eChapters

Mineral

A mineral is defined as “a natural substance, usually inorganic, having a definite chemical composition and commonly a definite molecular arrangement which is usually expressed in geometric form”.

1. Aquarium/Under water garden

It is a glass enclosed controlled environment place for growing small tropical plants under water along with or without ornamental fishes.

It can be landscaped with artistically designed wood, stones, oyster shell, lime free coarse sand, etc.

If such aquarium contains fishes, then timely feed must be given to fish.

Plant species suitable for it are Alternanthera, Aponogeton crispus, Azolla, Cabomba caroliniana, Nymphaea, Sagittaria, Vallisneria gigantean, etc.

10.1. Preservation through canning

• Process of sealing food stuffs hermetically in containers and sterilizing them by heat for long storage

• In 1804, Appert in France invented this process.

• Also known as appertizing.

• Saddington in England - First to describe a method of canning of foods in 1807.

• In 1810, Peter Durand obtained first British Patent on canning of foods in tin containers.

• In 1817, William Underwood introduced canning of fruits on commercial scale in U.S.A.

• Fruits and vegetables are canned in season when raw material is available in surplus.

• Canned products are sold in off season for better returns to grower.

10.1.1. Principles and process of canning

INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables are historically important constituents of human diet and the growing awareness of consumers about the beneficial effects of these commodities could result in enhancement of global trade involving fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. Emergence of postharvest handling of fresh fruits and vegetables facilitated global trade of these commodities. The developed countries started realizing the export potential of these commodities by development of adequate value addition in terms of pretreatments, shelf life extension and packaging besides grading and other associated packing house operations. However, the trade concerning fresh fruits and vegetables could never come out completely from problems related to pesticidal residues, spoilage, bulkiness of the commodities involving transportation of inedible portions and excessive packaging costs arising out of bulkiness. The other problems associated with fresh produce include mandatory requirement of specific storage temperatures with refrigeration as the primary means of regulation of metabolic rate.

Minimally processed fruits and vegetables are products that have the attributes of convenience and fresh like quality. Their forms vary widely, depending on nature of unprocessed commodity and how it is normally consumed. In many cases, minimally processed product is raw and cells of tissues are alive, but these characteristics are  not regarded as essential. It is important that products have fresh-like character, regardless of   state of cells.  Minimally processed products for both retail and food service applications have increasingly appeared in market place recently.  In coming years, it is commonly perceived that this industry will have unprecedented growth.

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, fruit and vegetable consumption has grown rapidly. Today’s society is characterized by an increasing health consciousness and growing interest in the role of food for maintaining and improving human well-being and consumer health. Due to consumer’s profile being ‘‘rich in cash/poor in time’’, there is a demand for ready-to-eat products As a result of changes in consumer attitudes, the market of minimally processed (MP) fruits and vegetables has grown rapidly. In addition to their nutritional and sensory properties, foods are currently recognized as active and protective agents. Among the others, minimally processed products stand out as convenient novel foods that fit the many needs of a modern lifestyle as they combine technical content with an innovative food concept. Fresh fruits and vegetables are an essential component of a healthy diet, able to decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Their consumption has continued to grow rapidly, linked to the increased public awareness of their health benefits.

Minimal Processing’ (MP) is a concept describing approaches to food safety and preservation that are designed to retain the natural and as-fresh properties of foods. Minimally processed fruits are new forms of product marketing, intended to meet the consumers’ desires for convenience and fresh-like quality. Minimally processed fruits and vegetables, also called ready-to-use, fresh-cut or pre-cut produce, are raw fruits and vegetables that have been washed, peeled, sliced, chopped or shredded into 100% usable product that is bagged or packaged to offer to the consumers high nutrition, convenience, and flavour while still maintaining its freshness.

Introduction

In this modern era, educated and health-conscious people are increasingly demanding such food products that preserve their nutritional value, retain a natural and fresh colour, flavour and texture, and free from chemical preservatives. Besides, urbanization has extensively affected the life-style of people all over the world. Competition has made their life extremely busy and time has become a very important factor. Hence, recently there has been increase in demand for ready-to-cook or ready-to-use fresh food products of fruits and vegetables along with convenience and safety. This new demand by consumers has opened a new avenue of food preservation known as minimal processing. The products prepared by this processing method are known as fresh cut or pre-pared products. Minimally processed products are also known as lightly processed, partially processed, fresh processed, fresh cut, and pre prepared. It can be defined in many ways for example as "least possible treatment to achieve a purpose". A more specific definition is as the method that "preserve foods but also retain to a greater extent their nutritional quality and sensory characteristics by reducing the reliance on heat as the main preservative action. In a broader way it can also be defined as the processed foods have been slightly altered for the main purpose of preservation but which does not substantially change the nutritional content of the food. Generally minimal processing involves cleaning, washing, trimming, coring, slicing, shredding before packaging and storage at specific temperature. Some of the examples of minimally processed fruits and vegetables include sliced mango cheeks/melons/papaya/apple, pieces of pomelo segments, peeled and cored pineapple, chilled peach, pomegranate arils dressing, shredded lettuce, shelled peas, cauliflower florets, peeled sliced potatoes, diced onion etc. Minimally processed products are important to food service industry such as eateries and catering companies as they offer many advantages over traditional products, with respect to convenience, expense, labor, and hygiene. Even if it is very much liked by people, the production of minimal processed products is limited due to rapid deterioration and short shelf life. Whereas most food processing methods stabilize the products and prolong their shelf-life, minimal processing of fruits and vegetables increases their perishability.

Minimal processing of fruits and vegetables
The technological development and modernization during recent years have resulted in in organisation coupled with Lifestyle modification and changes in dietary habits. This development and Organisation have made it easier to meet the requirement of processed food. Processing of fruits and vegetables effects shelf life providing ready to eat food with similarities to fresh product. Before the food Industries shoulder a bigger responsibility of utilising a novel technology to produce safe food without detrimental effects on quality. The industries need to who built biological (enzymatic / fomentation and biopreservation and Engineering solutions like non-thermal high-pressure treatment, cook chill, microencapsulation, vacuum impregnation etc. For the adoption of de - constructive culinary techniques such as 3D food printing and Molecular gastronomy as well as developments in nutrigenomics and digital technologies may facilitate novel product format, personalization, and access to niche market. Concretely, e - operating movement from Naresh mint to health improvement in present conditions demand or shift from defensive market oriented offensive market developing strategies including collaborative networks with Research Organization.
It is also defined as any fruit and vegetable that has been subjected to different processing steps (e.g. peeling, trimming, cutting, washing, disinfection rinsing etc.).

The sustainable management of water resources is paramount in modern aquaculture practices to mitigate environmental impacts and ensure long term viability. This chapter explores innovative methods and innovations meant to reduce water consumption in aquaculture systems. We start with a summary of the significance of water conservation in aquaculture before going into several strategies including aquaponics, biofloc technology, and recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) consume less water and area while producing fish in large quantities. A balance between water use, waste discharge, energy consumption, and productivity must be found to accomplish both environmentally friendly and economically viable production. The biofloc systems emphasise the significance of heterotrophic bacteria in transforming organic materials into microbial aggregates that function as a source of nutrients and a mechanism for water treatment. The creation of microbial biomass is encouraged by biofloc systems, which also maintain excellent water quality by means of carbon and nitrogen cycling. These benefits include less water exchange needs, increased resistance to disease, and increased feed conversion efficiency. In a symbiotic system, hydroponically grown plants are fertilized by fish excrement, while plants filter water for fish, resulting in aquaponics. This closed-loop method uses less water, doesn't require artificial fertilizers, and reduces environmental impact.

Minimally invasive percutaneous osteosynthesis (MIPO), or minimally invasive fracture repair, was introduced into human orthopedic surgery during the 1990s because of several distinct advantages over traditional open reduction techniques. In MIPO, large incisions to facilitate open reduction are avoided and implants are introduced through small stab incisions in the skin. This led to advent to more biology friendly techniques. These biological techniques lay stress upon maximal preservation of blood supply around the fractured bone by minimal direct handling of the fracture environment. MIPO offer advantages which include preservation of the fracture hematoma; less surgical trauma to the surrounding soft tissues, reduced operative time therefore, decreased risk of infection and ultimately leading to indirect bone healing with abundant callus. Minimally invasive plate osteosynthesis (MIPO) is a novel technique for application of principles of biological fracture healing with a philosophy of dealing with soft tissues with utmost respect. Following advancements in implant technology and development of techniques of indirect fracture reduction this technique gained more popularity. The evolution of MIPO began with the use of bridge plating. Initially a conventional plate is applied for comminuted femoral fractures using long incisions but with preservation of the vastus lateralis muscle resulting in healing with abundant callus. Subsequently, the size of incisions got decreased, rather two small incisions are given at proximal and distal ends and plates are bridged sub muscularly over the fracture fragments. This technique causes minimal distress to soft tissues and bone, provides access to the bone through soft tissue windows, with minimal or no contact with the fracture by indirect reduction tools and leaving behind minimal foot prints.

Introduction

Horticultural crops comprising of fruits, vegetables, flowers, medicinal and aromatic plants, and mushrooms play an important role in meeting the livelihood, nutritional security and socio-economic development of farmers. India’s horticulture production (287 mt) surpassed food grain output (265 mt) fifth year in a row in 2016-17 (First Advance Estimates, 2016-17). Horticultural crops together contribute around 30.4% to the agricultural GDP from nearly 14% of the total cropped area, and contribute nearly 37% to the export of the agricultural commodity from the country (Anonymous, 2015). Fruits and vegetables are an important part of the human diet and a major source of biologically active substances such as vitamins and secondary metabolites. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, with a combined production of 260.7 million metric tons (91.7 million metric tons of fruits and 169 million metric tons of vegetables) during 2016-17.

Rapid growth in horticultural production has been accompanied by heavy use of pesticides thus causing major concern over health effects. Heavy pesticide use occurs, in part, because numerous pests attack horticultural crops, including the fruit itself, reducing market value and yield on high-value crops. Pesticide use raises safety concerns for agricultural workers who apply pesticides. Concern is particularly high in flower production because of heavy spraying in enclosed conditions. Potential food safety risks from pesticide residues are also a significant issue for importers of fresh fruits and vegetables and a market-risk factor for exporters who may have shipments detained or rejected if residues exceed allowable limits (George et al., 2003).

The increased use of chemical pesticides on horticultural crops has raised a number of economic, ecological and health concern. Economic concerns arise from the over reliance and use of chemical pesticides which increase the costs of production. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has resulted in ecological problems of common pests developing resistance, elimination of natural enemies and other beneficial arthropods, and environmental pollution. Human health concerns focus on risks from shortcomings in protective clothing, large deviations from recommended doses/situations, and excessive run-off into the soil and water sources. These concerns are exacerbated by poorly regulated internal markets for pesticides that have fostered usage of banned or outdated products; creating a situation that if not stopped will negatively impact on horticultural exports to countries with more stringent regulatory requirements for fresh crop produce. Meeting these food safety requirements has become a major challenge for the fresh produce export sector of many countries. To ensure and maintain export compliance, grower and consumer safety, and environmental integrity; farmers, government and development partners are developing programmes designed to improve pesticides usage, regulation and management on horticultural crops (Karungi et al., 2011). In this chapter, major important horticultural crops grown in India have been selected to illustrate trends in pesticide usage and regulation, and the development and application of alternative pest management practices through farmer participation and training.

60% - Bottlegourd, pumpkin, bittergourd, watermelon

65% - Cotton varieties, bhendi

EXPERIMENT: MINIMAL PROCESSING OF CAULIFLOWER (FREEZING PRESERVATION AND STEEPING PRESERVATION)

Materials and reagents

Material : Fresh cauliflower, glass jars, polythene pouches

Reagents: 15% sodium chloride

Environmental protection Agency (EPA)has established category of pesticides called “Reduced Risk” pesticides to encourage the development, registration and use of products which could result in reduced risks to human health and the environment. New Generation pesticides are considered for “Reduced Risk” status if they have at least one or more of the following status: low risk to human health, low toxicity to non target organisms, low potential to contaminate ground water, surface water or other valued environmental resources and have the potential to expand the adoption and effectiveness of IPM.

1. Introduction

Antheraea assamensis is lepidopteron insects of Assam which is commercially utilized for the heritage golden silk “muga”. Rearing of muga silkworm is one of the most significant traditional handloom industries restricted only to the North Eastern Region of India (N.E. India) and plays a major role in the rural economy.  Considering the ecological conditions, food plant distribution, presence of eco-types and species of diverse nature in co-existence, it is speculated that this region is a possible home of origin of Antharaea, from where radiations would have occurred (Neog et. al., 2010). Despite the fact that N.E. India is the original home of muga, earlier studies have shown that the population is declining due to depletion in genetic variability (www.cdfd.org.in/wildsilkbase/info_moths.php).

Introduction

The inevitability of detrimental effects of climate change is looming large not only on the sustenance of agriculture, but also on the survival and progress of mankind. Estimates by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) reveal that the atmospheric concentration of GHG would exceed 680 parts per million (ppm) CO₂-equivalents by 2050, which is about 50% higher than baseline year 2010 (OECD, 2012). Additionally, global temperature is predicted to increase by 2°C within this period, resulting in meansea level rise and erraticweather conditions. Consequently, the catastrophic effects on food consumption pattern by the end of 2050 will create malnutrition in at least 290 million people. Agricultural crops provide 63% of the human protein, and additionally supply almost 100% protein to the livestock, which are the second major sources of protein in human diet. Altogether, the detrimental effect of climate change on agriculture would make about 300 million additional people malnourished. Add to that a 2.7 billion increase in human population by 2050, coupled with shortage of water availability that would affect 3.9 billion people by 2050, and one can easily perceive the grim scenario for our kind in not so distant future.

Tamarind (Tamarindus Indica)

Introduction

The fruit of tamarind a pod 5 to 15 cm long, 3 to 10 seeds surrounded with edible pulp which is principal souring agent for sauces, chutney, in beverages and in general cooking. Pulp is carminative, laxative, given as infusion in biliousness and febrile conditions. It is also used in dyring and tanning and for polishing and cleaning metal ware. The tartaric acid is extracted from unripe fruits. The polysaccharide (jellose) is extracted from seeds, which is used as a sizing material in the cotton and jute industries. Besides, polyose obtained from the seed is good substitute for fruit pectin in the preparation of jam, jelly or marmalade. The bark and leaves are used for tanning. Tamarind balls are prepared after taking out seeds from the fruit. Tamarind paste and tamarind juice concentrate are the other commercial products.

The fruits, flattish, bean-like, irregulary curved and bulged pods, are born in great abundance along the new branches and usually vary from 2 to 7 in long and from 3/4 to 1 1/4 in (2-3.2 cm) in diameter. Exceptionally large tamarinds have been found on individual trees. The pods may be cinnamon-brown or grayish-brown externally and, at first, are tender-skinned with green, highly acid flesh and soft, whitish, under-developed seeds. As they mature, the pods fill out somewhat and the juicy, acidulous pulp turns brown or reddish-brown.

Greens and salad crops are grown for their foliage and are used since antiquity in soups, boiled, pickled or eaten raw and are recognized as important ingredients in the diet. Stephen Switzer, in Practical Kitchen Gardner (1727) identified 30-40 species as raw salads. Plants like Purslane, Burdock, Orache, Borage, Salad Burnet, Sea Kale, Dandelion, French Sorrel, Alexanders and many other plants are used as greens.
 
Greens and salads are very well represented in the garden works of John Randolph and Joseph Prentis in Williamsburg who  described that markets carried a wide selection of greens making available to the general public. But the salad greens were not mentioned in local diaries as often as common vegetables like cauliflowers, artichokes or melons, because they were used more as a garnish than as a main dish.
 
The popularity of individual varieties of greens changed over time. Many of the minor greens, like Purslane and Alexanders were common in the 17th century and before, but largely disappeared by the 18th century. Rocket, or Arugula, was listed by all authors in 16th and 17th century works but fell out of favor in England by the middle of  18th century.

Introduction
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) was first introduced in India at Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu during 1952 from Japan (Kapoor et al., 1955); and then to Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu at Chakrohi farm. Subsequently, it was introduced to CIMAP Northern Zonal Research Station at Haldwani in Nainital district (U.P.) during 1963-64. In India,  the crop is mainly grown in Tarai districts of U.P. (Nianital, Badayun, Bilaspur, Rampur, Moradabad and Bareilly); extending to parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (Barabanki and Lucknow); and parts of Punjab (Ludhiana and Jalandhar) in the north-western India. Mint or Pudina comes under a small genus Mentha of aromatic perennial herbs which belongs to family Labiatae (Laminaceae), distributed mainly to temperate and sub-temperate regions of the world. It has blue, laverder or white flowers in whorls.
Peppermint (M. x piperita) and spearmint (M. spicata) are largely cultivated in America, mainly in Oregan, Indiana, Idaho and south Michigan states. It was introduced in India during early 1980s. Uses
The above-ground herb (foliage) on distillation yields essential oil containing a large variety of aroma chemical command a large and world-wide demand in industry as given below.

Introduction
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) was first introduced in India at Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu during 1952 from Japan (Kapoor et al., 1955); and then to Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu at Chakrohi farm. Subsequently, it was introduced to CIMAP Northern Zonal Research Station at Haldwani in Nainital district (U.P.) during 1963-64. In India,  the crop is mainly grown in Tarai districts of U.P. (Nianital, Badayun, Bilaspur, Rampur, Moradabad and Bareilly); extending to parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (Barabanki and Lucknow); and parts of Punjab (Ludhiana and Jalandhar) in the north-western India. Mint or Pudina comes under a small genus Mentha of aromatic perennial herbs which belongs to family Labiatae (Laminaceae), distributed mainly to temperate and sub-temperate regions of the world. It has blue, laverder or white flowers in whorls.
Peppermint (M. x piperita) and spearmint (M. spicata) are largely cultivated in America, mainly in Oregan, Indiana, Idaho and south Michigan states. It was introduced in India during early 1980s. Uses
The above-ground herb (foliage) on distillation yields essential oil containing a large variety of aroma chemical command a large and world-wide demand in industry as given below.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in the Mediterranean basin and spread to rest of world by both natural and artificial means.

• USA - major producer of pepper mint and spear mint

• Bergamot mint - native of Europe and naturalized in eastern USA

• Grows successfully in temperate and subtropical region of India.

• India - Japanese mint - Terai region, extending to parts of Indo Gangetic plains and parts of Punjab in North-Western India.

7.2. Economic importance

7.2.1. Japanese mint or corn mint or field mint (M. arvensis), 2n: 36, 72.

Scientific name: Mentha spp.
Family: Lamiaceae
Mint belongs to the genus Mentha and is part of the Lamiaceae family, including popular herbs like basil, sage, and rosemary. There are several commercially grown mint species, each with unique chemical compositions, aromas, and uses.
Origin and distribution
Mint originated in the Mediterranean region and spread globally through natural and artificial means. Japanese mint is widely cultivated in Brazil, Paraguay, China, and India, while peppermint is grown in the USA, Morocco, Argentina, and Australia.
Botany
Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis) is a perennial, ascending herb that typically grows to a height of 60-80 cm, with the potential to reach up to 100 cm under favorable conditions. This herb is primarily propagated through its stolons, which enable it to spread and establish new plants. The leaves of Japanese mint are lanceolate-oblong in shape, featuring sharp teeth along their edges, and are supported by small petioles approximately 5 mm in length. The leaf lamina itself measures between 5 to 15 cm in length. Notably, the lower surface of the leaves is densely covered with hairy growths of glandular trichomes. The plant produces an abundance of small, purplish flowers in axillary and terminal verticillasters. These flowers are characterized by a corolla measuring 4-5 mm in length and a calyx that is narrowly deltoid and acuminate, measuring 2-3 mm. Japanese mint is sterile and does not produce seeds, relying solely on vegetative means of propagation.

Potted Plants

In urban areas, scarcity of space compels the dwellers to take up gardening on rooftop, terrace, balcony or small space adjacent to the house. Usually, plants are grown in pots or containers for rooftop gardening. Big size pots with diameter of 30 cm or more are required for growing rose plant. It is necessary to prefer tall pots to obtain appropriate growth of the plant having deeper root system. Now-a-days, pots of different materials such as clay, cement and plastic are used for growing potted plants. Usually, clay pots are better than plastic pots as clay is slow in transfer of heat thereby maintaining the root zone cooler. Of course, plastic pots are lighter and suitable for use on the rooftop as those put less load on the building structure. Light coloured plastic is preferred to dark colour as those generate less heat. Although heavier, cemented pots are more durable than earthen or plastic pots. The pots should have adequate drainage facility with holes in the bottom. Besides, a layer of gravel or medium-size stone of one-inch thickness are to be placed at the bottom of the container to facilitate drainage.

This chapter deals with equipment and machineries that are used in certain specific operations/ areas.

25.1. Lac cultivation

High-capacity scraper cum grader, scraper cum grader

25.2. Mushroom production

Grain Cleaner, Grain boiler, Boiled grain and Chalk powder mixer, Bag/bottle filler, Spawn inoculators, Substrate mixer - manually operated

1 Deficiency of which of the following trace minerals leads to parakeratosis of skin in pigs

a) Zinc b) Copper

c) Cobalt d) Iron

1 Goose stepping gait is observed due to deficiency of

a) Biotin b) Pyrodoxin

c) Pantothenic acid d) Niacian

1 The system that is most susceptible to hypoxia is

a) Respiratory System b) Cardiovascular System

c) Nervous system d) Digestive system

1 The focal point of any disease investigation in animal is making of

a) Treatment b) Diagnosis

c) Management d) Prognosis

1 Hypoxia caused due to defective oxygenation of blood in pulmonary circulation

a) Anoxic anoxia b) Anaemic anoxia

c) Stagnant anoxia d) Histotoxic anoxia

1 Ovine ketosis is more common during

a) Early lactation b) Late Pregnancy

c) Early Pregnancy d) Late lactation

1 Hepatosis dietetica in swine is caused by

a) Deficiency of vitamin-E & Se

b) Feeding of high energy diet

c) Excess of unsaturated fatty acid in the diet

d) Deficiency of vitamin A

Unna’s Method for Mast Cells
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin and process for routine paraffin sections
Protocol
1) Deparaffinise the paraffin sections with two changes (10 minutes each) of xylene.
2) Descending grades of ethanol from absolute to 50% solution (2 minutes each).
3) Hydrate the sections with distilled water 5 minutes.
4) Polychrome methylene blue solution for 10 minutes.
5) Rinsing in distilled water.
6) Differentiate in glycerin-ether solution for 30 seconds to 1 minute.
7) Washing in water for 2-3 minutes.
8) Blotting with filter paper.
9) Dehydrate quickly in 100% ethanol.
10) Clearing in xylene, two changes of 30 minutes each.
11) Mount glass cover slip with DPX.

• Epidemiological definitions

 • List of tests for international trade

 • OIE listed diseases

 • Solutions and reagents

 • Age and body weight of animals

 • Rectal temperature of animals

 • Normal values of blood vascular system

 • Vaccination schedule

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What is the full form of the followings : MALT, GALT and BALT
Ans.    MALT : Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue ; GALT : Gut associated lymphoid tissue ; BALT : Bronchus associated lymphoid tissue

Q.2     What is the definition of antigen ?
Ans.    Antigen is any agent capable of binding specifically to components of the immune response such as lymphocytes and antibodies.

Q.3.     What is the definition of immunogen ?
Ans.    Immunogen is any agent capable of inducing an immune response.

14.1 Introduction

In this chapter we shall describe various simple and easy to fabricate fiber optic sensors. Most of these sensors are based on intensity modulation. Intensity modulated optical fiber sensors have been extensively studied in comparison to sensors based on other modulation techniques. This is because of their several advantages such as simplicity, reliability, flexibility and relatively low cost. Intensity modulated sensors make use of multimode fibers. Multimode fibers have large core and high numerical aperture that make the coupling of light into the fiber easier. The large core is also better suited to propagate high power laser beams. Further, the plastic-clad fused silica multimode fibers are available. Plastic-clad silica multimode fibers have an additional advantage. Their plastic cladding can be removed easily permitting access to the core. The evanescent field in the unclad part has been used for various kinds of chemical and biochemical sensors (see chapter 5). Above all, these fibers are cheap. This chapter is devoted to simple and easy to make both intrinsic and extrinsic type sensors. Sensors utilizing bare-ended fibers have also been described.

The following tests are discussed under this section:
    16.1    Estimation of ascorbic acid concentration
    16.2    Effect of cold shock
    16.3    Mitochondrial activity
    16.4    Capacitation of spermatozoa and calcium influx 
    16.5    Morphometric analysis
    16.6    Flow cytometry

16.1 Estimation of Ascorbic Acid Concentration

Ascorbic acid concentration in semen is beneficial for its antioxidant action. It protects the spermatozoa against oxidative damage of free radical produced in the semen.

Materials Required

    1.    Test tubes with stand
    2.    Burrette with stand
    3.    Centrifuge tube with stand

13.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters, we have considered different tests of significance based on normal distribution, F distribution, student’s t distribution and Chi-square (χ2) distribution which are frequently applied by the users of different disciplines of applied sciences and social sciences. In this chapter some more tests of significance are considered which have not been covered in those chapters. These tests are also based on t, F, Fisher’s z transformation, χ2 and some other test statistics are also discussed one by one in the following sections.

13.1 Introduction

In the previous chapters, we have considered different tests of significance based on normal distribution, F distribution, student’s t distribution and Chi-square (x²) distribution which are frequently applied by the users of different disciplines of applied sciences and social sciences. In this chapter some more tests of significance are considered which have not been covered in those chapters. These tests are also based on t, F, Fisher’s z transformation,  and some other test statistics are also discussed one by one in the following sections.

13.2 t Test for Testing the Significance of an Observed Sample Correlation Coefficient r ^xy

Let r be the observed sample correlation coefficient based on a small sample of size n drawn from a bi-variate normal population with population correlation coefficient r. The standard error of r is given as

Edaphology is the study of soil properties in relation to plant higher production.

Pedology refers to study of origin of soils in their natural environment, classification and description.

pH is the negative logarithm of the concentration of H+ ions in soil solution.

Soil profile is a vertical exposure of horizon sequence.

Soil texture is not changed by cultural management.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is defined as sum total of exchangeable cations that a soil can absorb.

New Technique of Food Preservation

1. High Pressure Processing (HPP)

High Pressure Processing (HPP) is a method of food processing where food is subjected to elevated pressures (up to 87,000 pounds per square inch or approximately 6,000 atmospheres), with or without the addition of heat, to achieve microbial inactivation or to alter the food attributes in order to achieve consumer-desired qualities. Pressure inactivates most vegetative bacteria at pressures above 60,000 pounds per square inch. HPP retains food quality, maintains natural freshness, and extends microbiological shelf life. The process is also known as high hydrostatic pressure processing (HHP) and ultra high-pressure processing (UHP).

Determination of True Protein

Apparatus

Wide mouth stoppered bottle, water bath plus those used for total nitrogen (crude protein) determination.

Reagents

1. Saturated solution of potash alum.
2. Stutzer reagent-Dissolve 40g of CuSO₄ in 2 litres of water in a wide mouth stoppered bottle. Add 10ml of glycerine and sufficient quantity of 30 % NaOH to make the solution alkaline (Litmus paper). Shake the contents and allow to settle. Discard the supernatant liquid. Collect the precipitate on a filter paper and transfer it to glass mortar with the help of spatula. Add 3ml of glycerine and a little water in the mortar and triturate the precipitate with a glass pastle. Transfer the triturated material to a wide mouth stoppered bottle, add 600ml of water, shake well and filter. Repeat the process till the precipitate (filtrate) is free from alkali and sulphate. Collect the precipitate and add 30ml glycerine. Dilute the emulsion to 320ml with water and preserve in a container.

Q. 1 In building material RCC stands for
(A) Revised cost calculation
(B) Revised construction cost
(C) Reinforced central construction
(D) Reinforced cement concrete

A. First Aid
1. Abscess
What to Do

    ·    Abscesses should be examined by a veterinarian as soon as possible and within 24 hours.
 
    ·    Fluid may normally drain from the site of an abscess. An abscess does not drain through the tube, but rather around the latex tubing. Therefore, it is important for you to clean the area around the drain twice daily with warm water.

    ·    Apply a hot compress to the affected site at least two times daily for 3 to 5 days after the animal leaves the hospital. Wet a clean washcloth with very warm water and place it directly over the affected site, and then apply gentle pressure ideally for 5 to 10 minutes.

The understanding of VAM symbiont and VAM symbiosis is of prime importance in manipulating VAM associations for the welfare of plants. Many contributions have been made worldover in the areas of taxonomy, morphology, anatomy, histology, cytology and genetics of VAM fungi and/or their associations with the plants. However, the share of Indian mycorrhizasts in such contributions is negligible. The following description gives an account of work done by the mycorrhizasts of the country in these areas.

There aremany different points of view aboutthe nanotechnology. These differences start with the definition of nanotechnology. Some define it as any activity that involves manipulating materials between one nanometer and 100 nanometers. However the original definition of nanotechnology involved building machines at the molecular scale and involves the manipulation of materials on an atomic (about two-tenths of a nanometer) scale.

The debate continues with varying opinions about exactly what nanotechnology can achieve. Some researchers believe nanotechnology can be used to significantly extend the human lifespan or produce replicator-like devices that can create almost anything from simple raw materials. Others see nanotechnology only as a tool to help us do what we do now, but faster or better.

The third major area of debate concerns the timeframe of nanotechnology-related advances. Will nanotechnology have a significant impact on our day-to-day lives in a decade or two, or will many of these promised advances take considerably longer to become realities?

Finally, all the opinions about what nanotechnology can help us achieve echo with ethical challenges. If nanotechnology helps us to increase ourlifespans orproduce manufactured goodsfrom inexpensive raw materials, what is the moral imperative about making such technology available to all? Is there sufficient understanding or regulation of nanotech based materials to minimize possible harm to us or ourenvironment? Only timewill tell how nanotechnology will affect our lives.