coriandrum sativum (Coriander), Ferula asafoetida (Asafetida), Glycyrrhiza glabra (Licorice), Levisticum officinale (Lovage), (Petroselinum crispum (Parsley), etc. All of the mentioned plants have aromatic roots.Roots of gingiberaceae are adventitious and storage roots arise from among the nodes of these scales.

Abstract

The coastal regions are always tectonically active since these form the junction between the continental and oceanic plates. These tectonic activities and the resultantly tutored fluvial and marine geomorphic processes and the independent fluvial and marine geomorphic processes carve out the coastal morphology. And if these coastal geomorphic features are studied, it will lead to the understanding of the morphotechtonics. One such a study carried out for a part of Ganjam coast, revealed various geomorphic anomalies viz: presence of high order hill ranges only in the north eastern and south western parts of the area with the central plain, northerly migrating Ganjam river, development of wide beach ridges only along the central plain, all indicating the Late Quaternary upliftment of the central plain.

Introduction

The Indian subcontinent is vested with nearly 9,000km long coastline both in its eastern and the western continental margins. These coasts provide unique configuration with convexities (land protruding into the coast), concavities (vice-versa), deltas of different morphologies, beach ridges and swales, bay mouth bars, peaks, serrations and projections in the shorelines, all indicating the vibrant tectonic, fluvial, marine and aeolian processes. As the coastal zones in general, form the boundaries between the continental and oceanic plate margins, these are inherent weak zones prone to tectonic activities, which in conjunction with other geomorphic processes, provide unique architecture to the coasts with above varied geomorphic features. That too, the Indian coasts were inferred to stand as testimony to the vibrant tectonic activities and other related geodynamic processes of the Quaternary period (Ramasamy, 1989; Ramasamy, 1999).

Mosaic is the combination of two or more raster images into single image. Sometimes, single image captured by remote sensing satellite doesn’t completely covers the desired study area mostly. Therefore, users resort for mosaicking two or more images captured by satellite sensors from different paths so that the whole study area is merged into a single raster image to facilitate the image processing and analysis. The pixel size of the raster images should be same for mosaicking.

In most of the cases, there is spatial overlapping among the raster images from which we want to create mosaic. These overlapping areas are handled in multiple ways which is being discussed further using R – code example. For mosaicking raster images in R, mosaic function of the raster package is used.

Purpose: In propagation of fruit plants by any vegetative methods such as cuttings, budding and in to the selection of ‘mother plants” and “bud-wood”. Use of bud-wood or any other propagation material from high yielding, true to-type, disease free trees (mother plant) will ensure uniform behaviour of trees in the orchard. If possible, propagation material from a single source is used.

Bud-wood used for budding purpose from high yielding, true-to-type and disease free trees certified for the above character by a certifying agency is referred as ‘certified bud’

Procedure: By adopting the flow sheet given below, clean scion from healthy, productive plants, can be selected for vegetative propagation.

1. INTRODUCTION

Motifs are patterns in biological sequences which can indicate the presence of certain biological characteristics and function. In general, these could represent patterns in any kind of biological sequences such as DNA sequences, RNA sequences and protein sequences. Evolutionary conserved regions (ECRs) are sequences with atleast 100 bp length alongwith minimum 70% identity, which includes most of the protein-coding exons, promoters, enhancers and repressors. ECRs are the preliminary step for finding TFBSs (Transcription factor binding sites) within the raw genome sequences of higher eukaryotes (large sizes of the genomes). DNA sequence motifs are short length, recurring patterns in DNA and are known to be associated with a biological function. These motifs sometimes indicate sequence specific binding sites for proteins such as nucleases and transcription factors (TF). Some sequence motifs are involved in biological processes at RNA level, such as ribosome binding, mRNA processing (splicing, editing, polyadenylation) and transcription termination. Motif identification is important at protein level for biological processes such as protein-subcellular localization, protein membrane, protein-protein interactions, identification of active site of enzyme(s) and post-translational modifications. Motif search is useful in understanding gene function, human disease, drug design, etc. Regulation of splicing in eukaryotes occurs through the coordinated action of multiple splicing factors. Sequence motifs are also useful in the study of genetic regulatory networks and regulatory program of individual genes.

Introduction

The motile bacteria show movements with the help of flagella. The motility of bacteria can be observed by hanging drop method under microscope.

Requirements

1. Bacterial culture
2. Cavity slide
3. Vaseline
4. Coverslip

Procedure

1. Place a very small drop of 24 hours old bacterial culture in the center of a coverslip.
2. Put a small amount of Vaseline at each cover of the depression side of the cavity.
3. Invert the cavity slide over the coverslip. The coverslip adheres to glass slide. When the coverslip is inverted, the hanging drop is suspended in the well.

Motivation represents the psychological force that drives individuals toward specific goals and behaviors, serving as the catalyst between intention and action. At its core, motivation encompasses the internal processes that energize, direct, and sustain human behavior over time. The term derives from the Latin word “movere,” meaning to move, which aptly captures its fundamental purpose of propelling individuals from a state of rest to purposeful activity. Contemporary organizational psychology defines motivation as the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy individual needs. The essential elements of motivation form an interconnected system that transforms latent potential into observable behavior. The first element involves needs, which represent deficiencies or imbalances that create tension within an individual. These needs can be physiological,

Motivation of staff both in private and public organizations, leads to greater effectively leading to higher productivity and better performance. Motivation is the performance or procedure of presenting an intention that leads a person to capture some accomplishment (Quratul, 2011). Veterinary institutions like other organizations also seek to achieve better performance level. This requires providing motivation as an incentive or within the veterinarian as an individual to be self-motivated. There is a good scope for veterinarians to be more committed to work. McGregor argued that management has the responsibility to ensure that the productive elements of the enterprises are organized, such as money, materials and people with the purpose of meeting economic ends. People have an inborn dislike to work and tend to avoid it whenever an opportunity arises. It is also observed that people are born selfish; indifferent to the needs of the organization; hence people’s efforts need to be directed through coercion, controlling their action and modification of their behaviors to attain organizational goals. Hence, people in the organization need to be directed to take responsibility. To achieve organizational objectives, people need to be persuaded, rewarded, coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment. While another theory is opposable to it. It is believed that if vets are motivated they would reach greatest potential. As extension specialist we need to motivate our peer and farmers aiming to improve performance and increased satisfaction.

Abstract

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. Motivation is a complex area. It’s different for different persons. Alignment of aims, purposes and values between staff, teams and organization is the most fundamental aspect of motivation. Organizational work culture and employees behavior are two important factors in taking decision on motivation techniques to be followed in the organization. Security of job, reward on better performance, importance of employee’s view in decision making, positive attitude, decisive leadership, etc bring motivation among employees. The five practices such as get to know every employee, challenge them to improve the performance, treat each employee as client for a day, establish great idea award and implement the great idea in organization activity, can improve the motivation of employees. They should be considered as resources, trusted by giving responsibility and rewarded with performance bonus for better motivation in the workplace.

3.1 Introduction
The different moulding machines are listed below.
• Thermoforming moulding
• Injection moulding
• Compression moulding
• Transfer moulding
• Extrusion moulding
• Blow moulding
• Rotational moulding
• Hydroforming
• Laminating
The melting furnaces, which feed molten metal to fill mould cavities are listed below.
• Cupola furnace
• Induction furnace
• Open hearth furnace
This chapter presents the different moulding machines and melting furnaces.
3.2 Thermoforming Moulding
To develop unique packaging solutions, thermoforming is the process of stretching a heated plastic sheet over a mould, then trimming, and assembling the design once the sheet has cooled as shown in Fig.3.1. The hot thermoplastic is stretched over the surface of the mould using the two thermoforming processes, viz. vacuum forming and pressure forming. A thermoforming machine is a sizable piece of industrial machinery that allows us to vacuum-form a plastic sheet onto an object as the sheet is being moulded. Thermoforming machines are used and benefited by a variety of businesses to efficiently package their products. The material used to produce parts by thermoforming machines is thermoforming plastic. Numerous thermoforming polymers are available for use in particular applications.

17.1 Introduction
The most important device that helps or supports the silkworms (larvae) for comfortable spinning their cocoon is called cocoonage or mountage. It determines both the quality and quantity of the cocoons. Different types of
cocoonages are used in different parts of India. In general, these are made of wood, bamboo, cardboard, plastic, grass, dry leaves, twigs, etc.
Mounting is an essential step in the rearing of silkworm. Mounting indicates the transition of silkworm from larval stage to pupal stage where it prepares to spin cocoons. Mounting is a process where fully grown (specifically 5th instar) silkworm larvae are picked and mounted in a suitable place (mountage) where it is about to spin. Mounting is a pivotal phase in silkworm rearing.
The following are the objectives of mounting:
1. To provide an ideal space for silkworm larvae to spin,
2. To ensure good quality cocoons,
3. To minimize mortality among silkworm by avoiding overcrowding,
4. To ensure a maximum silk production.

Introduction
From the tiniest insects to the largest blue whales, all species in the animal kingdom have been shown to undergo the migration. Millions of animals embark on epic journeys every year in search of food, shelter, and opportunity for mating. These animals routinely travel thousands of kilometres by land, sea, or air, which both tests and improves their endurance. Among the most striking animal migrations are those of Arctic terns. The long-distance migration of these little birds from pole to pole is well-known. They are thought to move over 40,000 kilometres (25,000 miles) a year, spending the majority of their time at sea chasing an endless summer. One of the most well-known migrations is that of the monarch butterfly, which travels across several generations. Though they are widespread throughout the United States and beyond, monarch butterflies are most known for their ability to travel 4,800 kilometres (3,000 miles) from Canada to Mexico. Millions of monarch butterflies fly south each year from their northern ranges to the oyamel fir forests near the Sierra Madre mountains, where they build massive roosts to remain warm throughout the winter. The monarchs begin their annual migration northwards in the spring, taking three to five generations to reach their goal. The migration that is the most dramatic belongs to the wildebeest. They coexist with thousands of zebras and gazelles in enormous herds that number over a million. The yearly migration of wildebeest across Tanzania and Kenya in quest of new water and grazing land is well-known. One of the most magnificent displays of nature is thought to be the migration. Animals that migrate are essential to preserving ecosystem balance and sustaining life as we know it. They distribute seeds and serve as pollinators, which support the structure and functionality of ecosystems.

ABSTRACT

The coconut eriophyid mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer is a serious pest of coconut in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The mites reside underneath the perianth of nuts and feed on the soft meristematic tissues of the young nuts. Their feeding damage is evident as scars on the surface of the older nuts. The damage results in reduction in size of nut and increases labour for dehusking the nuts.

The way a chemical moves, persists, and behaves in its surroundings is known as its behaviour. A chemical’s behaviour will dictate both its residual properties and field efficacy. The behaviour of insecticides is determined by their chemical and physical characteristics as well as the interaction of environmental elements. Our capacity to comprehend and forecast how insecticides will behave in the environment will determine our ability to keep utilizing insecticides.

Important features of systemic insecticides

1. They are not susceptible to wash off by rain

2. By virtue of their movement inside plants, they can afford to protection to regions where they have not been sprayed

3. They are often been transported towards region of growth

4. Since they have very weak contact action, safe to beneficial organism.

The hybrid breeding program in pigeonpea is unique and the first among the food legume. The concept of hybrid in this crop was conceived in 1974; and it is based on a small window of natural out-crossing present in the crop. This natural out-crossing in pigeonpea is mediated by a range of flying insects, which forage on large bright colored flowers of the crop in search of nectar and in the process affect the cross-fertilization. In the last 40 years a lot of basic and applied research has been successfully completed and over 50 research papers have been published in national and international journals of repute. A coordinated effort of scientists of different institutions has led to the release of two hybrids, one for central and another for peninsular zone of India.

1. Country Background

Mozambique is a country that is extremely dependent on agriculture, both for rural livelihoods and for overall economic growth. This importance is illustrated by the following:
    •    The agriculture sector accounts for about 20  per cent of GDP1.
    •    80  per cent of total employment and higher in rural areas.
    •    55  per cent of household incomes (national average) adding self-consumption and income from selling agricultural products2.
    •    40  per cent of export earnings (2003).
    •    The economy is not diversified and the average level of education is low, with few options for finding non-farm employment and incomes in rural zones.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine was the first authorised vaccine developed using mRNA vaccine production technology, against SARS-CoV-2. Well accepted by the population, it proved to be a major life saving intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic. This article discusses the mRNA vaccine technology and its major advantages, and provides an update on the various ongoing and completed clinical trials on the leading mRNA vaccines against various viral diseases. It also delves into the prospects and the technical challenges associated with the manufacturing of mRNA vaccine and the issues with its deployment in the low- and middle-income countries around the world. Despite the already available classical vaccine candidates, the persistent interest and continuous research in mRNA vaccine technology and the related storage, immunogenicity and lipid nanoparticles delivery aspects have helped in expanding and upgrading the vaccinology arsenals to counter diseases. The technology holds promises in opening new vistas to protect against infectious diseases and the associated complications, where safe and effective immunisations are currently lacking. Furthermore, as mRNA vaccines evolve, they offer new hope against neglected and reemerging diseases like rabies, Zika, and Nipah viruses. The flexibility and rapid adaptability of this platform underscore its potential to address unmet medical needs, laying the groundwork for universal and multi-pathogen vaccines, vital in averting future pandemics. Enhanced by advancements in nanotechnology and innovative delivery systems, mRNA vaccines are poised to revolutionise infectious disease prevention, cancer treatment, and genetic disorders, marking a new era in vaccinology and offering hope for global health challenges through continued investment in research and infrastructure.

MS-ACCESS is a very powerful RDBMS (Data Base Management System) which manages data in term of special table called relation. Using MS-ACCESS you can manage all your information from a single database file. Database files are stored with extension. MDB.

ACCESS stores information in the form of tables and you build your database on its basis. Each row in a table holds all information’s & for a particular person it is called a record. And each column contains different pieces of information regarding that person, like Roll No, Name, Class, Address etc. Same as MSACCESS involves.

In ACCESS, you have few things known as Forms, Reports and Queries. They allow you to check and get desired information as and when required.

15.1. Minimum Support Price (MSP)

MSP are announced by GOI at beginning of sowing season for certain crops on basis of recommendations of CACP.

MSP is price fixed by GOI to protect producer - farmers against excessive fall in price during bumper production years.

Guarantee price for their produce from the Government.

Objectives are to support farmers from distress sales and to procure food grains for PDS.

In cell biology, a mitochondrion is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells These organelles range from 0.5–10 micrometers (µm) in diameter. Mitochondria are sometimes described as “cellular power plants” because they generate most of the cell’s supply energy in form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth. Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial disorders and cardiac dysfunction, and may play a role in the aging process.

Several characteristics make mitochondria unique. The number of mitochondria in a cell varies widely by organism and tissue type. Many cells have only a single mitochondrion, whereas others can contain several thousand mitochondria. The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix. Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissue and the species. In humans, 615 distinct types of proteins have been identified from cardiac mitochondria; whereas in Murinae (rats), 940 proteins encoded by distinct genes have been reported. The number of proteins encoded in plant mitochondrial DNA is probably not much higher than the number encoded in mammalian mitochondria.Experiments have shown that most of the protein synthesis in isolated maize mitochondria can be accounted for by some 18-20 polypeptidesThe mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated. Although most of a cell’s DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own independent genome. Further, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes.

ABSTRACT

Green revolution provided sufficient amount of foods but the way resources were utilized causes the degradation of natural resources in various aspect. The adverse effect on the ecological system can be visualized in the form of various diseases in human and loss of biodiversity. The population burst is the root cause of imbalanced ecological system because agricultural land decreases drastically. Therefore we must aim to develop and improve the agri- economic growth of farmers by introducing elite variety of Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. M. pruriens, a member of Fabaceae family, is an adaptogen and known for its tonifying, strengthening and all around beneficial properties from every part of the plant. M. pruriens has range of medicinal applications, because of unusual amino-acid L-DOPA (L3, 4dihydroxyphenylalanine) a precursor of neurotransmitter dopamine (Anti Parkinson’s) and involved in various secondary metabolite pathways. It acts like aphrodisiac, anti-snake venom, anti-depressant, antidiabetic, anti-microbial. It has a nutritional quality comparable to soyabeans. M. pruriens exhibits a tolerance for various kinds of environmental stresses such as drought, low soil fertility, and high soil acidity. M. pruriens suppresses weeds through indeterminate growth and large leaves reduce the amount of light for weeds. It shows allelopathy and effective in lowering nematodes. M. pruriens is used as forage, fallow, green manure prevents the soil erosion. It has a longer time span to be used in rotations for management of various pathogens.

Abstract

Mulberry is a fast growing deciduous woody perennial plant. It has a deep root system. the leaves are simple, alternative, stipulate, petiolate, entire or lobed. The number of lobes varies from one to five. Plants are generally dioecious. Inflorescence is catkin with pendent or drooping peduncle bearing unisexual flowers. Inflorescence is always auxiliary. Male catkins are usually longer than the female catkins. Male flowers are loosely arranged and after shedding the pollen, the inflorescence dries and falls off. These are four presistent parianth lobes and four stamens implexed in bud. Female Inflorescence is usually short and the flowers are very compactly arranged. There are four presistent parianth lobes. The ovary is one-celled and the stigma is bilid. The chief pollinating agent in mulberry is wind. Mulberry fruit is a sorosis, mainly violet black in  colour. 

6.1 Introduction
India’s mulberry plants, which are vital to sericulture, are susceptible to a range of pests and diseases that can harm them and reduce their productivity. The Leaf Roller, Mealy Bug, Whitefly, and Stem Borer are important pests that harm leaves and stems and lower plant yield. Plant degradation and leaf discolouration are caused by common diseases such as Powdery Mildew, Leaf Spot, Root Rot, and Bacterial Blight. To preserve healthy mulberry harvests and continue to produce silk, effective management requires the application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques, which include biological, chemical, and cultural approaches.
Mulberry is also prone to a number of illnesses brought on by bacteria, mycoplasma toxins, and fungi. It is simple for a perennial agricultural plant to become vulnerable to different diseases. Similar to this, pest insects have a
plenty of food available to them all year round to aid in reproduction. Therefore, developing high-yielding types through plant breeding programs is just as vital as preserving mulberries from disease and insect attacks. The diseases listed below are accompanied with control methods. Adopting appropriate management techniques will help prevent pests and diseases while producing high-quality and productive mulberry leaf.

2.1 Introduction
Growing as a perennial tree or shrub, the genus Morus (Mulberry) is employed in sericulture and is the only food source for the tamed silkworm Bombyx mori L. It is also a valuable commercial plant. The mulberry attracts silkworms because it contains elements that cause biting and swallowing. People who live in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, the northeastern states and other parts of India rely heavily on sericulture, which grows exclusively mulberries and their variants for the purpose of raising silkworms.
2.2 Mulberry Plant
Mulberry is a plant that belongs to the kingdom Plantae, order Rosales, family Moraceae and genus Morus. It grows quickly when young but eventually slows down and rarely reaches a height of 33 to 50 feet. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple often lobed and typically lobed on juvenile shoots rather than on mature trees. The plant can be monoecious or dioecious depending on the species. It produces multiple fruits that are 2-3 cm long and mature fruits that are white or green to pale yellow with pink edges. In most species, the fruits are red when ripened, turning dark purple to black and possessing a sweet flavour.

Genus : Morus 
Species : alba, nigra, rubra L.
Chromosome No. : 2n=28  
2n=42  2n=28 (56, 84)

Plants are ornamental and fruit bearing trees have wide adaptability. Plant loves to grow on garden soils but also grow or rocky and marginal soils. The number of species is disputable but two species are native of North America. Mulberries are usually cultivated as food or for rearing of silkworms and for the edible fruits. The silkworm mulberry is M. alba and fruit bearing mulberry is M. rubra. In India and elsewhere mulberry is known primarily as a fruit bearing tree, although it is not yet planted extensively, though few trees around home ground are common. Mulberry is remarkable for its foliage and for variable forms. The extent of variability is so pronounced that several forms may be present of a single tree and different trees of the same species show distinct individual

This fruit plant is fast-growing when young, but soon become slow-growing tree thrive well under tropical, sub-tropical and temperate region. Mostly this crop is being cultivated for rearing of silkworm and wind break rather than fruit crop. This crop not specific with climatic requirement so can be grown in arid, marginal soil, barren land without much care.

The different plant parts viz., stem, bark, twigs, leaf, fruit etc are being utilized in different ways. Stem use for making agricultural implement, house artisans’, sports items, fodder for animals and fruits use as fresh dessert and in processing for making of different value added products like jam, beverages etc. Apart from these, its different plant parts also have medicinal properties use mainly in folk, ayurvedic and unani medicines.

• The most important use of mulberry leaf is rearing of silk worm for production of silk.
• The mulberry tree is used for landscaping in Asia, Europe & Southern U.S A.
• Morus alba (White mulberry)
• Morus rubra (Red mulberry) is native to America.
• Morus nigra (Black mulberry)
• Mulberry plants are monoecious in sex expression.
• Inflorescence of catkins.
• Major mulberry producing countries; China®India®brazil
• The most extensive area under mulberry cultivation in India is in Karnataka.

  Major mulberry growing Indian states are: TN.→Kerala → U.P.→ Bihar→ Madhya Pradesh→W.B.→Rajasthan.

The word mulch was coined by Wagganor in 1960. It is derived from the German word ‘molsch’ means “easy to decay,” and mulches have widely been used for vegetable production since ancient times (Lightfoot 1994). Therefore the term mulching refers to the practice of covering the soil surface with different organic and inorganic materials, known as mulch materials to reduce moisture loss, balance wide variations in diurnal soil temperatures especially in the root zone, control weeds, insect-pests and diseases and finally enhance crop yield (Nalayini 2007; Kader et al. 2019).

Mulching is a practice of covering the surface of soil with plastics, organic and non-organic materials like straw, grasses, sands, stones (boulders), synthetic plastics, etc. to reduce evaporation and to moderate wide fluctuations in diurnal soil temperature, especially in the root zone environment. It controls external evaporability and reduces energy supply to the evaporating site by cutting off solar radiation falling on the ground. Its main function is limited to control first stage of drying, which helps in improving moisture status and reducing soil temperature (Loy and Wells, 1975), besides checking seedling mortality and improving crop stand. It also suppresses weed-flora and reduces weed competition with crop for water and nutrients making them available in greater quantities for crop plants. Moreover, mulching helps in increasing downward movement of water, and its storage deep in the profiles escapes evaporation due to reduction in thermal gradients and exchange of vapours. The effectiveness of mulches in conserving moisture has generally been found to be higher under more frequency of rainfall, drought conditions and also during early period of plant growth when canopy cover remains scanty.

Abstract

Three mulch materials (black polyethylene, white polyethylene, and paddy straw) were evaluated to reduce albinism  in five cultivars of strawberry.  The incidence of albinism was the highest (38.60%), with black polyethylene and the lowest with paddy straw (22.45%). Among cultivars, Etna had the highest incidence of albinism (50.60%), followed by Chandler (41.60%), where as  Sweet Charlie had the least (22.50%).

Mulching

Definition: It is the practice of covering the soil with loose extraneous matter is known as mulching.

Types of mulching

There are two types of mulching:

1. Organic mulching
2. In–organic mulching
3. Organic mulching: In this mulching the open soil is put under loose cover of straw, hay, crop residue, leaves, saw dust etc.
4. In–organic mulching: In this mulching the open soil is put under plastic, film, metal foil, sand, stone etc.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Mulch, a technical term, means ‘covering of soil’. A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. It may be applied to bare soil or around existing plants. Mulches of manure or compost will be incorporated naturally into the soil by the activity of worms and other organisms. Mulching is the process or practice of covering the soil/ground to make more favourable conditions for plant growth, development and efficient crop production. While natural mulches such as leaf, straw, dead leaves and compost have been used for centuries, during the last 60 years the advent of synthetic materials has altered the methods and benefits of mulching. The research as well as field data available on effect of synthetic mulches make a vast volume of useful literature. In this manner it plays a positive role in water conservation. The suppression of evaporation also has a supplementary effect; it prevents the rise of water containing salt, which is important in countries with high salt content water resources.

Mulching

It means covering of soil surface by some organic or inorganic materials for conserving the soil moisture besides covering on the soil moisture several other advantage of mulching. The materials which are used in mulching called mulch.

Abstract

Multiflash drying (MFD) process is based on the application of multiple cycles of heatingvacuum pulse to a solid food. Heat can be provided by convection (from hot air), conduction (by contact with a hot surface), microwaves, or by a combination of these methods. Due to the moderate temperatures applied to the drying food, and the sudden decompression step (vacuum pulse), MFD processes allow obtaining crispyanddried foods with very good nutritional and sensory properties. Vacuum pulses cause food texturization, which depends on the pressure drop rate during decompression. In fact, the dried products are similar to freezedried foods, but with more open structures, which result in higher crispness. The dehydration can be performed in relatively short processing times, when compared with traditional drying processes (e.g. solar drying, airdrying, vacuum drying and freezedrying). The short process time indicates clearly that this class of drying process presents a huge potential to the production of driedandcrisp foods at industrial scale.

Genotype × environment interaction underlies the efforts of crop ecologists, agronomists, and plant breeders to define ecological regions, mega-environments, and ecotypes and to specify the adaptation and yield stability of individual cultivars. Multi-location testing or multiple year testing gives rise to an important term, genotype x environment interaction. “Interaction” is a statistical term signifying differential response of genotypes over the environments. The environments could be in terms of more numbers of diverse locations or years. Multi-location trials (MLTs) are also called as multiple environment trials (METs) and these have been adequately reviewed by Yan and Hunt (1998) and Kang et al. (2004). The following sections of this chapter derive extensive information on MLT/MET from these two sources.

Introduction

The genotype-environment-interaction (GEI) is a complex phenomenon that undermines the repeatability of experimental results and consequently reduces the selection efficiency. Agricultural researchers have long been concerned of the various implications of GEI in plant breeding programmes. Understanding of the implications of GEI structure/nature is important in crop breeding programmes as a significant GEI can seriously impair selection of superior genotypes in new crop introduction and cultivar/hybrid development programmes. Crop breeders of field and vegetable crops, etc. are in better position to decide whether crop cultivars should be developed for all the environments of interest or if the breeders should develop specific cultivars for specific target/mega environments. Variation among genotypes in phenotypic sensitivity to the environment may require the development of locally adapted varieties.

Genotype-by-environment is widely observed and reported issue. Large numbers of publications both on GEI and stability parameters are pointers to the facts that it is a complex and intriguing issue and these are expected to be more relevant in the light of the fact that greater emphasis is going to be placed on sustainability of agricultural systems.

Introduction
DNA fingerprinting is a powerful molecular technique used to identify individuals based on their unique genetic makeup. First developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys in 1984, this method has revolutionized fields such as forensic science, paternity testing, genetic research, and biodiversity conservation. We present here the account of variations in DNA sequences, particularly of hypervariable regions like minisatellites and microsatellites in reference to the DNA fingerprinting. Advances in PCR, hybridization-based markers, and next-generation sequencing (NGS) have further refined its accuracy and efficiency enabling precise identification of genetic relationships. Additionally, genetic distance analysis and clustering methods help in understanding evolutionary relationships, population structure, and genetic diversity among species. These methods serve as tools to quantify the magnitude and order of DNA sequence polymorphisms which exist at population level.
DNA Fingerprinting
History of DNA Fingerprinting: It was 10th date of September 1984, when geneticist Sir Alec John Jeffreys (the father of DNA fingerprinting) wrote three words - “33 autorad off” - in his red desk diary. The implicit phrase suggested the completion of an experiment by him pertaining to the study about inherited illnesses descended through families. He was one of the first to discover inherited variation in human DNA that can be utilized to resolve issues of disputed parentage and forensic investigations.

ABSTRACT

Mangrove wetlands are well known as the dominant feature of the intertidal areas of the tropical and subtropical regions. Ecologically mangrove forests are important for their inherent biological productivity in the habitat and also by exporting organic matter produced into coastal waters. Apart from that mangroves act as bioshield against natural coastal hazards like cyclones, storms and tsunamis. Remote sensing coupled with GIS is an important tool in monitoring the coastal areas such as mangroves, where the physical survey is difficult and time consuming. Remote sensing has a wide range of products with higher spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions, the combination of which can be applied in different themes based on the requirement. The present study used multispectral, multi-temporal and high-resolution remote sensing data to map and monitor the distribution of mangrove forest of Pichavaram, south India over a period of 30 years. The study shows that the mangrove area had decreased from 628 ha to 411 ha from 1977 to 1994 and increased to 858 ha in 2006. The high resolution remote sensing data with 4 m spatial resolution was used to prepare the mangrove wetland map in 1:5000 scale.

Keywords : Mangroves, remote sensing, visual interpretation, IRS, IKONOS

1. Introduction

Lichens are the most fascinating and widely distributed organisms on earth. The lichens are unique in having two microorganism in a single plant- a phycobiont (alga) and a mycobiont (fungus) forming a thallus that does not resemble either symbionts in the free living (non- lichenized) state. By virtue of the peculiar structure and physiology, lichens have high tolerance of drought and cold and are able to grow in the diverse geographical regions from icy expanses to tropical and subtropical parts and from drier, hot deserts to moist humid climate. Lichens grow on any substratum that provides a convenient foot hold to them. This may be soil (terricolous), humus (humicolous), stones, rocks, brick (saxicolous), lime plaster (calcicolous), leaves (folicolous), tree trunk (corticolous), decaying wood (lignicolous) and other man made substratum like iron pipes, asbestos sheet and glass panes. Sometimes lichens also grow on some insects and animals. Lichens which are bigger in size and shape can be easily recognized as leaf like (foliose) and thread like (fruticose) (commonly called macrolichens), while those which forming a crust over the substratum and quite smaller in size are categorized under microlichens.

Apart from altitudinal variation, the vegetation and forest types of higher plants also play an important role in determining the type of lichen flora of the region. Based on the forest types six lichen vegetation zones are known in India such as: Moist tropical evergreen forest, Cold deserts in the Himalayas, South Peninsular region, Mid Eastern Indian & Peninsular Plateau, Dry and arid regions and Indo-gangetic plains of central India, Coastal regions of India and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The cold deserts in the Himalayas exhibit some unique group of lichens having restricted distribution only in such habitats.

1. Introduction

A combination of art and science had been used for a longer but due to the exponential increase in human population and reduction in operational land holdings its practices became narrow. Nowadays, gardening has gained much popularity among people, as the Covid-19 pandemic has forced them to lock themselves in their houses. These days Mass population is involved in gardening for growing their own food, resulting in a more personal approach to more economical, better-tasting, and healthier products (Pawelek et al., 2009). Gardens have grown increasingly significant for producing nutrient-dense food, protecting biodiversity, and conducting biological and ecological research and education. Biological communities, which are interacting groups of numerous species in the same place, can also be found in gardens. Pollinators and other visitors to flowers eat nectar and pollen from flowers, and some may use floral volatile oils, lipids, or resins for their food, shelter, and mating locations (Simpson and Neff, 1983).

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1. Tea require months from plantation to reach plucking is:
    (a)    18-20     (b)    22-24     
    (c)    36-40     (d)    30-34
2. Fruit of coffee is:
    (a)    Pome     (b)    Drupe     
    (c)    Berry     (d)    Aggregate

1. If AAGCT is the base sequence on one side of DNA molecule, what will be complementary sequence on the other side?

a) UUGCA

b) TTCGA

c) AAGCT

d) GGTCA

2. The start codon in the mRNA sequence is

a) AUG

b) UAG

c) UGA

d) UAA

1. Heritability in narrow sense is

a) VA/VP

b) VE/VP

c) VG/VP

d) VA+VG/VP

2. Repeatability value set in _________ of heritability

a) Lower limit of h₂

b) Upper limit of h₂

c) Intermediate of h₂

d) Both a and b

1. Birth weight of rabbit is

a) 80 gms

b) 90 gms

c) 100 gms

d) 110 gms

2. Birth weight of rat is

a) 4-5 gms

b) 1-2 gms

c) 20-30 gms

d) 40-50 gms