eChapters

Loss of experimental observations is a common practical problem in forestry and agricultural experiments because seeds, seedlings, plants, and trees may be damaged by natural events, animals, anthropogenic activities, or other causes. This chapter presents the missing plot technique for estimating unavailable observations so that an experiment can continue to be analysed. It explains why missing observations can reduce the information and precision of an experiment and discusses alternative approaches for handling incomplete data. The chapter focuses particularly on the method of least squares and the iteration method. Applications include estimation of missing values in Randomized Block Designs and other experimental layouts used in forestry research.

Perennial nature of horticultural fruit crops provides a stable environment for the buildup and development of mite populations, as against the ephemeral habitat of short-lived plants. The phytophagous mites are represented by 169 species whereas 148 species belong to the predatory group. Mites (subclass Acari) are ecologically and morphologically very diverse group of tiny invertebrates that belong to the class Arachnida (along with scorpions and spiders), subphylum Chelicerata under Arthropods. As arthropods also include insects, but mites are differ because they have four pair of legs (insects are hexapods), lack of true head and conspicuous segmentation of the body. 

There are several species in this cosmopolitan family that are of importance chiefly as pests of stored foods, flour, grain, seeds and bulbs, feeding on these products or the fungi that develop on them. These mites are mostly very minute, almost colourless, with the body bearing a few long setae, and with the legs terminating in one claw and usually a sucker. When very abundant the mites and their cast skins form a buff-colored dust and give rise to a characteristic odour. The living mites move slowly away from a source of light. An interesting characteristic of these mites is a nymphal resting stage (hypopus) during which they take no food but attach themselves to other mites, insects and humans by means of suckers and are thereby transported to other suitable places for development, where they drop off, moult, feed, and develop into adult stage. The hypopus may be resistant to fumigants. However, the cheese mites, Tyrophagus casei do not have a hypopial stage. Prolonged storage of products subject to infestation without cleaning of pantries and shelves where such materials are placed. These mites can subsist on organic debris in cracks, crevices and corners and are readily spread to other areas.

Mites are small arthropods belonging to the subclass Acari (also known as Acarina) and the class Arachnida. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology. In soil ecosystems, mites are favored by high organic matter content and by moist conditions, wherein they actively engage in the fragmentation and mixing of organic matter (Nyle and Ray, 2009). Mites are among the most diverse and successful of all the invertebrate groups. They have exploited an incredible array of habitats, and because of their small size (most are microscopic), go largely unnoticed. Many live freely in the soil or water, but there are also a large number of species that live as parasites on plants, animals, and some that feed on mold. It is estimated that 48,200 species of mites have been described (Halliday et al., 2000).

Mites are small arthropods belonging to the sub-class Acari (also known as Acarina) and the class Arachnida. The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology. In soil ecosystems, mites are favored by high organic matter content and by moist conditions, wherein they actively engage in the fragmentation and mixing of organic matter (Nyle and Ray, 2009).

Mites have been known as pests of agricultural and horticultural crops since long but now they rank as very serious pests and vectors of many plant diseases. The application and extensive use of pesticides, fertilizer and improved cultural methods have probably favoured increase of the population. Mites as crop pests are confined to certain group of the other acari. Near about 20,000 species have been described of the total mite fauna on a world basis. From India, 660 species of phytophagous mites have been described and nearly 30 species are reported as potential pests (Gupta 1987). Phytophagous mite belongs to family - Tetranychidae, Tenuipalpidae, Tarsonemidae, Eriophyidae and Tuckerellidae. These mites cause direct damage like loss of chlorophyll, stunting of growth, defoliation, reduction in size and quality of fruits, appearance of various types of plant deformities etc. and all these severely affect the yield. Besides causing direct damages, few phytophagous mites inject toxic substances in to their hosts, which cause increased localized growth and disruption of tissue (Jeppson et al. 1975), and many species belonging to family – Eriophyidae are known to act as vectors of plant viruses. The dust entangled in the web formed by tetranychid mites on leaves prevent the sunlight reaching the leaf surface and as result photosynthesis is impaired, the leaves turn pale, yellow and fall down. This affects the vitality of the plant.

Introduction

Mites and ticks belong to acarology an offshoot of animal science Zoology a common man mites and insects look alike but former can be easily differentiated by absence wings and antennae and presence of four pairs of legs in most farms. Parasitic mites and ticks live on domestic animals, pets and poultry (Baker and Pritchard, 1960; Baker and Tuttle, 1994; Krantz and Walter, 2009). They are responsible for inducing paralysis, host intoxication, irritation carriers of pathogens and other health disorders to them. The severe bites of ticks cause tick toxicosis producing deep wounds, which bleed and are open to secondary infection. Parasitic mites are among the serious pests of the bees the world over. At times they cause mass mortality of brood and put a heavy loss to apiculture industry. Both solitary and social bees that are important pollinators are parasitized by Messostigmatid mites reducing their life span and foraging efficiency. They parasitize silkworm larvae, pupae and adults. By their toxication silkworms die in few hours. Man himself is not free from the attack of mites. Human itch mite, scabies mite and pyroglyphid mites causing allergic asthma are notorious examples of parasitic mites on man. Dancing on the head of a pin’ is definitely impossible for most animals. However, a large number of mites, the smallest Arachnida could do it. The size of these creatures ranges from a fraction of a millimetre, invisible to the naked eye, to about one centimetre in ticks.

Mites are small arthropods which attack number of crops damaging different parts of the plants (leaves, buds, flowers and fruits) and due to short duration of life cycle and high fecundity, their population increases at a fast rate and when feeding in large numbers they become serious pest of many crops. Since last few years the menace of mites is on the increase in Indian sub-continent causing enormous losses. One of the probable reasons for it is attributed to excessive use of broad-spectrum pesticides, which have led to the development of resistance in mites. Further, owing to their deleterious effect on non target organisms, especially natural enemies of the mites in the ecosystem there is often a spurt in the population of mites which otherwise may be of minor pest category. Because of their small size, the infestation goes unnoticed in the beginning and by the time prominent symptoms appear a lot of damage has already been done.

FRUIT CROPS

In fruit crops, being perennial in nature, the infestation of mites not only affects the trees at a particular time but their overall vigour gets reduced which is reflected in reduction in production as well as poor quality of the fruit in the years to come. The identification characters, nature of damage and the symptoms must be well understood in order to manage the mite pests effectively. A number of mites are associated with various fruit crops and those infesting major fruit crops are discussed herewith.

Mites
Subclass: Acari
Order: Parasitiformes 
Suborder: Gamasida/Mesostigmata
Characters
1. Mites of this group have the stigmata or spiracles in the middle of the body, hence suborder Gamasida is also called suborder mesostigmata. Mites of this group are referred as gamasid mite.
2. Size of these mites are large about 0.6-2.5 mm in length and hence visible via naked eye.
3. They parasitisize birds and mammals.

Some have described Mithun as domesticated Gaur others as a hybrid descent from the crossing of gaur bulls and common cows. Considered to have originated along the Assam and Myanmar border. • Mithun, also known as ‘Cattle of Mountain” is an important bovine species of north-eastern hill region of India and also of China, Myanmar, Bhutan and Bangladesh. This magnificent massive bovine is presently reared under free-range condition in the hill forests at an altitude of 1000 to 3000 m above mean sea level.

• Mithun plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of the local tribal population.

• Presently, this animal is mainly reared for meat, which is considered to be more tender and superior over the meat of any other species.

• Mithun milk, though produced less in quantity, is of high quality and can be used for preparation of various milk products.

• Leather obtained from this species has been found to be superior to cattle.

In spite of development of irrigation and expansion in transportation and communication; the risk or we can say threat in agriculture sector such as its production and yield has increased in the country. The risk is much higher for farm income than production, as is evident from lower risk in area and higher risk in production. It has been reviewed from the state wise results of area and production which shows that only in the states where irrigation is very consistent; it helped in plummeting the risk and vice-versa. In some states farmers face twin problem of very low productivity accompanied by high risk of production. Also, with the course of time, neither technology nor any other measure helped in reducing production risk in all over the country. Therefore, there is strong need to plan and broaden insurance products or we can say insurance policies for agricultural crops and their production. No doubt various insurance schemes has been launched by the Government of India for covering various agricultural crops in the country as well as in the states but agriculture insurance has served very limited purpose. The coverage through insurance schemes in terms of area under crops, number of farmers and value of agricultural output obtained is very small and the payment of insurance based on area approach fail to notice affected farmers outside the compensated area, and most of the schemes are not workable. It has been viewed in most of the parts of the country. So there is a need to restructure the programme vigilantly to make it feasible and to increase its prospects for future expansion to impact more farmers. This whole process is in immediate need of rehabilitated efforts by Government of India as well as state governments in provisions of introducing new crop insurance policies with full financial support. The government should also extend support to private stakeholders for providing agricultural insurance which in turn will help in increasing insurance coverage and in improving viability of the insurance schemes over time. Moreover the crop insurance policies shouldbe simple in plan so that they are easily understood to the farmers. At last we can say that, good insurance products with good management are key for successful operation of an agriculture insurance scheme all over the India.

Introduction

The changing climate and its variability are a big concern for the human being. The recurrent droughts and floods, which are the results of this changing climate seriously hamper the livelihood of billions of people who depend on land for most of their needs. According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (UNFCC; 1992), “climate change is the change that can be attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC report, 2022) issued a cautionary statement regarding the imminent attainment of the 1.5oC threshold by the global climate system within the forthcoming 20-year period. It further emphasized that only implementing exceedingly stringent reductions in carbon emissions, commencing at present, would serve as a viable measure to avert an impending ecological catastrophe.

Droughts: A time in which circumstances are significantly drier than average is referred to as a drought.

Floods: A flood is an abnormally large outpouring of water (or, on very rare occasions, other fluids) that covers normally dry ground.

Livelihoods: The term “livelihood” refers to a collection of activities that are carried out during one’s lifetime and are considered necessary to one’s day-to day existence. Obtaining necessities such as water, food, fodder, medication, shelter, and clothing are examples of such activities.

SYNOPSIS

Food and nutritional challenges continue to be tackled in East and Southern African countries. Prevailing rates of high malnutrition among children and often in adults in vulnerable geographical locations do suggest the need for appropriate interventions. Of several global nutrition interventions during the 1980s, successful implementation of nutrition programmes in Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Ethiopia have established strategies / approaches that are promising.  In Tanzania, the Iringa nutrition programme (WHO/UNICEF Joint Nutrition Support Programme) was implemented during 1983-1988.

Introduction

The foundation of agricultural productivity lies in the realm of weather and climate, a reality unaltered by technological progress. The consequences of climate change on agriculture represent a worldwide apprehension, particularly significant for India. Around 54.6% of the Indian population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities, contributing to 17.4% of the country’s total gross value added. The agriculture sector is battling a multitude of challenges, such as increasing food demand, depletion of agricultural lands and water resources, and the devastating effects of climate change. It is high time that we acknowledge and address these issues to safeguard the future of our food systems and ensure food security for all.

Climate change refers to the long-term variations in weather patterns and temperature over extended periods. Climate change occurs when earth’s climate system experiences variations in weather patterns that can last for decades or millions of years. These changes can arise naturally due to phenomena like volcanic eruptions or changes in solar activity. However, since the 1800s, human activities accelerate the natural pace of climate change, primarily due to the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas. These activities release greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), and nitrous oxide (N2 O) into the atmosphere, trapping heat and leading to a gradual increase in global temperatures. One of the most remarkable characteristics of climate change is the increase in temperature, which is widely referred to as global warming (Houghton, 2009). According to the report of Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change, the release of greenhouse gases caused by human actions has contributed to around 1.1°C of warming since the period between1850-1900. The report also predicts that the global temperature will likely increase to 1.5°C or more in the next 20 years (IPCC, 2021).

Introduction

Climate change is a deadliest hazard to life on Earth. Global temperature is rising due to greenhouse gas emissions from the usage of fossil fuels, this result in widespread agricultural and fisheries failure, the extinction of hundreds of thousands of species, and whole towns becoming uninhabitable (Lindwall, 2022). Rising global temperatures are severely killing humans and trees, forcing half of all species to move, worsening water-borne and respiratory ailments in people, and jeopardising millions’ food and water security (Isaacs-Thomas, 2022). Addressing these concerns necessitates a worldwide collaboration to minimise greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable behaviours. Climate change affects agriculture production, lowers crop nutritional value, and increases the frequency of extreme weather events. These interruptions jeopardise food production, availability, and access, especially in vulnerable countries. Microbes play an important role in soil health, nitrogen cycling, and ecosystem stability. They impact a variety of soil activities, such as organic matter breakdown, nutrient mobilisation, and plant growth stimulation. However, climate change poses a substantial danger to microbial communities, possibly changing their activities and altering ecosystem dynamics (Wang et al., 2022). Transitioning to a low-carbon economy requires a global effort. Mitigation strategies include enhancing energy efficiency, adopting renewable energy sources, electrifying industrial processes, implementing efficient transportation systems, and introducing carbon taxes or emissions markets.

Introduction

Rising temperature, decreasing precipitation, increased frequency in drought and flooding, etc. is making us realize climate change is not some cooked up story. Still there are people who believes climate change is not real. By definition, Climate change is a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. This will affect the life of people in many forms: health, food, water, etc. (Table 1). Agriculture is a highly vulnerable field to such weather and climate changes, they can have significant direct and indirect impacts on farm productivity and profitability. Climate change will have adverse effect on crop physiology, growth and chemistry and thus it will cause negative impact on agricultural production. Because of the variation in climate, moisture availability may change, which limits vegetation activity/plant growth, increase in drought/ heat/flooding will the crop growth and yield. Elevated CO2 does not have a profound effect on C4 plants. On the contrary, tissue nitrogen concentrations are higher for C3 species under increased CO2 . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that climate change and elevated CO2 is expected to increase competitiveness of invasive weed. IPCC also estimates that with 1°C rise in global temperature, 5 to 10 per cent yield reduction of major food and cash crops (Pachauri et al., 2014).

Introduction

Climate change is widely acknowledged as the most significant contemporary challenge facing humanity. According to a recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022), the situation has deteriorated further, with 3.3 billion people worldwide highly susceptible to climate change. Current unsustainable development practices are escalating the exposure of ecosystems and populations to climate-related risks. Human activities and their impact on the climate and environment are leading to unprecedented extinctions of animals and plants, resulting in a loss of biodiversity and posing a threat to life on Earth. The diversity of microorganisms is fundamental to maintaining a healthy global ecosystem, as the microbial world serves as the life support system of the biosphere. Although the influence of human activities on microorganisms is less conspicuous and less well understood, a significant concern is that changes in microbial biodiversity and functions will impact the resilience of other organisms, affecting their ability to adapt to climate change. Microorganisms play crucial roles in carbon and nutrient cycling, as well as in the health of animals (including humans), plants, agriculture, and the global food web. Microorganisms inhabit all environments on Earth occupied by larger organisms and are the exclusive life forms in certain environments such as the deep subsurface and extreme habitats. Dating back to the origin of life on Earth at least 3.8 billion years ago, microorganisms are likely to persist well beyond any future extinction events. Despite their vital role in regulating climate change, microorganisms are seldom the focal point of climate change studies and are typically overlooked in policy development. The challenge lies in understanding their intricate role in the ecosystem due to their vast diversity and varied responses to environmental changes.

Introduction

Climate plays a crucial role in shaping the agricultural landscape of a region, and the changing climatic conditions pose a significant threat to global food security. In developing countries in Asia and Africa, the primary challenges to realizing optimal crop yields are declining soil fertility, particularly soil organic carbon and drought. The unchecked emission of greenhouse gases is expected to lead to a considerable rise in the average global temperature by 6°C in the next century, primarily driven by activities such as fossil burning and urbanization. Over the past centuries, there has been a noticeable increase in the concentration of CO2 and CH4 , with up to a 35% expected rise in nitrous oxide due to the improper use of nitrogenous fertilizers. Climate models predict a substantial impact on agricultural productivity in the 21st century, with rising temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events (NASA, 2022). To maintain agricultural productivity, it is imperative to understand the effects of increasing temperatures, shifting precipitation patterns, and rising CO2 levels on soil health. It is noteworthy that climate is one of the key factors influencing soil formation, alongside four other factors. Temperature and precipitation directly affect soil formation by providing the necessary conditions for weathering and biomass production. The sum of active temperature and precipitation evaporation ratio are critical parameters that determine energy consumption for soil formation, water balances in soil, organic-mineral interactions, and the transformation processes within the soil. However, human activities such as population growth, deforestation, disruption of marine ecosystems, and the greenhouse effect contribute to climate change, leading to denudation, depletion of soil organic matter, destruction of soil structure, erosion, and desertification, ultimately causing a decline in soil health and environmental degradation (IMD, 2021). Despite being a gradual process, climate change, characterized by small, long-term changes in temperature and precipitation, significantly influences various soil processes, particularly those related to soil fertility. The anticipated effects of climate change on soils primarily involve alterations in soil moisture conditions, increased soil temperature, and elevated CO2 levels. Understanding the consequences of climate change on soil health is crucial, as it has far-reaching impacts on agriculture, biodiversity, carbon cycling, and ecosystem resilience in the face of an evolving climate (Nunez et al., 2019).

Introduction

The world’s food and nutritional security are under serious threat from climate change. Climate changes have significant effects on agriculture by affecting insect pests, their natural enemies, and pollinators as illustrated in Fig 1 (Eigenbrode and Adhikari, 2023). According to Benedict (2003), 13.6% of annual crop loss worldwide is attributed to insect pest attack. Crops, crop pests, natural enemies and pollinators are directly and indirectly impacted by erratic climate. The continuous and anticipated alterations in these insects vary across species, systems, and geographical areas, impeding the development of strong generalizations and forecasts. Moreover, the implementation of “climate-smart” agricultural methods, may have additional effects on ideal management of these insects.

Direct effects on insect pests

Temperature: The most reliable, well-researched, and easily modelled component of climate change is warming. Warming affects physiology, phenology, dispersal, reproduction, development, and survival of insect pests (Bale et al., 2002) as illustrated in Fig 2 (Skendži? et al., 2021). It can be inferred that increased herbivory would be associated with rising temperatures in many cases. High temperature and high humidity are key reasons for whitefly population increase (Pathania et al., 2020). Warming can alter the number of insect generations in Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in China (Huang and Hao, 2020).

Introduction

Climate change has significant adverse implications on the physiological processes and metabolic machinery of plants, potentially affecting growth, development, and overall crop productivity. The rapid increase in global population exacerbates the threat to global food security, which is further impacted by changing climate conditions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that between 1850 and 1900 and 2011 and 2020, the global mean land surface air temperature increased by 1.6 °C. Predictions by the United Nations indicate that the global human population could reach 8.5 billion by 2023 and 9.7 billion by 2050, up from the current 8 billion. The National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) reported that 2022 was 0.86°C warmer than the average of the 20th century, making it the 6th warmest year on record. These data suggest an increased probability of unpredictable climate changes and harsh growing conditions, manifesting as various abiotic stresses on major cultivable lands. Climate change impacts CO2 concentration, temperature, precipitation, pollutants, and nutrient availability and uptake, leading to drought, salinity, irregular rainfall, f looding, high temperatures, and nutrient deficiencies in staple food crops, thereby threatening global food security. This review focuses on the effect of elevated CO2 and temperature on fundamental plant metabolic processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, and nitrogen metabolism.

Introduction

The “plant disease triangle” is a fundamental concept in plant pathology that illustrates the interaction between three essential components necessary for the development of a plant disease. Firstly, the host plant which refers to the plant species or cultivar that is susceptible to the pathogen. Host plants provide the necessary environment and resources for the pathogen to establish, grow, and reproduce. Secondly, the pathogen which is any organism (such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, or other microorganisms) that can cause disease in plants. Pathogens can infect host plants through various means, including direct contact, airborne spores, soil-borne organisms, or vectors such as insects. And thirdly, the environment which encompasses all external factors that influence the interaction between the host plant and the pathogen. This includes abiotic factors such as temperature, humidity, soil moisture, light, and nutrient availability, as well as biotic factors such as the presence of other organisms (competitors, predators, symbionts) that may affect disease development.

The plant disease triangle illustrates that the occurrence of a disease requires the presence and interaction of all three components: a susceptible host, a virulent pathogen, and a conducive environment. If any of these components is missing or unfavourable, disease development may be inhibited or prevented. Any change in ecosystem can affect plant diseases, because plant disease is the result of interaction between a susceptible host, virulent pathogen and favourable environment. If any of the three factors are altered, the progress of any one disease can change. Although interactions among the three factors must be matched, weather is an important variable due to its dynamic behaviour.

Introduction

Climate change may advance more rapidly than anticipated, introducing novel environmental conditions for cultivating horticultural crops. The rise in atmospheric CO2 levels from non-renewable energy sources combustion drives global average temperatures, altering weather patterns worldwide with regional variations (Stocker et al., 2013). Currently, certain regions are already experiencing the effects of extreme weather events such as heat waves or frost, while prolonged droughts pose a growing threat to global food security elsewhere. Climate changes may yield both positive and negative outcomes, but they will undoubtedly alter production conditions and product quality (Kaufmann and Blanke, 2017).

Elevated temperatures can enhance the ability of air to hold water vapor, leading to increased water demand. This process can elevate evapotranspiration rates, potentially depleting soil water reserves and causing water stress in plants during dry periods. Fruit production is particularly vulnerable to water stress, especially in regions where trees lack irrigation. Numerous studies indicate that water stress diminishes crop yields and hastens fruit ripening (Henson, 2008).

Introduction

Soil is a silent foundation and a dynamic part of Earth’s complex ecosystem. It sustains life, influences plant growth and is involved in various environmental processes. However, the balance of this vital resource is increasingly threatened by the pervasive effects of climate change, manifested by rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and changes in atmospheric conditions. As global temperatures rise and weather patterns change, the relationship between soil and climate poses transformative challenges with far-reaching consequences. This research addresses the complexity of this interaction and examines how climate change affects agriculture, soil health, composition and functionality. Soil health, a holistic concept that includes physical, chemical and biological aspects of soils, is closely linked to climate change. A notable consequence of climate change is the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. These events disrupt the delicate balance of soil ecosystems and lead to erosion, loss of topsoil and reduced fertility. Additionally, increased temperatures contribute to soil moisture depletion, reducing water availability for plants and microorganisms and further compromising soil health. A central issue at the interface between soil science and climate change is the role of soil as a carbon sink. Soils store large amounts of carbon in the form of organic material, thereby influencing the environment.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of every country. It largely depends on climate and its changes. Over the last few years climate change has affected crops, cropping systems, patterns and the ecosystem hugely. Climate change is caused by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which results in global warming (Aydinalp and Cresser, 2008). The rising temperature, melting of glaciers, loss in vegetation cover, frequent occurrences of drought and floods are some of the issues that have raised concern among the environmentalists. The change in temperature and precipitation patterns alters the traditional growing seasons. Climate change is expected to influence crop and livestock production, hydrologic balances, input supplies and other components of agricultural systems (Adams et. al., 1998). Vulnerability of climate change depends on physical, biological and socio-economic characteristics. Low income populations dependent on isolated agricultural systems are particularly vulnerable to hunger and severe hardship. These populations are already barely food-sufficient, even the slightest decline in yields could be very harmful in these areas. The most negative effects are foreseen in dry land areas at lower latitudes and in arid and semi-arid areas, especially for those reliant on rain fed, non-irrigated agriculture (Aydinalp and Cresser, 2008). The rise in temperature cause stress in crops and reduce yields and productivity. Crops that are sensitive to temperature during the growth stages are affected a lot. A shift in growing season is being seen due change in temperature. Irregular and altered patterns of rainfall are severely affecting the crops and water supplies for livestock, which in turn has increased the occurrence of floods and drought, causing soil erosion, disrupting harvesting schedules. Occurrence of new pests and diseases are seen in the places having warmer temperature. Altered temperature has altered the life cycle of pests and intensity of infestations. Rising of sea water level and increased evaporation leads to intrusion of salt water into fresh water making irrigation water more saline harmful to crops. Livestock are sensitive to heat stresses which in turn reduce livestock productivity and increase mortality rates.

What is mitigation of GHGs emission? We must be clear about the answer of this fundamental question. In simple term, the mitigation of GHGs emission is the way or means by which the emission of those gases could be reduced. As we know from the previous chapters of this book that the GHGs emission could be occurred from natural as well as anthropogenic activities. Natural activities included volcanic eruptions, ocean current fluctuations, continental drifts which are responsible for emission of huge amount of CO₂ and other GHGs. The reduction of emissions from those natural activities is beyond our capabilities. However, the human induced emissions of GHGs emission could be reduced. We studied in previous chapters that fossil fuel burning, industrial and energy sector pollution, deforestation, land use change and agricultural could contribute to GHGs emission considerably. Mitigation techniques are different for each of those sectors that governed by lot of interrelated factors. In actual sense, the mitigation of GHGs emission should includes all the measures that can curtail the anthropogenic emission from all sectors. But that is out of the scope of this book. In this book, we specifically address the mitigation principles, options and efficiency of different techniques/ practices in agriculture only.

In that aspect, the mitigation of greenhouse gases emissions in agriculture is defined as “the means and ways by which emissions of GHGs could be reduced from agriculture”. The ways and means actually referred to the techniques and practices and their amalgamation in agricultural sector both in production, processing and consumption aspects. So, mitigation is not only a techniques or combination of techniques it is actually an integrated approach for reducing greenhouse gases emission from agricultural systems. Primarily, there are two complementary approaches for mitigation of GHGs emissions from agriculture. Those two approaches are (i) supply-side and (ii) demand- side options or pathways. The supply-side approaches includes scientific land- use-changes, improvement of crop management, better livestock management practices, enhancing carbon storage in biota, soil carbon sequestration, significant substitution of fossil fuel by bio-fuels and use of renewable energy in agriculture. On the other hand, demand side approaches, taken in to account of shifting in the dietary pattern from non-vegetarian to vegetarian, curtail down the food loss and waste, and reducing the supply-chains (Figure 6.1). We can see, most of the approaches in supply-side are technology driven, while, approaches in demand-side are socio-economical and or policy driven. In this chapter we would thoroughly discuss the principles of mitigation, options of mitigation, mitigation cum adaptation approaches to reduce GHGs emission and climate change and few strategies to cope up with the vagaries of climate change.

Introduction

Agriculture has historically been the primary source of income in India. It has the potential to alleviate poverty, increase income, and enhances food security for 80% of both the world’s poor and people who reside in rural areas primarily work in agriculture. One of the most effective strategies to eradicate extreme poverty, increase shared prosperity, and feed an estimated 9.7 billion people by 2050 is agricultural development. Compared to other modes, the agro - based sector’s progress is two to four times more successful in enhancing the earnings of the poorest people (www.worldbank.org).

Nearly 5 billion hectares, or 38% of the world’s land surface, is used for agriculture. Around one of this is devoted for farming, and the remaining two thirds are pastures and meadows for grazing animals. Over 10% of cropland is assigned to permanent crops like cocoa plantations, oil palm plantations, and fruit tree orchards. Yet another 21% of land is primed for irrigation, a crucial agricultural land management technique.

During his recent visit, US President Barack Obama pointed out that India is fortunate to have a youthful population with over half the population of 1.2 billion being under the age of 30. Of the 600 million young people, over 60% live in villages. Most are literate. Gandhiji considered the migration of educated youngsters from villages to towns and cities as the most serious form of brain drain adversely affecting rural India’s development. He, therefore, stressed that we should take steps to end the divorce between intellect and labour in rural professions.

The National Commission on Farmers (2004-06) stressed the need for attracting and retaining educated youngsters in farming. The National Policy for Farmers placed before Parliament in November 2007 includes the following goal: “To introduce measures which can help to attract and retain youth in farming and processing of farm products for higher value addition, by making farming intellectually stimulating and economically rewarding”. We are currently deriving very little demographic dividend in agriculture. On the other hand, the pressure of population on land is increasing and the size of the average farm holding is dipping below one hectare. Farmers are getting trapped in debt and, as real estate rates continue to rise, the temptation to sell prime farmland for non-farm purposes is growing. Over 45% of farmers interviewed by the National Sample Survey Organisation want to quit farming.

Pollution is the term used to denote the hindrances caused to living organisms by way of contamination of their physical environment. Pollution to air, water, soil etc. is the major problem faced by the living community. Measures to control the emission of pollution into air, water or soil will certainly reduce the level of pollutants. Mitigation of pollution can be best achieved by combining nature with technology that increases the effectiveness of plants in removing pollution. Use of vegetation is an effective means of pollution control and many researchers have reported their advantages in mitigating pollution.

So far, the main approach has been to dig the polluting chemicals out of the ground and transport them to a landfill. However, after a decade of research, scientists in the early twenty-first century found that hundreds of species of plants, along with the fungi and bacteria that inhabit the ecosystem around their roots, seek out and often break down chemical molecules that can harm most other life.

In the mid-1980s, Dr. B.C. Wolverton and fellow researchers at NASA conducted several studies to determine whether plants could halt indoor pollution and provide a natural way to deal with the problem. It has been suggested by NASA and the Associated Landscape Contractors of America (ALCA) that plants are major pollution-absorbing devices: the common indoor plants might provide a natural way of helping combat “SICK BUILDING SYNDROME”. Common indoor plants may provide a valuable weapon in the fight against rising levels of indoor air pollution. These plants are not only decorative, but are also surprisingly useful in absorbing potentially harmful gases and cleaning the air inside modern buildings.

The biosecurity risk assessment informs the biosecurity plan, which documents the mitigation measures put in place to address risks. Risks that fall outside of the risk tolerance threshold should be controlled through additional or enhanced mitigation measures. A cost-benefit analysis can assist in determining the mitigation measures in which to invest. Financial constraints and resource limitations may present challenges when looking to manage unacceptable risks. As a starting point, senior management may choose to initially focus mitigation measures on the most consequential risks and then control remaining risks as resources become available. In other instances, if the risks are determined to be too high or costly to mitigate, the organization’s project or program may need to be modified or cancelled. Recommendations for mitigation measures should be documented in the final report of the biosecurity risk assessment.

Through the sharing of experience of developed countries, which faced the massive health problem due to vehicular pollution in the past and remedial measures adopted by them, it is needed to avoid mistakes made in the past and instead introduce effective measures for the future to reduce or confine the damage that has already been incurred. A progressive policy of motor vehicle emission control strategy, which may be more feasible/affordable, has to be adopted for solving immediate air pollution problems. Uncontrolled growth of vehicular fleet and its emission is taking place in the urban areas, which must be controlled/regulated in order to prevent future disaster. Because of economic development and speed of motorization expected over next decades this problem will become more vulnerable and even greater, If control measure are not adopted timely. It is suggested that planning must begin to provide alternatives to the motor vehicles and to reduce emission of the vehicles. The country without high capital resources will face challenging problems for evolving control strategy that will be acceptable both economically and socially.

ABSTRACT

The potato is one of the most important food crops both in developed as well as in developing countries. Developing countries today produce 37 per cent of world’s output of potatoes. Potato is an important food crop in India. Both area under potato cultivation and production has increased manifolds during past decades. The efforts are being made to improve potato quality and its post harvest life as well.

An experiment was conducted to isolate mitochondria from potato tubers and succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) assay and protein profiling were performed in the tissue. Three varieties namely, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Lauvkar and Kufri Jyoti were taken into consideration for the present investigation. Kufri Bahar showed the minimum values for SDH activity and Kufri Jyoti the maximum SDH activity. On the basis of SDH activity, the mitochondria in Kufri Jyoti were seemed to be more viable, functional and coupled as compared to Kufri Bahar and Kufri Lauvkar. This finding also suggested that the respiratory degradation of starch in Kufri Jyoti was higher as compared to Kufri Bahar and Kufri Lauvkar. Thus these result showed that the shelf life of Kufri Jyoti was less as compared to Kufri Bahar and Kufri Lauvkar. Protein profiling performed by SDS-PAGE was found to be similar in all the potato tubers.

Abstract

Mitochondrial (mt) genomic study may reveal significant insight into the molecular evolution and several other aspects of genome evolution such as gene rearrangements evolution, gene regulation, and replication mechanisms. Other questions such as patterns of gene expression, mechanism of evolution, genomic variation and its correlation with physiology, and other molecular and biochemical mechanisms can be addressed by the mt genomics. Rare genomic changes have attracted evolutionary biology community for providing homoplasy free evidence of phylogenetic relationships. Gene rearrangements are considered to be rare evolutionary events and are being used to reconstruct the phylogeny of diverse group of organisms. Mitochondrial gene rearrangements have been established as a hotspot for the phylogenetic and evolutionary analysis of closely as well as distantly related organisms. This evolutionary episode has significant contribution among animals as well as plants and serves as an important genomic evolutionary event for the analysis of mitogenomes on large scale.

NEW CELLS ARE PRODUCED BY DIVISION OF PREVIOUSLY EXISTING CELLS

All cells come from previously existing cells

To make a new cell identical to itself a cell must perform 4 tasks:

It must grow and make additional copies of all its organelles, enzymes, etc..

It must duplicate its DNA

It must accurately separate the DNA into 2 units, so that each cell gets a full set

It must divide into 2 cells (cytokinesis)

Cells divide and reproduce in two ways: mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is a process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells developing from a single parent cell.
Meiosis, on the other hand, is the division of a germ cell involving two fissions of the nucleus and giving rise to four gametes, or sex cells, each possessing half the number of chromosomes of the original cell.Mitosis is used by single-celled organisms to reproduce; it is also used for the organic growth of tissues, fibers, and membranes. Meiosis is found in sexual reproduction of organisms. The male and female sex cells (i.e., egg and sperm) are the end result of meiosis; they combine to create new, genetically different offspring. 

Fermentation

The term fermentation is loosely used to denote any process in which microorganisms are involved, regards of whether or not the organism is growing in the presence of molecular oxygen. Thus, it can be defined as 'an ATP generating metabolic process in which organic compounds serve both as electron donor (becoming oxidized) and electron acceptor(becoming reduced). Energetically, fermentations are poor energy yielding process and products have lower energy content then the substrates. Since there is no net oxidation in fermentation, the number of molecules of C, H and O remain the same in products as in the substrate.

Mixed farming exists in many forms depending on external and internal factors. External factors are weather patterns, market prices, technological developments, etc. Internal factors relate to local soil characteristics, composition of the family and farmers’ ingenuity. Farmers can decide to opt for mixed enterprises when they want to save resources by interchanging them on the farm - because these permit wider crop rotations and thus reduce dependence on chemicals, because they consider mixed systems closer to nature, or because they allow diversification for better risk management. There is wide variation in mixed systems. Even pastoralists practice a form of mixed farming since their livelihood depends on the management of different feed resources and animal species. Mixed farms are systems that consist of different parts, which together should act as a whole. They thus need to be studied in their entirety and not as separate parts in order to understand the system and the factors that drive farmers and influence their decisions. It may be the most important principle to achieve increased production in mixed systems, together with the awareness that crops and animals have multiple functions.

Ingredient of 1kg mixed pickles: Cauliflower + diced carrot + turnip slice + vegetable pea each in equal amount of 1kg, salt 100g, ginger chopped 20g, onion chopped 50g, garlic chopped 10g, red chilli powder, black pepper, turmeric, cardamom large, aniseed powder, cumin, fenugreek powder each of 10g, clove headless 5 number and mustard 50g, vinegar 200 ml and mustard oil 450 ml.

The domestic electric food juicer/mixer/grinder has become an integral fixture in the typical modern kitchen. Generally functional as liquidizers, grinders and juicers, this paraphernalia comes in handy for grinding/pulverizing/powdering dry foodstuffs either raw or roasted (cereals, grains, masalas, coffee seeds, etc.), for mixing liquids and for converting food— with or without the presence of water (or vegetable oils)—into forms of slurry or pulps. It is also used for extracting juice from fruits or vegetables.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ works on the principle based on gravitational force
2. Gamet divider is otherwise known as_____.
3. Gamet divider works on the principle based on_____.
4. _____ method is suitable for seeds requiring working samples upto 10grams and seeds not chaffy and do not bounce and roll.

1. MIXING AND DIVIDING

The main objective of mixing and dividing of seeds is to obtain the representative homogenous seed sample for analysis by reducing the submitted sample to the desired size of working sample.

2. TYPES OF MECHANICAL DIVIDERS

2.1. Boerner divider

The principle involved in mixing and dividing in gravitational force. It consists of a hopper, a cone and series of baffles directing the seeds into 2 spouts. The baffles are of equal size and equally spaced and every alternate one leading to one spout. They are arranged in circle and are directed inward. A valve at the base of the hopper retains the seeds in the hopper. When the valve is opened, the seeds fall by gravity over the cone where it is equally distributed and approximately equal quantity of seeds will be collected in each spout. A disadvantage of this divider is that it is difficult to check for cleanliness (Fig. 1).

1. Introduction

Mixing is a fundamental and widely practiced operation in many fields, such as chemical, pharmaceutical, and food processing industries. The mixture’s primary aim is to increase the homogeneity of the material in bulk (Uhl and Gray, 1986; Patterson et al., 2004). Mixing means the random distribution of two or more ingredients throughout a system, which differs from the term’ agitation,’ which is defined as establishing a particular flow pattern with the liquid, especially in a circulatory motion within a container. Mixing is a necessary step in the context of food processing operations. 

M-Agriculture

Mobile phones have changed the scenario of telecommunication. It is a source of communication for fast dissemination of information. Today, mobile usage has enabled farming communities to access agricultural and other business information without travelling long distances or reducing costs, time and money. Keeping in view the lower ratio of the farmer to the extension worker (1000: 1) and the inability of the extension workers to guide the farmers as per their information needs, the new concept of m-Agriculture (m-Krishi) has emerged at the beginning of twenty-first century all over the world including India.

Introduction In modern agriculture, soft resources like knowledge and skills are sometimes even more crucial than hard resources like inputs. In the 21st century, agriculture has to overcome a number of obstacles, including feeding an expanding population while a declining rural labour force, producing more feedstocks for a huge bioenergy market, supporting the overall development of many developing countries heavily dependent on agriculture, adopting more efficient and sustainable production techniques, and adapting to climate change (Colle, 2011). In order to make efficient and effective agricultural decisions, farmers are increasingly adopting information (Cash, 2001). Compared to the current availability of roughly 0.1 million personnel, the required number of extension agent who worked in field level is anticipated in between 1.3 to 1.5 million.

Introduction

Information technology is rapidly changing the use of Geographic Information Systems (GISs) from the classic desktop applications into the business service market. With the ubiquitous computing, the settings change dramatically and the classic GIS market will change drastically in the coming few years.

Till mid 90’s, the architecture of GIS focused on a standalone (static) environment. This architecture has been changed to move GIS applications from workstations into mobile GIS applications.

Mobile map applications is not a conventional GIS modified to operate on mobile devices, but a system build using a fundamentally new paradigm(Maguire,2001).

In this paper, we will discuss the integration of XML (eXtensible Markup Language) and J2ME (Java 2 Micro Edition) to build a mobile map application running on 2.5G and 3G mobile devices such as Nokia series 60.

Abstract

The chapter examines the relationship between the agricultural value chain and mobile apps. Using email survey data from mobile app developers, supplemented with basic desk research, the chapter reviews and analyzes 55 mobile apps based on their location within the value chain, the format of content delivery, the types of device used, the stage of deployment as of  2012, the type of business model used, and the geographic focus of the app. The analysis generally reveals an even distribution of apps within the three main components of the agricultural value chain but when it comes to the sub-categories within the agricultural value chain, skewed distribution was observed. Feature phones remain the dominant device for delivering agricultural information to users, however, increasing number of smartphone-specific applications gaining market. Most of the devices use text format for content delivery with voice, image and video as supplements.

Abstract

In Cyprus the National Agricultural Research System is mainly under the authority of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment (MANRE). One of its departments, namely the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI), is the only recognized public institution engaged exclusively in applied agricultural research, covering the wider domain of crop and animal production. Another department of the MANRE, the Department of Agriculture (DA) has as its main mission the development of the agricultural and livestock sector through the education and guidance of the farmers, the planning and the implementation of development programmes. 

1. Introduction

One of the most recent running questions of agricultural extension is the potential of rural areas to benefit from mobile communication. Actually, today the increase of the use of mobile phones (MP) is even more rapid in both urban and rural world.

Abstract

Agriculture continues to be the most important sector of the Indian economy and agriculture is a  more or less a compulsion for livelihood of millions of farmers. Land and water resources have almost reached their limits, price of commodities are fluctuating almost every day, profits are negligible for most of the marginal and small farmers and most of all getting information is cumbersome. In present day agriculture, soft resources like knowledge and skills are as important as hard resources like inputs, and sometimes more important. But estimates indicate that 60 per cent of farmers do not access any source of information for advanced agricultural technologies resulting in huge adoption gap. The requirement of field level extension personnel is estimated to be about 1.3 -1.5 million against the present availability of about 0.1 million personnel. The mobile phone comes into the picture here.

1. Introduction

A cooperative agricultural extension service has been implemented in Japan by both national and prefectural governments to support small-scale farmers who emerged as a result of land reform after the Second World War (Yamada, 2008).  In recent years, however, the scope and level of agricultural extension advisors’ activities have become more sophisticated and diversified because of technological progress and a wider range of activities, from production and selling to promoting relevant political measures.  On the other hand, the number of agricultural extension advisors has been decreasing for several years because of a cut in government expenditure for the cooperative extension service.  For this reason, information and communication technology (ICT) is needed to promote advanced and efficient extension activities (Yamada, 2010).

Abstract
 
Nigeria has a very large domestic market, but consumers, farmers, processors and other agribusiness investors are often faced with challenges getting timely and relevant information. However, it has been found out that in Nigeria many people preferred receiving information over a mobile phone than a computer. The problems farmers encounter in exchanging information and that more than half of Nigeria’s population are mobile phone subscribers of which majority of them are farmers necessitate overview of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)  and agricultural development in Nigeria. Literatures were consulted, secondary data, and personal observations were tools used to compile the chapter contribution.