eChapters

Bird of Paradise, belonging to the genus Strelitzia, is a distinctive ornamental cut flower recognized for its striking inflorescences and architectural form. This chapter covers its origin, botanical features, species, varieties and commercial importance. It explains environmental requirements, soil conditions, propagation, planting, irrigation, nutrient management and cultural operations. The chapter also addresses pests, diseases, harvesting, grading and postharvest handling. Because of its unique appearance and suitability for floral arrangements, Bird of Paradise has significant potential in premium floriculture markets. The chapter provides practical production guidance for growers seeking to develop high-value tropical cut flower enterprises. commercially and sustainably.

China aster is a popular annual cut flower valued for its vibrant colours, sturdy stems, attractive flower forms and good vase life. This chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercial importance in India. It covers improved varieties, climate, soil, propagation, seed treatment, nursery management, planting, nutrition, irrigation and other cultural practices. The chapter further explains pest and disease management, harvesting, postharvest handling, grading, marketing and yield. China aster's importance to small and marginal farmers and its demand as both cut and loose flower make it an attractive crop for diversified commercial floriculture.

Dahlia is a highly valued ornamental crop recognized for its large, colourful and diverse flower forms. This chapter introduces its origin, classification, botanical characteristics, genetic diversity and commercially important varieties. It discusses propagation through seeds, tubers and other methods, together with climate and soil requirements, planting, spacing, nutrient management, irrigation and crop regulation. Staking, pinching, disbudding and other cultural operations are explained for producing quality stems. The chapter also covers major insect pests, diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling, grading and yield. Its practical approach makes it useful for commercial growers and students of ornamental crop production.

Gypsophila, commonly known as baby's breath, is an important filler flower used extensively in bouquets, floral arrangements and export markets. This chapter covers its origin, classification, genetics, botanical features and commercially important varieties. Production practices include climate, soil, propagation, planting, spacing, irrigation, nutrition, pruning, crop regulation and growth regulators. Pest and disease management is followed by harvesting, grading, postharvest treatment, cold storage and drying. The chapter emphasizes the importance of ethylene management, silver thiosulphate treatments and proper grading for extending vase life and maintaining export quality. Protected cultivation can significantly improve yield and production efficiency.

Heliconia is a tropical ornamental crop valued for its striking inflorescences, vibrant colours and long-lasting cut stems. This chapter presents the origin, distribution, species, botanical characteristics and commercially important types of Heliconia. It discusses climate, soil, shade, propagation, planting, irrigation, nutrition and cultural management. Pest and disease problems are described together with suitable management practices. The chapter also addresses harvesting stages, postharvest handling, grading, packaging, vase life and yield. Its emphasis on tropical production makes Heliconia particularly relevant to growers seeking to diversify high-value floriculture enterprises in warm and humid regions of India. commercially.

Limonium, commonly known as statice, is an important cut and dried flower valued for its attractive inflorescences and excellent keeping quality. This chapter covers its origin, taxonomy, botanical features, varieties and commercial significance. It discusses climate, soil, propagation, planting, irrigation, nutrient management and crop protection. Harvesting at the correct flowering stage, immediate hydration, cold storage and floral preservatives are emphasized for maintaining quality. The chapter also provides commercial grading standards for varieties such as Misty Blue, Saffron and Glow, along with yield information. These practices support both domestic and export production of high-quality Limonium stems.

Tuberose is an important bulbous flower crop valued for its fragrant flowers and use as both cut and loose flowers. This chapter presents its origin, taxonomy, botanical characteristics, varieties and commercial significance. It explains bulb selection and storage, climate, soil, planting time, spacing, nutrient management, irrigation and crop operations. Major pests and diseases, harvesting stages, grading, postharvest treatment, storage and yield are described in detail. Commercial planting recommendations and quality standards are included to assist growers in achieving high spike production. The chapter provides an integrated approach to profitable tuberose production under different agro-climatic conditions in India.

The final chapter examines the commercial, institutional and policy dimensions of the Indian cut flower industry. It discusses domestic and international markets, export opportunities, grading, packaging, cold-chain requirements and India's competitive position. Institutional support from ICAR, APEDA, National Horticulture Board, MIDH, financial institutions and Centres of Excellence is explained. The chapter also covers Agri Export Zones, Export Oriented Units and crop insurance mechanisms relevant to commercial floriculture. Current challenges include freight costs, cold-chain limitations, quality standards and international competition, while opportunities arise from protected cultivation, precision farming, automation, AI, IoT, exports and premium flower markets.

Examination of the eyes and ears is an important component of complete clinical assessment. This chapter describes practical evaluation of ocular structures and ear abnormalities in veterinary patients. Eye examination includes assessment of the eyelids, conjunctiva, cornea, pupils and visual responses. Tests such as menace response, palpebral reflex, pupillary light response, Schirmer tear test and fluorescein staining help evaluate ocular function and disease. Ear examination includes inspection of the pinna and otoscopic examination of the ear canal. These procedures assist in identifying inflammatory, infectious, traumatic and neurological abnormalities and provide important information for diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

Zoo animals present unique challenges because of species-specific behaviour, size, temperament and safety considerations. This chapter describes practical approaches to restraint, physical examination and medication of wild and zoo animals. Appropriate restraint methods and equipment are selected according to species and clinical requirements. The chapter discusses physical examination and commonly used medications for immobilization of different wildlife species. Particular attention is given to safe handling of carnivores and other wild animals while minimizing stress and risk to both animal and veterinary personnel. Species-specific physiological information and body-weight considerations further assist in planning appropriate examination, restraint and therapeutic procedures.

Peri-parturient management is critical for reducing disease and mortality and ensuring healthy development of calves and replacement heifers. This chapter focuses on practical healthcare during the period surrounding birth and early life. Important areas include preparation for calving, neonatal care, colostrum management, hygiene, nutrition, disease prevention and monitoring of calf health. Proper colostrum feeding provides essential passive immunity and contributes to improved survival. Management practices during the calf and heifer stages influence future productivity and reproductive performance. The chapter emphasizes preventive care, early recognition of illness and appropriate management practices for producing healthy replacement animals.

Loose flowers play a vital role in Indian floriculture owing to their extensive use in religious ceremonies, festivals, social functions, decoration, garland making and perfumery. The book “Commercial Production of Loose Flowers” has been prepared for the students of M.Sc. (Hort.) Floriculture and Landscaping, B.Sc. (Hort.) and B.Sc. (Ag.) to provide a comprehensive understanding of the scientific and practical aspects of loose flower production. The book covers the scope and status of the loose flower industry. Commercial Loose flower crops like Marigold, Jasmine, Rose, Chrysanthemum, Tuberose China Aster, and Crossandra described well in this book. Apart from that new potential and emerging loose flowers i.e. Barleria, Celosia, Gaillardia, Gardenia, Gomphrena, Hibiscus, Ixora, Madar, Magnolia, Tabernaemontana, Nerium, Nyctanthes, Balsam, Spider Lily, Water Lily, Lotus, etc., has been presented systematically with complete package of practices. The book also comprehensively covers marketing, export potential, APMC, online trading, institutional support and crop insurance. It is hoped that this book will serve as a valuable reference for students, teachers, researchers, and floriculture entrepreneurs. I am eternally grateful to all the individuals and informants who have helped me in the writing of this book. I extend my sincerest appreciation initially to Dr. Panjab Singh, Chancellor, Rani Lakshmibai CAU (Jhansi), Ex. Secretary DARE GOI & DG ICAR (New Delhi), Ex. Vice-Chancellor, BHU (Varanasi), whose steadfast mentorship, grace, and motivation turned this manuscript into reality

Loose flowers occupy an important position in Indian floriculture because of their extensive use in garlands, Veni, Rangoli, worship, festivals, weddings, decoration and perfumery. Crops such as marigold, jasmine, chrysanthemum, tuberose, rose, crossandra and gomphrena provide livelihood opportunities for small and marginal farmers and rural workers. This chapter discusses the cultural, economic and employment significance of loose flowers, along with value-addition opportunities in essential oils, natural pigments, floral waters, cosmetics and food products. It also examines the national and international scenario, production constraints, postharvest challenges, market opportunities, emerging technologies and prospects for entrepreneurship in the loose flower sector.

Barleria, particularly Barleria cristata, is a perennial evergreen flowering shrub valued for attractive blooms, garlands, religious functions and ornamental landscaping. The crop has considerable commercial importance in southern India, while other species are used in ornamental and medicinal applications. This chapter covers the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical description and important species and varieties of Barleria. It explains suitable climate and soil conditions, propagation through seeds and stem cuttings, land preparation, nutrient management, planting and irrigation. Cultural practices such as weeding, mulching, pruning and pinching are described along with pest and disease management. Harvesting, postharvest handling and yield are also addressed.

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) is a half-hardy annual belonging to the family Asteraceae and is valued for its attractive flowers in various colours and forms. It is an important ornamental and loose flower crop, particularly suitable for garlands and floral decoration. The chapter introduces its origin, genetics, botanical characteristics and important cultivars developed by Indian research institutions. It discusses climate and soil requirements, propagation, nursery management, field preparation, planting and nutrient management. Irrigation and other cultural practices are presented along with major insect pests and diseases such as grey mould and rust. Harvesting, postharvest handling and yield considerations complete the production package

Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) is a vigorous tropical evergreen flowering shrub valued for its large, colourful and attractive blooms. In India, its flowers are widely used for religious offerings, particularly in temple worship, as well as for ornamental and loose flower purposes. The chapter introduces its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important varieties. It also highlights the crop’s medicinal and food-related importance, including the use of hibiscus products in herbal beverages and processed foods. Detailed production practices cover climate, soil, propagation, field preparation, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural operations. Major pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield are also included for commercial cultivation.

Lotus is an important aquatic flowering plant with exceptional cultural, religious, ornamental and commercial significance in India. Its flowers are extensively used in worship, religious ceremonies, decoration and traditional floral practices. The chapter introduces lotus and discusses its botanical characteristics, origin, distribution, genetics and important varieties. It explains the environmental conditions required for successful cultivation, including suitable water, soil and climatic conditions. Propagation, pond or field preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and routine cultural practices are described for commercial production. The chapter also covers pest and disease management, harvesting of flowers, postharvest handling, yield and potential uses, providing practical information for growers and students of floriculture.

Madar, represented mainly by Calotropis gigantea and related species, is a hardy flowering plant adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions, including marginal and dry lands. Its flowers are valued for religious purposes and loose flower use, while different plant parts have traditional medicinal significance. The chapter discusses the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important species of Madar. It emphasizes the crop’s drought tolerance and adaptability to arid and semi-arid conditions. Production practices include seed propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural operations. The chapter also addresses pests and diseases, harvesting, special postharvest handling because of latex, yield and commercial opportunities.

Spider lily (Hymenocallis littoralis) is a perennial bulbous plant distinguished by its fragrant white flowers, central corona and spider-like appearance. It is an important commercial loose flower crop in western India, particularly Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka, where flowers are used for garlands, Veni, Gajra and ceremonial decoration. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics and botanical characteristics. It explains climate and soil requirements, bulb propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural operations. Pest and disease management, harvesting and postharvest handling are also detailed. The chapter includes storage techniques for flower buds and discusses the long productive life and commercial yield potential of the crop.

Tabernaemontana, commonly known as Chandni, Crape Jasmine or Pinwheel Flower, is an evergreen flowering shrub valued for its pure white flowers. Its flowers are extensively used for garlands, decorations, weddings, hair adornment and religious offerings. Unopened buds can also serve as a substitute for jasmine during its off-season. The chapter covers origin, distribution, genetics, botanical description and important cultivars, including single and double forms. Production practices include climate and soil management, propagation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation, pruning and other cultural operations. The chapter also addresses pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest treatments, storage and yield, with emphasis on maintaining flower freshness and commercial quality.

Tuberose is a highly fragrant perennial bulbous flower crop with major importance in Indian loose flower production, perfumery and floral decoration. Single-flowered types are particularly important for loose flower production, while other forms are used for ornamental and cut flower purposes. The chapter discusses its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercially important varieties. It explains climate and soil requirements, bulb and bulblet propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural operations. Important pests and diseases and their management are presented systematically. The chapter also covers flowering, harvesting, postharvest handling, storage and yield, providing a complete production package for commercial tuberose cultivation and value-added fragrance industries.

Water lily is an important aquatic ornamental flower crop valued for its attractive flowers, cultural significance and use in water gardens, ponds and decorative landscapes. Different flower colours and forms provide considerable ornamental diversity, while flowers also have importance in religious and ceremonial activities. The chapter introduces water lily through its botanical characteristics, origin, distribution, genetics and important varieties. It discusses the environmental conditions required for successful cultivation, including suitable water bodies, soil and temperature conditions. Propagation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and routine cultural operations are described. The chapter also covers pest and disease management, flower harvesting, postharvest handling, yield and commercial possibilities associated with water-lily production.

Introduction

Indian major carps viz. Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala are the fast growing, consumer preferred and the stay component species in Indian pond aquaculture system. These carps breed spontaneously in natural water viz. river and bundh type tanks where fluviatile condition prevails (Hora, 1945; David 1959; Quasim and Qayyam, 1962; Natarajan, 1971). Above three species under culture condition attain sexual maturity but do not spawn in confined water (Chaudhuri, 1960; Chaudhuri and Singh, 1984). Khan and Jhingran (1975) in their review described several factors viz. temperature, run off water, photoperiod, turbidity and water depth that are playing important roles in initiating natural spawning in ‘bundhs’ and rivers. They further described that no single factor can be considered responsible for spawning separately. The act spawning involves a chain of interrelated conditions as prerequisite to spawn. Monsoon, flood forms the spawning ground and initiates natural spawning. Although fish bred in its natural environment, it was difficult to understand why some species do not breed in confined water where as other species in the same environment breed somoto.

The initial attempt to induce breed IMC (mrigal) was made during 1937. Khan (1938) was able to induce ovulation in Cirrhinus mrigala by administration of mammalian pituitary extract but eggs were not fertilized. No remarkable success on induced breeding of Indian major carps was made till 1957. Indian major carps were induced to breed for the first time on 10th July, 1957 by the injection of aqueous carp pituitary extract at Govt. Fish Farm, Angul of Orissa state by the scientific team from pond culture substation, Cuttack (Chaudhuri and Alikunhi 1957). Eversince 1957, the induced breeding of carps have been tried by many permutation and combination, addition and alteration of inducing agents.

Introduction

Global diversity in domestic animals and aquatic organisms is considered to be under threat worldwide. Worldwide 11 % birds, 25 % mammals and 34 % of fish species are threatened (Lovell-Badge, 2001; Vemuganti and Balasubramanian, 2002) and aquatic ecosystem is becoming more vulnerable to disasters due to run off from agriculture and industrial sources, oil spills or sudden environmental changes leading to total elimination of stocks from different ecosystems. The multifarious human activities in open waters have threatened the fish diversity all round the world. Fish worldwide are in crisis. The effective population sizes in fish hatcheries are getting smaller and smaller that causes loss to farmers worldwide. The World Resources Institute has reported that nearly 70 percent of the world’s marine fish stocks are over fished or are being fished at their biological limit. Apart from fish, across all live stock species there is a shrinking pool of genetic diversity. For instance, the effective population size for all dairy cattle breeds is less than 60 animals. To preserve the gene pool of unique populations by protecting them from extinction, loss of genetic variability (inbreeding) and dilution due to inter breeding with unrelated populations (hybridization) gene banks or germplasm repository can play a vital role. Germplasm repositories in fisheries could be used for: 1) restoration of threatened species, 2) brood stock improvement through genetic modification of a targeted population, and 4) information and technology development including gene pool database management.

Introduction

Improvements in Information and Communication technology are revolutionizing the way people access information. These new technologies are helping to improve communication, disseminate information and facilitate sharing of knowledge and skills. Zijp (1994) notes, Information Technology is making both public and private sector agricultural information systems more accessible and more rapid in transmission. The increase in electronic information and communication technologies and in particular networked information is the most notable change to affect the working practices of information professionals in recent years. Digital technologies have led to the emergence of wide-area connectivity through the Internet, making information on agriculture available worldwide and on-demand. Information technology and electronic networking particularly can strengthen organizations by improving their knowledge base and ability to share information and experiences with partners in the field. Electronic networking not only helps in the exchange of the growing volume of information but also brings people together in partnerships and facilitates a joint programme of action on common themes.

The need for better analytical tools to analyze the data in aquaculture leads to major developments in statistics. These tools play a significant role in the analysis and interpretation of data. Improvement in carp culture through genetic techniques is the only alternative for increasing the carp production and its quality when area of pond is fixed. For better hybrids or efficient strains for higher production it is essential to collect the data on the genetic diversity among the different carp species on the basis of traits. Therefore, sound statistical procedures are needed in the design of experiments as well as in the analysis of the data. This involves, the use of variability studies and the use of multivariate statistical techniques like correlations, path coefficients, D² analysis and other classificatory analysis.

Need for Impact Assessment

Fisheries Research is an economic activity. Like any other investment propositions, resource allocation to Fisheries Research needs to be justified. The society or the donors are always interested to know what happened to the money invested in Fisheries Research. It is important to document the returns and/or benefits accrued from the research investment. Objective assessment of research investment helps in making decision and allocating resources in high returns research portfolio. It also helps to know which research areas and programs benefit the poor and regions. In the paradigm shift, the donors are seeking evidences on impact of past funding as a basis for future financial support. Systematic impact assessment forms the basis for efficient resource allocation in alternative research programs competing for financial support. Research programs demonstrate better historical performance, in terms of benefits generated for the society, and are rated higher for attracting required research resources. Impact assessment studies are also getting more prominence as the international environment is rapidly changing due to many emerging complex problems. Socioeconomic and environmental problems, like poverty, international trade, degradation of natural resources, are growing fast and the donors are looking for the research programs, which can overcome these challenges. Therefore, systematic impact assessment studies would form a strong base for higher research funding to overcome many regional, national and global problems.

Label: Technical information about a registered pesticide in the form of printed material attached to, or printed on, the pesticide container. It is illegal to use the pesticide in ways inconsistent with the label.

Labella (sing. labellum): In certain flies, paired lobes at the apex of the proboscis, derived from labial palps; apical spongelike structure on the proboscis of nonbiting muscoid flies (Fig. 156).

Oak: A hard, durable, and very strong wood used for many purposes like furniture, flooring, decoration etc.

Octane number: It is the percetage of iso-octane (C₈H₁₈) in the mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane (C₇H₁₆), when it produces the same knocking effect as the fuel under test. It is used to indicate the octane rating of a gasoline, describes the anti-knock properties of a fuel when used in an internal combustion engine. Knock is a secondary detonation that occurs after fuel ignition due to heat buildup in some other part of the combustion chamber. When the local temperature exceeds the auto ignition temperature, knock occurs.

Octane rating: A measure of the antiknock properties or engine knock resistance of a gasoline. The higher the octane rating, the more resistant the gasoline is to abnormal combustion.

Octane requirement: The fuel octane number needed for efficient operation (without knocking or spark retardation) of an internal combustion engine.

Odorization: A process of adding a distinctive odor to natural gas so that its presence can be easily detected.

Abstract

India’s climate policy and its stand in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have developed through a complex and contradictory interactions between global pressures to take actions in the field of climate change, India’s foreign policy orientation, its environmental practices and various other national factors. India has been under growing pressure from the major developed economies and also from many small developing countries to play a leading role in mitigating climate change in keeping with its economic and political importance. National factors, including the very important consideration of maintaining rapid GDP growth, favours a conservative approach, with emphasis on expanding India’s share of global climate space. India ranks high on global climate change vulnerability because of its 7,500 Kilometre-long coastline, high dependence of its agriculture on monsoon, decreasing availability of freshwater and over-exploitation of ground water resources, presence of large population in cyclone-prone areas, low lying river deltas and fragile ecosystems like partially submerged lands, and not least, because of melting of the Himalayan glaciers, which feed close to 70 percent of India’s river waters. In 2008, India formulated a National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) under international obligations. India’s climate policy has always been the preserve of a small group of individuals protected from societal influence and unaccountable to the public at large. Indian policy makers claim to speak on behalf of those very people who have been consciously excluded from democratic and participatory decision-making. The industrialised economies reluctant to own up to their climate obligation only breeds more cynicism within the Indian society. Whatever the outcome of international conventions on climate change or any kind of global negotiations in the immediate future, India cannot afford to give up on the serious issue of climate change.

Keywords: Climate change, Economics, Policy, Agriculture

Pig production is concentrated mainly in the North-eastern corner of the country and consists primarily of backyard and informal sector producers. Though pig population is only 2% of all the livestock animals, Pork production in India  represents 7% of the country’s total meat production. This value is highest compared to any other species of meat animals.

16.1 Introduction

The stabilization of ultra fine as nano-particles in suspension is very important for both controlling the particle size and for developing process based application of these suspensions to achieve a desired result. Generally, two approaches, namely, Top Down and Bottom-Up approaches are followed for the preparation of ultra fine or nano particles. In the Top-Down method, production starts from the micro-scale and the particles size is reduced to nano-size through repeated impact and collision in high-energy ball mills. However, controlling of size, morphology, surface properties and electrostatic charge is often difficult. In the Bottom-up approach, production of nano-particles starts with the individual atoms and building up to a nano-structure by chemical processes.

Obesity : A condition characterized by the excessive accumulation and storage of fat in the body. It is a physiological disorder having high body mass index (BMI), which can be expressed as a mathematical formula in which a person’s body weight in kilogram is divided by the square of his or her height in meters.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk.

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose.

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside.

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis.

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C₆H₁₁O₅ that is derived from galactose.

4.1 Harvesting

Pomegranate being non-climacteric fruits should be picked when fully ripe. Its fruits become ready for picking 120-130 days after fruit set. Mature fruits should be immediately removed from the plants as delay in harvesting leads to fruit cracking. Fruits harvested at a premature stage have poor keeping quality and are prone to damage during handling and transport. The fruits are harvested when outer rind becomes yellowish and the fruit when tapped produces a metallic sound. The round fruits become flattened from all the sides and basal beak shaped portion shrinks at the time of maturity. Fruits are harvested with the help of secateurs by retaining 1 cm stalk with the fruit. All the fruits should be harvested in 2-3 pickings within a span of one month.

Ideotype: A conceptual model of a plant type that will be best suited to a particular set of circumstances. Ideotypes can be defined in terms of both form and function. There can be ‘isolation’, ‘competition’ and ‘crop’ ideotypes.
Illuvial horizon: i) A soil layer in which material from above has been deposited; the layer of accumulation. ii) A soil horizon that receives material in solution or suspension from some other part of the soil. See also Eluviations.
Image: Picture or graphical representation. In remote sensing and GIS as a term that describes digital representations of earth features (TWS).

Abstract

Conversion of an already arid land into a desert through indiscriminate human actions magnified by droughts. Such actions include overgrazing, repeated burning, intensive farming, and stripping of vegetation for firewood. One quarter of the earth’s surface is threatened by desertification - an area of over 3.6 billion hectares. Since 1990, Six million hectares of productive land are lost every year due to land degradation. Desertification threatens the liveihoods of more than one billion people and has already made over 135 million people homeless. Desertification does not occur in linear, easily mappable patterns. Deserts advance erratically, forming patches on their borders. Areas far from natural deserts can degrade quickly to barren soil, rock, or sand through poor land management.

The levels of calcium (Ca), inorganic phosphorus (P) and magnesium (Mg) may help in early diagnosis of metabolic and deficiency disorders and for monitoring the herd health status of dairy cattle to maintain production and reproduction.

Estimation of Serum calcium

Calcium is present in 2 forms – inorganic and organic forms. Most of the functions of the calcium depend upon the ionized form. For estimation of serum calcium the most commonly used method is Clark and Collip method.

Blood Cholesterol

(Colorimetric Method of Lieberman, 1885: Burchard 1889 Modified by Watson, 1960).

Introduction

According to Liebermann-Burchard reaction, treatment of chloesterol with acetic anhydride and concentrated sulphuric acid in a water-free environment, polymerized unsaturated hydrocarbon with an intense blue-green colour are produced. The values for cholesterol esters may be calculated by deducting free cholesterol from total cholesterol.

Principles of Working
(Lundegårdh, 1929-1934 : Mac Intyre, 1961)

Flame photometry is the measurement of the concentration of an ionic material in a solution introduced in  to a flame, where the intensity of light emitted by the flame under these conditions is measured. We should give credit to Kirchhoff and Bunsen (1860), who developed the idea of emission spectroscopy into quantitative inorganic analysis, later on Janssen (1970) made lot of developments in this direction. The main parts of flame photometer are: (1) burner, (2) atomizer which disperses the solution as a fine spray into the flame; a means of isolating from the spectrum (i.e., filtering system, diffraction gratting etc.) only that portion of the emitted light which is a specific characteristics of the substance being examined ; a photosensitive detector with or without amplifier; and a method of measuring the desired emission. In flame photometry the diluted biological fluid is atomized directly ino the flame without need of preliminary separation. The resulting emissions are those of all the inorganic ions present. For measurement the emitted light is passed through a monochromater where the wavelength most characteristics of the material analysis and which most closely follows Beer’s law is selected.

Blood Sampling

Blood samples shall be taken in the early morning hours before offering any diet to human subjects or ration to livestock. The syringe and needle should be autoclaved, needle should be free from any blockage etc. In the case of ruminants, blood sample is taken directly from jugular vein, while in swine, blood sample is drawn from ear vein, while in human subjects, blood is taken from prominent vein on the inner surface of the yellow usually the (medium basilic). The container (test tube etc.) should be dried and autoclaved. We should separate plasma (from anticoagulent mixed blood) and serum from ordinary blood by centrifugation immediately. We should remember by heart  that blood samples should not be kept in deep freezer, because there are chances of haemolysis as well as an abnormal distribution of certain ions and enzymes between the cells and the serum. We should never force the blood through the needle as such type of practice may result in extensive hemolysis. We should discard first few drops of blood, while taking sample. We should prepare protein free filtrate immediately. Protein-free filtrate may be kept in a much better way than whole blood or plasma.

I. Titrimetric Method of Estimating Salt in Fish Meal
(Modified AOAC, 1965 method)
Principle

The salt content is calculated as sodium chloride from the content of water solubles chlorides. The chlorides are dissolved in water and directly precipitated by titration with a silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as an indicator.

Importance of Food Storage

Food storage is both a traditional domestic skill and is important industrially. Food is stored by almost every human society and by many animals. Storing of food has several main purposes:

•Storage of harvested and processed plant and animal food products for distribution to consumers

•Enabling a better balanced diet throughout the year

•Reducing kitchen waste by preserving unused or uneaten food for later use

•Preserving pantry food, such as spices or dry ingredients like rice and flour, for eventual use in cooking

•Preparedness for catastrophes, emergencies and periods of food scarcity or famine

•Religious reasons (Example: LDS Church leaders instruct church members to store food)

•Protection from animals or theft

Peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.) is a highly popular fruit crop grown in temperate regions of the world. In India, peach cultivation is confined to mid hill zone of Himalayas extending from J&K State to Khasi Hill at an altitude of 1500 to 2000 meters above mean sea level. Low chilling cultivars are also grown in sub mountainous zones of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Western U.P. and also gaining popularity in sub-tropical areas of Jammu. Peach crop in J&K state covers an area of 2,615 hectares with 1,699 hectares falling in Jammu Division. Total production of peach in J&K state is 6,221 metric tonnes, out of which 2,612 metric tonnes are being contributed by Jammu Division. Main peach growing areas in Jammu region are hilly areas of Poonch, Doda, Kishtwar, Ramban Udhampur, Reasi, Rajouri and Kathua districts. Recently, the new orchards of low chill peaches are also being planted in Jammu, Samba and Kathua districts.

Climate and Soil

Peach does well in wet and cool climate with cold winter and dry summer. It likes mild climate. The limiting factors in peach cultivation are the minimum winter temperature, chilling hours, spring frost, hail storms, high humidity and desiccating winds during summer. In sub-tropical areas of North, the low chilling cultivars require 50-300 hours of chilling during the winter for proper flowering and fruiting.

The peach thrives well on light textured soil. Deep, fertile, loam or sandy loam with good drainage is considered well for successful peach cultivation. Poorly drained soil should be rejected for peach cultivation.

1.    Postharvest Losses of Fruits and Vegetables
    
2.    Minimization of Postharvest Losses
    
3.    Postharvest Management Practices
    
4.    Selection of Varieties
    
5.    Harvesting
    
6.    Sorting /Grading
    
7.    Washing
    
8.    Trimming
    
9.    Curing
    
10.     Delatexing or De-sapping
    
11.    Waxing
    
12.    Pre-cooling
    
13.    Hot Water Treatment
    
14.    Postharvest Disease Management
    
15.    Regulation of Ripening
    
16.    Sprout Inhibition
    
17.    Packaging
    
18.    Transportation
    
19.    Marketing
    
20.    Storage
    
21.    Conclusion
        
References

Soil pollution happens when we destroy the thin layer of healthy and productive soil, which covers the earth’s surface. Most of the world’s food is produced using this resource and if we don’t protect it the world’s farmers will be unable to grow enough food to support the worlds people.
 
Healthy soil depends on bacteria, fungi, and small animals (such as worms) to break down wastes in the soil and release its nutrients which help plants grow. The over use of fertilizers and pesticides can limit the ability of soil organisms to process wastes, which in turn makes the soil less productive or in the worst case scenario useless or even poisonous. 

INTRODUCTION

The agriculture in north eastern hill region of India is mainly rainfed in nature and shifting cultivation, known as jhuming, is the dominant farming system. The shifting cultivation is detrimental to both soil and vegetation as it is connected to heavy soil and nutrient losses when practised in steep slopes. The burning and slashing operations are responsible for reduced floral and faunal diversity in the region. It is a well known fact that climate is the main driving factor that governs the sustainability of other natural resources such as land, water and vegetation. So far the NE region gets abundant rainfall for survival of the crops at least during the kharif season. The rainfall starts early March and continues up to the late October. The jhum cultivators follow the rainfall trend and get their field ready for sowing of seeds by early March itself so that vegetative stage of crops gets plenty of rainwater for growth and development. Due to increased population pressure, the hills of NE region are over exploited and the jhum cycle has been reduced from 10-12 years to 4-5 years now-adays. Hence the soils do not get sufficient time to revitalize it and are subjected to more and more exploitation and get degraded permanently.

Introduction

Impact Assessment can be broadly defined as the prediction or estimation of the consequences of a current or proposed action (project, policy, technology). Emergence of EIA can be related to National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 in the USA. This act is now considered as model legislation for implementation all over the world. Today we have more than 100 countries that have adopted EIA legislation. EIA requirements of aid agencies and funding agencies are typically based on the principles included in the NEPA. In any project planning, along with the traditional technical (engineering) and economic considerations the NEPA requires environmental impact considerations. Environmental impact statements (EISs) are prepared as action forcing mechanism in NEPA that describe the environmental consequences of major actions which significantly affect the quality of human environment. Thus, the primary purpose of EIA is to encourage the environmental considerations in planning and decision making process. Finally, it is expected to arrive at actions which are more environmentally compatible.

Introduction

The state of Maharashtra now again reels under the scarcity of water. Geologically, major part of the state is covered by Deccan basaltic flows. This basaltic terrain, as such, has been labelled notorious as far as the availability of groundwater is concerned. Uncertain availability of groundwater in the terrain is due to heterogeneity in the nature of piles of basaltic flows which adversely affects the geohydrological characters of the rocks.

The area understudy is unfortunately, a part of basaltic terrain in which no storage structures like major dams or medium projects have been constructed across the existing rivers. Consequently, the irrigation in the area and domestic needs of the people solely depend on whatever water is available in the existing dug wells. The wells do not suffice the need of the people because the percolation of water in the wells is not adequate in major part.

Abstract

The frequently recurring earth tremors / Seismicities in parts of Tamil Nadu & Kerala and the earthquakes of higher magnitude in Central India in the recent years have gradually dissolved the concept of shield area stability for the South India and the concept of mid-plate seismicity has emerged in the minds of geoscientists, Hence, the geoscientists have embarked into a number of studies to bringout seismotectonic maps for South India. In this context, a detailed studies have been carried out by the authors in parts of westernghats (Kodaikkanal and Varushanad hills) in Tamil Nadu. In the said study lineaments were interpreted using high resolution IRS satellite data and from the lineament pattern, isofracture, lineament density and lineament interaction intensity the strain maxima axes were drawn. Such strain maximas were observed to fall in N- S, E – W and NE –SW directions. These strain maximas were found to coincide with various drainage anomalies, like radial, compressed meandering and eyed drainages indicating that these lineaments are prone for seismicity/ earth tremors.